Chapter 2

Mechanical Behavior, Testing, and

Manufacturing Properties of Materials

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Relative Mechanical Properties of Materials
 Definitions
• Strength
– Yield Strength: The stress (F/A) required to produce a very slight yet
specified amount of plastic deformation
– Ultimate (Tensile) Strength: Maximum stress a material can withstand
while being pulled before breaking
– Compressive Strength: Maximum stress a material can withstand
while being pushed before breaking. CAN BE VERY DIFFERENT from
TENSILE STRENGTH
• Hardness: Resistance to permanent indentation
• Ductility: The extent of plastic deformation that the material undergoes
before fracture
• Toughness: Amount of energy absorbed by a material before it fractures.
• Stiffness: is the rigidity of an object — the extent to which it resists
deformation in response to an applied force.
 Definitions
• Strength
– Yield Strength: The stressTensile test to produce a very slight yet
(F/A) required
specified amount of plastic deformation
– Ultimate (Tensile) Strength: Maximum Tensile test can withstand
stress a material
while being pulled before breaking
– Compressive Strength: MaximumCompression stress a materialtest
can withstand
while being pushed before breaking. CAN BE VERY DIFFERENT from
TENSILE STRENGTH
• Hardness: Resistance Hardness
to permanent tests (Rockwell, Vickers, etc.)
indentation
• Ductility: The extentTensile
of plastictest
deformation that the material undergoes
before fracture
• Toughness: Amount ofTensile test
energy absorbed by a material before it fractures.
• Stiffness: is the rigidity object — the extent to which it resists
of an test
Tensile
deformation in response to an applied force.
Relation of axial stiffness to Elastic modulus:
where;
A: Cross sectional area
E: Young’s modulus
L: Length of the specimen
 Standards and Databases

• ASTM: American Society for Testing and

Materials

• ASM: American Society of Metals/Materials

Tensile-Test Specimen and Machine

(b)

(a) A standard tensile-test specimen before and after pulling.

(b) A typical tensile-testing machine.
Tensile testing of ASTM
Tensile Tests on Solid Steel Plates:
Ductile Fracture
 Tensile Test
Engineering stress
(nominal stress)

Engineering Strain

Figure 2.1 (a) A standard tensile-test specimen before and after

pulling, showing original and final gage lengths. (b) A tensile-test
sequence showing different stages in the elongation of the specimen.
 Tension Test Stress-Strain Curve

s = Ee E
(in elastic region)
Loading and Unloading of Tensile-test Specimen

Figure 2.3

Schematic illustration of
the loading and the
unloading of a tensile-test
specimen.

Note that, during

unloading, the curve
follows a path parallel to
the original elastic slope.
 Hooke's Law
For most tensile testing of materials, you will notice that in the
initial portion of the test, the relationship between the normal
stress (σ) and the strain (e), is linear.

This relationship defined as “Hooke's Law” where the ratio of

stress to strain is a constant, or

s
E= or s = Ee
e
“Modulus of Elasticity”
or
“Young's Modulus”.
 Modulus of Elasticity and Poisson's Ratio
• Modulus of elasticity (E) It is the ratio of stress to strain in the
elastic region.

• The higher the E value, the higher the load required to stretch the
specimen to the same extent, and thus the stiffer is the material.

• The absolute value of the ratio of the lateral strain to the longitudinal
strain is known as Poisson’s ratio.
 Ductility
Ductility is the extent of plastic deformation that the material can undergo
before fracture. The common measure of ductility:

( Lfracture − L0 )
Percentage total elongation = * 100
L0
Brittle materials (such as ceramics and glass) can have only a few percent
total elongation or less (and usually, without a significant necking), whereas
the ductile materials can have much more than a few percent total elongation.
Ductile material: Necking & Large strain:
Increasing P

P P

P
P
Necking:

P P
Failure
Brittle material: No necking & Small strain:
Increasing P

P P

P P
No necking
Ductile vs. Brittle Fracture in Tension
 P P
Engineering Stess,  =
Ao
 = L − Lo
L − Lo
Engineering Strain, e =
Lo

L Modulus of Elasticity, E =
Lo e
P
True stress,  =
A
 L 
True strain,  = ln 
P
 Lo 
 dL
Infinitesimal true strain, d =
L

Take integral of both sides :

L
 L 
 = ln(L ) L = ln(L ) − ln(Lo ) = ln
dL L 
=
L o L 
 o 
Lo
Load vs. Stress vs. True Stress Curves
• true stress–true strain curve:

where K is the strength

coefficient and n is the strain-
hardening or work-hardening
exponent.

• When the curve shown in

Fig.c is a log-log plot, it will
be found that the curve is
approximately a straight line
(Fig. d).

• The slope of the curve is the

exponent n.
True Stress vs. Strain

s = Ke n

where
K = strength coefficient
n = strain hardening (or
work-hardening)
exponent
True Stress-
Strain Curves
Figure 2.5
True stress-strain
curves in tension
at room
temperature for
various metals.
The curves start at
a finite level of
stress: The elastic
regions have too
steep a slope to be
shown in this
figure, and thus
each curve starts
at the yield stress,
Y, of the material.
Toughness

• The area under the true

stress–true strain curve
up to fracture is known
as the material’s
toughness.
• Toughness is, the
amount of energy per
unit volume that the
material dissipates prior
to fracture
Stress vs. Strain Curves for Various Materials

High Strength
Low Toughness
Low ductility
Moderate Strength
High Toughness
Moderate ductility

Low Strength
Low Toughness
High ductility
 What can be measured in a Tensile Test ?
The tension test is the most common test for determining the following
mechanical properties of the part’s material:

o modulus of elasticity, E
o strength
▪ yield stress, Y
▪ ultimate stress, u (or,
also known as UTS or
maximum stress)
o whether it is ductile or brittle
o toughness
o resilience
o range of elastic deformation
(where Hooke’s Law is
applicable) and plastic def.
Effect of Temperature on Stress-Strain Curves

• Increasing the temperature

generally has the following
effects on stress-strain
curves:
1. The ductility and toughness
increase
2. The yield strength and
modulus of elasticity
decrease
• Temperature also affects the
strain-hardening exponent, n,
of most metals, in that it
increases with increasing
Figure 2.7 Typical effects of temperature.
temperature on stress-strain curves.
Note that temperature affects the
modulus of elasticity, the yield stress,
the ultimate tensile strength, and the
toughness (area under the curve) of
materials.
Effect of Temperature on Mechanical Properties

FIGURE 2.6 Effect of temperature on mechanical properties of a carbon steel; most

materials display similar temperature sensitivity for elastic modulus, yield strength,
ultimate strength, and ductility.
Strain Rate L
dL
dt

P
P

Engineering Strain Rate True Strain Rate

Unit for “Strain Rate”: [1/s]

Strain and Deformation Rate in Manufacturing
 Effect of Strain Rate on Tensile Strength
• Strain-rate hardening:
Increasing the strain rate
increases the strength of the
material, called strain-rate
hardening.
• Strain-rate sensitivity: The
slope of these curves is
called the strain-rate
sensitivity exponent.
• The sensitivity of strength to
strain rate increases with
temperature

FIGURE 2.7 The effect of strain rate on the ultimate tensile strength for aluminum. Note that,
as the temperature increases, the slopes of the curves increase; thus, strength becomes
more and more sensitive to strain rate as temperature increases. Source: J.H. Hollomon.
 Compression
During the compression test, if the bottom and top surface of the specimen is
hold with friction (which is the usual case), then as the specimen is
compressed, the cross-sectional area bulges (increases) toward the center
(away from the top and bottom). This is called barreling.

FIGURE 2.8 Barreling

in compressing a round
solid cylindrical
specimen (7075-O
aluminum) between flat
dies. Barreling is caused
by friction at the die–
specimen interfaces,
which retards the free
flow of the material.
See also Fig. 14.3.
 Compression
When the results of compression tests and tension tests on ductile metals are
compared, the two tests are very similar.
This comparability does not hold true for brittle materials,
which are generally stronger and more ductile in compression than in tension.

Ductile Materials Brittle Materials

σ Tension σ

Tension

ε ε

Compression Compression
 Torsion Test

Used to measure;
•Ultimate shear strength
•Torsional yield strength
•Shear strain
•Shear modulus or modulus of rigidity, G
•Stiffness under shear stress

It is not as widely used as tensile test, and rarely required in

materials specification.
 Torsion Test
Torsion-testing equipment consists of:
1. A twisting head, with a chuck for gripping the specimen and for
applying the twisting moment to the specimen.
2. A weight head, which grips the other end of the specimen and
measures the twisting moment of torque.

A circular cross section specimen is normally used since in the elastic

range, shear stress varies linearly from a value zero at the center
of the bar to a maximum value at the surface.

Figure 2.10 A typical torsion-test

specimen; it is mounted between
the two heads of a testing
machine and twisted. Note the
shear deformation of an element
in the reduced section of the
specimen.
 Torsion-Test T
Shear stress,  =
Specimen 2r 2t
r
Shear strain,  =
l

Shear modulus, G =

where
T = torque
r = average tube radius
t = thickness of tube at
Figure 2.10 A typical torsion-test narrow section
specimen; it is mounted between the
l = length of tube
two heads of a testing machine and
subjected to torsion
twisted. Note the shear deformation of
an element in the reduced section of  = angle of twist
the specimen.
 Torsion Test
• Apply twisting moment to the specimen and measure the torque.
operties in torsion
• Determination is made of the angular displacement (or degree of rotation) of
jected atopoint near one moment
a torsional end of theat
test section
one end. of the specimen with respect to a point
on the same longitudinal element at the opposite end.
sted by shear stresses set up in the cross
Torque vs angle of twist relationship
re, max at surface) under torsional contact conditions (c:
radius of the central area of adherence;
Where t = shear stress, Pa a: radius of the contact area). Ref: B.J.
MT = torsional moment, Nm Briscoea et al. 1998
f 1
r = radial distance measured g = tanq = 2p r
from centre of bar, m 2p l
J = polar moment of inertia, m4 rf
Shear strain, g =
l

θ
l = length of tube subjected to torsion
 = angle of twist in radians
r = average tube radius
G = Shear modulus
l E = elastic modulus
𝜈 = Poisson’s ratio
 Bending Methods
• Bending is a commonly used test method for brittle materials such as
ceramics and carbides.
• The stress at fracture in bending is known as the modulus of rupture, or
transverse rupture strength.

Figure 2.11 Two bend-test methods for brittle materials: (a) three-point bending; (b) four-point
bending.
 Hardness-Testing
Hardness is defined as the resistance to permanent indentation. It gives an
indication of the strength of a material and of its resistance to scratching and
to wear.

http://info.lu.farmingdale.edu/depts/met/met205/hardnesstest.html
http://www.phase2plus.com/details.asp?pr=DIGITAL_MOT
ORIZED_BRINELL_HARDNESS_TESTER&cat=Metrology/M
aterial_Testing&id=239
Indentation Geometry for Brinnel Testing

Figure 2.14

Indentation geometry in
Brinell hardness testing:
(a) annealed metal, (b)
work- hardened metal,
and (c) deformation of
mild steel under a
spherical indenter.
Hardness-testing Methods and Formulas

P is in [kg] & all dimensions, D, d, L and t are in [mm] !!!

Hardness Scale Conversions
 Fatigue Failure
• Cyclic or periodic loads causes cracks to grow with every stress cycle. These cracks propagate
through the material until a critical crack length is reached and the material fractures. This phenomenon
is called fatigue failure and it is responsible for the majority of failures in mechanical components.

Figure 2.16
Typical S-N (stress
amplitudes– number
of cycles) curves for
two metals. Note that,
unlike steel, aluminum
does not have an
endurance limit.

• With some materials, the S–N curve becomes horizontal at low stress levels, indicating that the material
will not fail at stresses below this limit. The maximum stress to which the material can be subjected
without fatigue failure, regardless of the number of cycles, is known as the endurance limit or fatigue
limit.
• Although many materials, especially steels, have a definite endurance limit, others, such as aluminum
alloys, do not have one and the S–N curve continues its downward trend.
Endurance Limit vs. Tensile Strength

Figure 2.17
Ratio of endurance
limit to tensile strength
for various metals, as a
function of tensile
strength.
Because aluminum
does not have an
endurance limit, the
correlations for
aluminum are based on
a specific number of
cycles (107), as is seen
in Fig. 2.16.
 Creep
Creep is the permanent elongation of a
component under a static load maintained for a
period of time. It generally occurs at elevated
temperatures (relative to Tm). The mechanism of
creep is generally grain boundary sliding.

Creep test consists of subjecting a specimen to

a constant tensile load at elevated
temperatures and measuring the changes in
length at various time increments.

Generally, resistance to creep increases with

increase in melting temperature of the material.

Figure 2.18 Schematic illustration of

a typical creep curve.
The linear segment of the curve
Creep in
(secondary) is used in designing
concrete
components for a specific creep life.
 Impact
Impact tests measure the effects of dynamic loading on a material. Impact
toughness is the amount of energy that a material can absorb from a sudden
impact.

From the amount of swing of the pendulum, the energy dissipated in breaking
the specimen can be obtained.

DE = E1 - E2 = mgDh
DE
Toughnessimpact =
A
where;
E: Energy
m: mass
g: gravitational acceleration
h: height
http://www.specialchem4polymers.com/tc/acrylic-impact-
A: cross sectional area modifiers/index.aspx?id=2916
 Impact Tests

Charpy Izod
Specimen is Specimen is
supported at supported on
both ends. one end.
 Failure and Fracture of Materials

• There are four general types of failure:

1. Necking and fracture of ductile materials (figure(a))
2. Buckling of ductile materials under a compressive load (figure(b))
3. Fracture of brittle materials in compression (figure(c))
4. cracking on the barreled surface of ductile materials in compression (figure(d))
 Fracture Types in Tension
Remember!

(b)

Figure 2.21 Schematic illustration of the types of fracture in tension:

(a) brittle fracture in polycrystalline metals;
(b) shear fracture in ductile single crystals
(c) ductile cup-and-cone fracture in polycrystalline metals;
(d) complete ductile fracture in polycrystalline metals, with 100% reduction of area.
 Progression of a Fracture

Figure 2.22 Sequence of events in the necking and fracture of a tensile-test

specimen: (a) early stage of necking; (b) small voids begin to form within the
necked region; (c) voids coalesce, producing an internal crack; (d) the rest of the
cross-section begins to fail at the periphery, by shearing; (e) the final fracture
surfaces, known as cup- (top fracture surface) and cone- (bottom surface) fracture.
Ductile Fracture in Low-carbon Steel

Figure 2.21 Surface

of ductile fracture in
low-carbon steel,
showing dimples.
Fracture usually is
initiated at
impurities,
inclusions, or
preexisting voids
(microporosity) in
the metal.
Source: Courtesy of
K. H. Habig and D.
Klaffke
 Brittle Fracture

Figure 2.26 Fracture surface of steel that has failed in a brittle manner. The
fracture path is transgranular (through the grains). Magnification: 200x.
Source: Courtesy of B. J. Schulze and S.L. Meinley and Packer Engineering Associates, Inc.
 Deformation of Soft and Hard Inclusions
• Inclusion: An inclusion is any material that is trapped inside a mineral
during its formation.

Figure 2.24
Schematic illustration of the deformation of soft and hard inclusions
and of their effect on void formation in plastic deformation.
Note that, because they do not conform to the overall deformation of the
ductile matrix, hard inclusions can cause internal voids.
 Residual Stresses in Bending a Beam
When workpieces are subjected to plastic deformation that is not uniform
throughout the part, they develop residual stresses which remain within the
part after all external forces are removed.

Figure 2.30
Residual stresses
developed in bending a
beam having a
rectangular cross-
section.
Because of nonuniform
deformation and
especially during cold-
metalworking operations,
most parts develop
residual stresses.

a) Bending produces linear elastic stress

b) Plastic deformation
c) Removal of external forces results in elastic recovery
d) Residual stress
 Distortion with Residual Stresses

Figure 2.31
Distortion of parts, with residual stresses, after cutting or slitting:
(a) flat sheet or plate; (b) solid round rod; (c) thin-walled tubing or pipe.
 Residual Stress

Residual Stress in Machining

Residual Stress in roll forming

Residual Stress in Additive manufacturing