938132

review-article2020
LIS0010.1177/0961000620938132Journal of Librarianship and Information ScienceBen amram et al.

Review

Journal of Librarianship and

Information literacy education Information Science

1­–16
© The Author(s) 2020
in primary schools: A case study Article reuse guidelines:
sagepub.com/journals-permissions
DOI: 10.1177/0961000620938132
https://doi.org/10.1177/0961000620938132
journals.sagepub.com/home/lis

Sigal Ben Amram

Kibbutzim College of Education, Faculty of Education

Noa Aharony
Department of Information Science, Bar-Ilan University, Israel

Judit Bar Ilan

Department of Information Science, Bar-Ilan University, Israel

Abstract
This study focuses on teachers’ perspectives concerning information literacy teaching in two primary schools in Israel—one school
that joined the national information and communications technology program and a second school that did not. The researchers
used a qualitative research method during the 2015 academic year. Eighteen teachers were interviewed. The findings suggest that
participation in the national information and communications technology program did not lead to the integration of information
literacy in the school’s curriculum. A significant gap was discovered in both schools between the teachers’ perceptions—who
understood the importance of teaching information literacy and its actual implementation.

Keywords
Information literacy, ICT program, primary school, teachers’ role perception, teaching

Introduction ICT Program from teachers’ points of view (Magen-Nagar

et al., 2014; Rotem et al., 2013). The studies were based on
Various countries around the world are implementing a attitude surveys and did not examine how instruction was
policy aimed at integrating ICT (information and commu- carried out in combination with the actual teaching of
nications technology) into education in primary schools “computer and information literacy” or what the students
(Kalaš et al., 2012). Several programs have been launched actually learned.
in Israel, in an attempt to initiate reforms in this area In contrast, a study examining the perceptions of mid-
(Elgali and Kalman, 2011). The current effort, known as dle school students in Israel found that they reported a lack
the “National Program for Adapting the Education System of information literacy learning at school (Dror and Sa’ar,
to the 21st Century” (hereafter called the “National ICT 2012), such as how to evaluate the reliability and accuracy
Program”), was launched in 2010 in some Israeli primary of online information. They also reported that teachers did
schools. It aims to improve teachers’ skills and school not encourage them to create digital content or upload pro-
management, as well as to engage students more effec- jects related to their studies on the Internet. These findings
tively in learning (Ministry of Education, 2012). Those lead to questions about the actual integration of informa-
schools that joined the program were required to develop a tion literacy in primary education in Israel in the second
curriculum titled HLA (a Hebrew acronym for Teaching– decade of the 21st century: How do primary school
Learning–Assessment). The purpose of this curriculum is teachers perceive their role in this field? What do they
to integrate technology into teaching, learning, and evalu- teach and how do they teach it?
ation processes. It requires the teaching of information lit-
eracy skills such as information searching and information
Corresponding author:
evaluation (Ministry of Education, 2011). Sigal Ben Amram, Kibbutzim College of Education, Technology and the
The Ministry of Education conducted several research Arts, Faculty of Education, Namir Road, 149, Tel Aviv, Israel.
projects to evaluate the implementation of the National Email: sigami@gmail.com
2 Journal of Librarianship and Information Science 00(0)

Literature review from the previous stages and is influenced by them,

which in turn affects the steps that follow (Melamed and
Information literacy: a theoretical framework Goldstein, 2017).
and related concepts The term “ICT” is known in Hebrew as Tik’shuv
(Elgali and Kalman, 2011). It is important to make a clear
Information literacy is needed by every individual and is
distinction between ICT and information literacy, as
an essential tool for promoting lifelong learning (UNESCO,
described in a document submitted to a UNESCO confer-
2003). The term was coined by the president of the
ence in Paris in 2008 (Catts and Lau, 2008). ICT is the
Information Industry Association in the 1970s, who
technical basis for generating the input and output of
defined employees who knew how to manipulate data as
information. Nevertheless, in order to disseminate and
“information literate” (Zurkowski, 1974). Horton (2013)
use information wisely, it is necessary to be able to organ-
notes that, according to a UNESCO report, research on
ize, locate, and evaluate that information, and apply criti-
information literacy is extensive and carried out in dozens
cal thinking. This is the added value of information
of countries in a variety of languages. The concept of
literacy. Therefore, cognitive skills must be developed
information literacy has evolved from education and
alongside technological skills to access and use informa-
librarianship into a sociocultural perspective that repre-
tion effectively (Catts and Lau, 2008).
sents a shift in focus towards information literacy as a
This distinction has a significant impact on education:
socially enacted practice (Lloyd, 2012). Moreover,
providing ICT infrastructures and training for their opera-
Limberg et al. (2012) suggest using the concept “informa-
tion is an important start but does not by itself offer suffi-
tion literacies”—in the plural—since it should be viewed
cient conditions for altering teaching and learning methods,
from three perspectives: phenomenography, sociocultural
or promoting educational reforms (Wastiau et al., 2013).
theory, and Foucauldian discourse analysis. This change
presents different insights concerning information literacy
at both an empirical and theoretical level. Integrating ICT and information
The American Library Association developed theoreti-
literacy into teaching
cal and applied approaches to information literacy, and
defines its users as individuals who can identify the cir- In recent decades, extensive resources have been allocated
cumstances under which information is needed and then worldwide toward implementing educational programs
locate, evaluate, organize, and use it in an informed man- combined with ICT. This has led to a sharp rise in the num-
ner (Association of College and Research Libraries, 1989). ber of computers and overall Internet access in schools,
This approach has been reinforced by other studies and including in Israel (Wastiau et al., 2013). Today, most
policy documents that have linked information literacy to teachers have personal computers and possess the techni-
the ability to take a critical approach and draw conclusions cal skills needed to operate them (Melamed, 2010).
using metacognitive skils (Herring, 2006). Researchers agree that an appropriate and intelligent com-
In 2000, the Association of College and Research bination of pedagogy and technology contributes to stu-
Libraries published the Information literacy competency dent achievement and makes learning relevant and current
standards for higher education—a document that defines (Wastiau et al., 2013). However, other studies suggest that
information literacy as enabling learners to manage con- the positive effects of integrating ICT into teaching are still
tent, extend research skills, and develop learning skills. marginal (Mioduser et al., 2009; Steiner and Mendelovitch,
A more comprehensive concept of information literacy 2017).
was defined in the “Framework for information literacy The situation where young people, known as “digital
for higher education” (Association of College and natives” (Prensky, 2001), use technology daily does not
Research Libraries, 2016). Information literacy is seen guarantee the intelligent use of those technologies for
as part of a meta-literacy, which combines information learning (Beheshti and Large, 2013). Two studies, con-
literacy with behavioral, emotional, cognitive, and meta- ducted among students in two different countries—Turkey
cognitive skills. (Çoklar et al., 2016) and Slovenia (Šorgo et al., 2016)—
In our study, based on the American Library reached the same conclusion: the characteristics of “digital
Association’s definition, we define information literacy natives” do not predict information literacy ability.
as “a collection of skills required to identify, locate, eval- In response to the question of how ICT should be inte-
uate, and disseminate information from various sources grated into the curriculum, and who is responsible for
and utilize it” (Association of College and Research teaching this field, three main approaches are presented.
Libraries, 1989: 1). When properly performed, informa- First, the integrated approach proposes that ICT and infor-
tion literacy becomes an information-based problem- mation literacy should be integrated across all disci-
solving process characterized by a sequence of interrelated plines—for example, digital reading within the framework
actions (Beheshti and Large, 2013). While every stage of language studies or using a spreadsheet in mathematics
stands on its own during this process, each step is derived and science lessons (Fraillon and Ainley, 2013; Kalaš
Ben amram et al. 3

et al., 2012). This approach is implemented in many edu- between the positive attitude of teachers toward integrat-
cational systems, including in Israel. ing technology and innovative teaching practices into
The second is the direct approach, where ICT and their teaching and the actual application of these prac-
information literacy are perceived as a unique field with tices (Ministry of Education, 2015b). Many teachers see
defined content and goals that transcend the specific sub- computers as effective tools for managing a lesson, but
jects of study and impart skills, tools, and ways of think- not necessarily a means of changing their teaching meth-
ing that can be applied in new contexts (Fraillon and ods, and tend to integrate them into familiar teaching
Ainley, 2013). Therefore, a dedicated curriculum for this methods rather than using them to create new ones
field should be developed with the help of digital tools. In (Erstad et al., 2015). However, a recent study (Walton
this way, technological skills will be acquired while et al., 2019) focusing on students’ engagement via the
learning information literacy. The best-known curricu- creation of digital artifacts (or “e-artifacts”) revealed that
lum is the “The Big 6”—a model that has been accepted including the creation of e-artifacts in the curriculum
in several states in the USA (Eisenberg et al., 2004). In offered a more inclusive and rewarding provision of
several countries, a curriculum has been developed that learning for both students and staff.
combines computer literacy with digital literacy and The ability to use the knowledge acquired in one con-
basic programming, with an emphasis on problem-solv- text and apply it to another context is called “transfer.” In
ing. This approach has also been tried in several primary a study of teachers and students in Australia, Herring
schools in Russia (Kalaš et al., 2012). (2011) found that students who acquired information lit-
Third is the supporting approach, where ICT and infor- eracy did not know when or how to use it in other con-
mation literacy and acquired knowledge are imparted as a texts. In order to develop an awareness of such a transfer
means of developing learning skills, with the role being of skills—which he calls “a culture of transfer”—a
assigned to teacher-librarians. This method is found in detailed policy must be implemented to strengthen the
Finland and numerous educational institutions in the USA acquisition of information literacy and give meaning to
(Farmer and James, 2008). each of its components within the overall curriculum.
This approach is supported in a study of high school stu-
dents in New Zealand that explored whether teaching
Role of the teacher information literacy skills via direct instruction, and then
The teacher’s perception of their instructional role is the offering students the opportunity to use these skills in
unique way in which they define their professional identity structured practice sessions online, would help them to
and perform in that capacity. This perception is influenced transfer those skills. It was found that the most effective
by personality, past experience, the school culture, and way to promote transferring information literacy was by
environmental factors (Vidislavsky and Carleman, 2009). combining direct instruction with implementing research
A teacher’s use of technology was found to be influenced projects (Allison et al., 2016).
by external environmental factors, including school train- Many expect that young teachers, who were born in the
ing, support, and infrastructure, in addition to personal fac- information age and are considered “digital natives”
tors (Mioduser et al., 2006). (Prensky, 2001), will easily adapt to innovative teaching
From the beginning of the Internet age, researchers methods that combine the use of technology. However,
have concluded that students’ ability to incorporate infor- Gallardo-Echenique et al. (2015), who reviewed dozens of
mation found on the Internet into their learning process is studies on the term “digital natives” and its meaning for
influenced by the teaching methods employed by their students, found that students’ self-confidence in technol-
instructors (Bowler et al., 2001). Nevertheless, there still ogy was incompatible with their ability to make intelligent
seems to be a gap between international recognition of the use of information. They concluded that one’s year of birth
importance of developing information literacy among does not necessarily indicate high digital skills, and sug-
teachers and the low priority these skills hold in the field of gested using the term “digital learners” instead. A study
education (Stockham and Collins, 2012). Despite efforts to that examined pre-service teachers in the USA concluded
explain the importance of 21st-century literacy skills and that being a digital native did not constitute an incentive to
emphasize the need to change teaching methods, develop integrate technology into teaching in the most effective
models, and train teachers in this field, studies show that manner. While the participants were positive about techno-
the desired change is not reflected in either the school cur- logical innovations in general, Lei (2009) discovered a
riculum or in the knowledge acquired and implemented by conservative approach toward adding technology into
teachers and students (Melamed and Goldstein, 2017). actual teaching.
Teachers’ attitudes toward change, which influence Studies focusing on teachers’ information literacy have
how ICT is integrated into their teaching, are usually found that many teachers are not aware of the concept of
complex and ambivalent. The results of the Teaching and information literacy. Most believe that daily use of the
Learning International Survey (TALIS) indicated the gap Google search engine indicates control over information
4 Journal of Librarianship and Information Science 00(0)

literacy, and they do not distinguish between information Previous studies in Israel have focused on teachers’
literacy and ICT skills. A study among teachers in the USA willingness to make changes and their control of ICT
revealed no awareness of teaching information literacy skills. The current study investigated teachers’ perceptions
(Stockham and Collins, 2012). Acquiring information lit- of integrating ICT and information literacy into the cur-
eracy was perceived as a tool for their own learning, and riculum. The study used a qualitative research method,
they did not transfer these skills to their teaching. enabling teachers to express their actual experience in
A study in Greece examined the process of imparting implementing ICT and information literacy into their
information literacy in schools. Most of the respondents teaching.
admitted that they did not know how to teach information
literacy. It was found that information skills were gener- Study goals and research questions
ally not integrated into the curriculum and were taught in
schools only casually when questions arose in connection The purpose of this study was to examine the status of
with a particular task (Togia et al., 2014). the teaching of information literacy in primary schools
As access to technology and its everyday use do moti- in Israel after deploying the National ICT Program. The
vate teachers to integrate information literacy into their following research question was addressed: What char-
teaching, the question arises as to what other factors may acterizes a school participating in the ICT Program, as
contribute to their success in this field. The possibilities opposed to one which does not, regarding (1) the
that emerge from the literature include: previous experi- school’s administration policy toward integrating ICT
ence in teaching (Hughes, 2005); self-efficacy (Ainley and information literacy into teaching; (2) the percep-
et al., 2016); focused training toward familiarization with tion of the teacher’s role in integrating ICT and infor-
the field and developing appropriate teaching methods mation literacy into teaching; and (3) the acquisition of
(Zinn et al., 2016); and a supportive environment that pro- ICT and information literacy within the actual teaching
motes planning and collaboration among teachers (Ainley framework?
et al., 2016).
Methodology
The National Program for Adapting the The study is modelled on a “case study” methodology—a
research approach where observation is made and data is
Education System to the 21st Century collected on human activity at a certain place and time
The requirements of the National ICT Program were (Yosifon, 2016). The researcher seeks to investigate
described in detail in policy documents published by the human, personal, or organizational behavior that presents
Ministry of Education (2011, 2013) on the website of the a fixed pattern. Our study is classified as an “instrumental
Department of Science and Technology Administration. The case study”—an approach that considers a case study as
Ministry of Education investigated implementing the an opportunity to examine a case in-depth and to make
National ICT Program from teachers’ point of view (Dayan generalizations and insights beyond the specific case
and Magen-Nagar, 2013; Magen-Nagar et al., 2014; Rotem (Yosifon, 2016). The case study approach was chosen
et al., 2013). Their findings indicated progress in integrating based on the desire to present an in-depth picture of the
technological tools into teaching, although mainly for illus- teaching and learning situations at a particular time. The
trating educational content. These studies were based on atti- study therefore took place in two state primary schools in
tude surveys. A sampling of the questions indicates that these the Haifa district and included one school that was partici-
were general questions, unrelated to 21st-century skills or pating in the National ICT Program as of the end of 2011
developing critical thinking and information literacy. (hereafter, the “ICT school” or IS) and one that was not
A comprehensive Israeli evaluation study of the participating in the National ICT Program at that time
National ICT Program, published three years after its (hereafter, “non-ICT school” or NIS). The ICT school was
inception (Ministry of Education, 2015a), found that it had established in the early 2000s and has around 400 pupils
led to a significant increase in the use of laptop computers and 30 teaching staff. The non-ICT school was established
among teachers, more use of technological tools for in the 1990s and has approximately 500 pupils and 40
searching for information on the Internet, and increased teaching staff. The two schools were on the same socio-
construction of online lesson plans. The study did not economic level according to the following criteria: the
examine the extent to which the program’s requirement to socio-economic index of the Central Bureau of Statistics
teach computer and information literacy had been met (2013), in which both received a ranking of 7, and the
because the program did not adequately define the skills Madlan index, in which both schools received a grade of
expected of teachers and students. It is, however, difficult 80 in 2013.1
to accept this explanation, which ignores the meticulous There were similar Internet infrastructures in both
details of the required skills as defined in the ICT Program’s schools: a “teacher computer terminal” for the teacher
documents (Ministry of Education, 2011, 2013). in every homeroom class, free Internet connection
Ben amram et al. 5

throughout the school space, and a dedicated computer It is an inductive process, during which the themes emerge
room containing at least 20 workstations. The research from the data. The division into categories is performed at
tool was a series of semi-structured interviews. A total the time of data analysis and aims to create an understand-
of 18 teaching staff members participated: 8 from the able set of concepts for the reader (Shkedi, 2014). First, a
ICT school and 10 from the non-ICT school. In each preliminary analysis of the interview transcripts was car-
school, the following teaching staff were interviewed: ried out, allowing the researcher to create and propose a list
5th- and 6th-grade educators, the ICT coordinator, the of themes. The list was examined by two other evaluators
principal, and the deputy principal. In the second and reached a consensus of approximately 80%. The
school, two 4th-grade educators were also interviewed. researcher and coders analysed the interviews according to
The interviewees’ experience in teaching ranged from categories and subcategories until they were able to draw a
1–34 years. Within this range, more than half of the map analysis. Snippets from the transcripts of the inter-
interviewees had been teaching for 16 years or more. views were divided into categories and subcategories
Each interview lasted about an hour.2 Each interviewee according to the themes. The research categories are pre-
received a pseudonym comprising the letters assigned sented in Figure 1.
to the school (IS or NIS) combined with a serial
number. Findings
Questions were posed in an open manner, which encour-
aged dialogue. The interviewees were asked to describe School administration policy
their professional background; to recount their personal
No differences were found between the schools in the area
and professional use of technology; to present their per-
of their pedagogical approach. ICT was perceived as a
ceptions of the integration of ICT into teaching; to relate to
very important factor in both schools, providing relevant
the habits and knowledge of their students in this area; and
tools for teachers and students, promoting meaningful
to specify how they integrated ICT and information liter-
learning, and connecting the school to society. Computer
acy into their teaching. The school principals and their
and information literacy was perceived as an area that
assistants were also asked about the school’s policy in this
needed to be promoted through deliberate and controlled
field. The data was collected between November 2014 and
instruction, with the understanding that students need
March 2015. It should be noted that, despite the time that
guidance. In the words of one of the managers: “It is clear
has elapsed, the data is still relevant. The ICT Program is
to me that there must be monitoring, primarily by the
still active, and recent research in Israel has shown that
teacher, sitting with the child” (NIS-1). With regard to the
teachers’ attitudes toward the teaching of information lit-
teaching staff, the findings revealed that integrating ICT
eracy and digital literacy have not changed in recent years
into teaching was not carried out according to a fixed cur-
(Malka et al., 2019).
riculum in either school. The ICT school had presented an
HLA (Teaching–Learning–Assessment) plan in the past,
Study limitations but it had not been implemented. According to the princi-
pal in the non-ICT school, there was a document that
The data for this study was collected as part of PhD research defined what should be taught in each class, but the ICT
between 2014 and 2015. However, the findings are still rel- coordinator claimed that she did not know about this
evant today, as the National ICT Program is still operating document.
in Israel and, as noted in the literature review, teachers’ atti- Both schools identified an approach that was character-
tudes toward teaching information literacy and digital lit- ized as “enabling but not requiring.” This approach was
eracy have not changed in recent years. expressed mainly in installing and maintaining infrastruc-
The decision to use a case study methodology led to the ture.3 The school principals expressed their expectations
restriction of the research to two schools and presents an that teachers would know how to use technological tools
in-depth picture of the teaching and learning situations at a and infrastructure. According to the principal of the non-
certain period of time. The research reflects a process in ICT school: “It is difficult for me to imagine a teacher who
Israel. However, we believe that the findings of this study is disconnected from this environment and the learning
will resonate with teachers, school principals, and educa- techniques adapted to the 21st century” (NIS-1). That
tional leaders who are seeking to determine the status of being said, implementing online lessons and their scope,
their own educational institution in this field. integrating digital tools, and imparting computer skills
were all at the teachers’ discretion. This was a policy that
did not require complying with an established standard and
Data analysis did not dictate to teachers how to proceed. The ICT
The transcripts of the interviews underwent a process of school’s principal summarized this approach succinctly: “I
encoding and content analysis, based on a “pattern of meth- can say that some teachers place greater emphasis on this
odology focused on the interviewees” (Shkedi, 2014: 118). area and there are those who place less” (IS-6).
6 Journal of Librarianship and Information Science 00(0)

Figure 1.  Research categories.

Most of the teachers in both schools used the teacher skills. In the ICT school, knowledge-mapping of the stu-
computer terminal in their classrooms. In contrast, activ- dents had been carried out as a precondition for integration
ity in the computer room in both schools was far less con- into the ICT Program. This, however, had been a one-time
sistent. In the ICT school, activities with the students in procedure and was, according to the assistant principal, an
the computer room were carried out at the teachers’ dis- unnecessary evaluation: “We do not classify [the students]
cretion, rather than in accordance with any organized pro- according to their computer skills, definitely not. It’s also
gram. According to the ICT coordinator, the difficulty irrelevant at the moment. They obtain these skills [and it is
stemmed mainly from a lack of confidence felt by some of accomplished] during the learning process” (IS-7).
the teachers: “It’s very hard to walk into the computer According to the principal at the non-ICT school, a grade
room with a large group, not knowing whether one will was given in “Computers,” but it was not based on a uni-
encounter technical problems, and also maybe lacking the form indicator; it was rather “something the educator does
necessary self-confidence” (IS-5). In the non-ICT school, more on her own; there is nothing standardized here”
the computer room was used regularly, according to a (NIS-1).
fixed hourly schedule. Every homeroom teacher was
required to hold a lesson in the computer room once a
week, but, as noted above, there was no plan to dictate Perception of the role by the teaching staff
what to do in this room. In general, all of the interviewees from both schools
The principals of both schools felt that computer and related positively to the need to integrate technological
information literacy was not properly or adequately pro- tools such as computers, projectors, and the Internet
vided for, and therefore chose to begin special programs into their teaching. In this context, most of them used
to strengthen students’ skills. Each school chose a differ- expressions such as: “necessary”; “obligatory”; “value-
ent approach. In the ICT school, teaching hours were allo- added”; “imperative”; “impossible without it”; “revolu-
cated to the ICT coordinator, who would then teach tion”; and “tremendous resource.” Some believed that
computer skills in the computer room in coordination with even discussion of the importance of this issue was
the teachers, based on content from the school curriculum. unnecessary:
In the non-ICT school, an ICT expert was hired to guide
the homeroom teachers during lessons in the computer I don’t think there should be any question as to whether or not
room. it’s important; it’s the tool of the day, like any other tool, and
It was not customary in either school to evaluate stu- the only issue we have to talk about is how we are enabled to
dent knowledge in the field of computer and information implement it. (NIS-6)
Ben amram et al. 7

Table 1.  Advantages of integrating ICT into teaching, according to the teachers interviewed.

Advantage Illustrative quotation

Advantages for Makes it easier to prepare “Once I had to look for [teaching material] in the library . . . and today
the teachers the lesson—quick access to with one click I can find what I want” (IS-7)
learning materials
  Saves paper “I used to walk around with a hundred bags of worksheets . . . [Now] I
don’t print . . . I project everything onto the board” (NIS-2)
  Saves time during the lesson “It saves me a lot of writing on the board . . . it also looks much clearer,
and better illustration of bigger, more varied and colorful . . . I can project text . . . mark it up and
content display all other kinds of things” (NIS-9)
  Increases access to students’ “When a student sends me an assignment . . . I can check it at home when
assignments it’s convenient . . . I mean, it’s as if Bill Gates came to the school!” (IS-8)
Advantages for Connection to the world of “First of all, it’s their day-to-day . . . Their whole existence is digital, so why
the students online content should we distort their reality?” (IS-3)
  Raises the level of attention “They are not restricted to what is written; they find questions to ask
and interest which would not have been asked before; giving them the visual option
encourages them to look and think” (IS-1)
  Opens additional areas “For example, we are now learning geography using Google Earth; suddenly
of content and enriches they actually see the world. They feel they’re in another country” (IS-8)
knowledge
  Illustrates complex topics “For example, the subject of engineering structures is very, very difficult,
and here you can . . . rotate the model and display the layout, amazingly
demonstrating everything” (NIS-9)
  Adapts to different styles of “[One can] combine a presentation and a video and then relate to the
learning entire audience . . . One group relates to the video, the other is receptive
to the presentation, the third asks questions. The result is successful from
every direction” (NIS-1)

A few emphasized the need to arrive at a balance between argued that acquiring information literacy was an area
teaching techniques, rather than abandoning conventional where students needed the most instruction:
methods, and expressed concern that replacing familiar
learning practices with working solely with computers They do not know how to learn with the help of the computer,
would be counterproductive or even damaging. All of the or how to use the knowledge that the computer offers; they
interviewees pointed out the advantages of integrating ICT know how to “copy and paste” from Wikipedia, but not how
into their teaching, although they referred only to the to search other sites or to identify which other sites could be
advantages of the lessons that took place in the classroom, most relevant and helpful to them. (NIS-6)
using the teacher’s computer, and did not mention the
advantages of the lessons that took place in the computer As all of the interviewees recognized the great importance
room, where there were computers available for student of imparting information literacy to students, they were
use. Table 1 presents the primary advantages of integrating asked who they thought should teach ICT and information
ICT into teaching cited by the interviewees. Alongside literacy in school. In general, most (10 out of 18) sup-
each advantage is a quote to illustrate it. ported the “combined approach” accepted by the Ministry
The interviewees were asked if they had heard of the of Education, but a difference was found between the
expression “computer and information literacy,” as some schools.
of them were supposed to teach it according to the ICT Most of those interviewed in the ICT school believed
Program, and, if so, what was its meaning. Only five that it was appropriate for any teacher to integrate com-
respondents—two from the ICT school and three from the puter and information literacy into teaching the techniques
non-ICT school—were able to fully explain the concept; of acquiring knowledge in any field. They claimed that the
eight had never heard of it at all; and the rest knew of it but most successful learning is context-based and that any
could not describe what it meant. When the term was teacher can succeed in this area: “I am very much in favor
explained to them, they all agreed that it was very impor- of every teacher integrating ICT—the teacher of physical
tant to impart these skills to students because, despite their education, the teacher of agriculture, the teacher of geog-
early mastery of the technology, they did not necessarily raphy, every teacher! In my opinion, this is a crucial and
know how to use it to improve their learning. Guidance necessary tool” (IS-3). However, in the non-ICT school,
and direction were required to achieve this goal. Some a small majority of the teachers supported having a
8 Journal of Librarianship and Information Science 00(0)

designated ICT teacher, as it requires specialized skills and discretion, only two of the interviewees reported having a
training that not all teachers necessarily have. In the words regularly scheduled lesson in the computer room. Five of
of IS-2: “I do not feel that I master the material well enough the interviewees reported holding a computer-room class
to teach it. I refuse to make a fool of myself .  .  . why teach only when special projects were being studied. One teacher
something that I do not master?”. stated that she never entered the computer room with her
students because she did not see herself as properly trained,
and believed that these skills should be taught only by a
Imparting ICT and information literacy within
specialized teacher.
the actual teaching framework Concerning how technology was used in the classroom
The interviewees were asked to describe how they pre- as a pedagogical tool, the findings revealed that in both
pared an ICT-integrated lesson (online lesson), how long schools its use was mainly to develop knowledge in the
they were engaged in preparing lessons using technology, theoretical aspects of academic subjects. All of the inter-
and what types of skills they used. An analysis of the viewees used their online terminal as a tool to illustrate,
responses to these questions makes it possible to clarify acquire, and practice instructional material. They all
how the participants perceived their role in their teaching described and presented examples of using videos and
methodology. presentations for this purpose. For example, a typical
In theory, the positive attitude toward adding techno- occurrence in a language education lesson went as follows:
logical factors into teaching techniques, in addition to the “I’ll assign them [the students] to watch a certain video.
many advantages already mentioned, had been translated For example, they view a clip and form their impressions,
into a change in teaching methods to the extent that “when and then afterward they are asked to write up their opin-
there is no Internet [due to mishaps], it’s a very difficult ions” (NIS-10).
day” (NIS-7). However, the findings indicated that this Several of the interviewees also described using tech-
change in approach focused mainly on the use of technol- nology to impart computer and information skills. When
ogy to promote educational content, and the imparting of analysing the findings, the skills under discussion were
computer and information literacy was not carried out classified according to type: word processing; instruction
according to a predetermined program. in how to use Word; writing texts and formatting a page;
No differences were found between the two schools creating and designing presentations; and creating spread-
when analysing the findings concerning the preparation of sheets and getting instruction in Excel. Also considered
an online lesson. All of the interviewees used the Internet were participation in online forums (classwide or on social
to search for study materials—mostly videos, presenta- media); using Google for data searches via specific key-
tions, worksheets, and digital textbooks. However, they all words or in wider Internet searches; learning to evaluate
referred to sources of information related to educational data with reference to the characteristics of the sources of
content, rather than the actual search for content, which information and a comparison between them; learning to
would help impart information skills: “I look for interest- present the results of data searches to the class; and formu-
ing things . . . I automatically go [into Google] to find, for lating information according to different requirements and
example, a video about burial caves . . . I look for any- characteristics.
thing relevant to what I’m going to teach” (IS-1). It seems that, in both schools, instruction in computer
The interviewees were asked about their teaching literacy was mentioned less than information literacy. Of
methods during the online lessons. To what extent did the information skills taught, the one that was mentioned
they use the computer terminal in the classroom and how most in both schools was information searching, followed
often did they use the computer room for teaching? They by information assessment, information presentation, and
were also asked to present examples of their use of tech- information processing. The descriptions dealt with the
nology during the online lessons. Analysing the answers skill of defining the “need for information,” such as for-
to these questions can help us to understand how the per- mulating questions and dividing the subject into subtopics
ception of the interviewees’ role was expressed in the using key concepts before conducting a search.
way they taught. The assessment of the degree of engagement of the
Regarding the use of the teacher’s computer terminal in interviewees in imparting computer and information liter-
the homeroom, no difference was found between the acy was based on how they related to the skills they pro-
schools. Most of the interviewees stated that they used vided and the digital tools they used. Accordingly, their
their online terminal in most, or all, of their lessons. As for levels of technology usage were classified into three cate-
lessons in the computer room, there was a difference gories: “to a large extent”; “to a medium/small extent”;
between the schools. In the non-ICT school, in accordance and “not at all.” Six of the interviewees—three from each
with school policy, all the teachers held a lesson in the school—estimated that they imparted computer and infor-
computer room at least once a week; in the ICT school, mation literacy “to a large extent.” These respondents
where holding such lessons was left to the teachers’ described in detail how they combined these skills in their
Ben amram et al. 9

lessons and presented diverse examples. A typical example At a conceptual level, the teachers did not distinguish
went as follows: between ICT teaching and information literacy instruction,
which combines knowledge-building and higher-order
When the task is to create a presentation, I teach the students thinking skills. In both schools, this situation led to a pro-
how to do it intelligently, so that they do not fill the gram aimed at teaching these skills under the direction of a
presentation with tons of text and then just stand and read it specialized teacher, as opposed to the approach adopted by
. . . You need to know how to search and know how to read,
the Ministry of Education.
and not simply do “copy–paste.” (IS-1)
In order to explain the causes of this gap, we will
Eight respondents—three from the ICT school and five address three insights that emerged from the interviewees
from the non-ICT school—estimated that they imparted themselves: personal motives for integrating information
computer and information literacy “to a medium/small literacy and computer skills into their teaching; the organi-
extent.” This assessment was based on a succinct descrip- zational culture of the school; and the level of responsibil-
tion of the subject and on their considering imparting these ity assumed by the Ministry of Education.
skills as an event that occurred randomly and spontane-
ously, as part of a one-time project or as an activity carried Personal motives for integrating information literacy and ICT
out hastily due to lack of time. This approach was illus- into teaching. In examining the teachers’ motivation, the
trated in the words of interviewee NIS-6: “I know that I following factors were taken into account: seniority and
don’t place too much emphasis on this these days because experience in teaching; the individual’s relationship to
I have so many other things to do!” technology; previous experience of the interviewees in
Four of the respondents—two from each school—felt integrating ICT into their teaching; and professional train-
that they were not involved at all in imparting these ing in this area.
skills. They gave various reasons. IS-2 felt that this was A teacher’s seniority, usually accompanied by profes-
the role of a professional teacher and that imparting sional pedagogical experience, should be a factor that con-
these skills was irrelevant to the lesson topic. Respondent tributes positively to having information literacy be part of
NIS-4 commented: “I say clearly that I do not teach teaching (Hughes, 2005; Mioduser et al., 2006). Not sur-
these skills. This is something the students are supposed prisingly, the findings showed that inexperienced teachers
to carry out from their personal knowledge.” Respondents found it difficult to combine these skills with their
IS-5 and NIS-5 explained that they would like to teach teaching.
these skills but did not possess the sufficient knowledge A teacher’s attitude toward technology may be associ-
and experience. ated with their motivation to plan and conduct online les-
Because it was found that neither school had a struc- sons (Rotem, 2012). All of the interviewees related
tured program to integrate computer and information lit- positively to using innovative technologies—such as com-
eracy, and that this was left to each teacher’s judgment, the puters, the Internet, and smartphones—in their personal
question arises as to whether the interviewees operated in lives. However, despite this positive response, two
this context according to any personal program. The find- approaches can be distinguished: “very connected to tech-
ings revealed that, in both schools, most of the teachers did nology” versus “somewhat connected to technology.” The
not follow a defined program, but rather introduced these “very connected” approach, identified in 15 of the 18
skills when a special project was required or when the interviewees, was expressed in such statements as:
need arose: “Sometimes a child asks a question related to “extremely connected”; “this is my life experience”; “a
the lesson and I say, ‘We have Google here, let’s search natural connection”; “the computer was created for me”;
together,’ and then, while we’re searching for the informa- “I’m a computer freak”; and “I’m connected to my com-
tion, I show them where to look” (IS-5). puter like to a limb .  .  . I must have everything on my com-
puter, I’m always on it and on my smartphone . . . with
emails, shared documents . . . I love it and must immedi-
Perception of role versus implementation
ately download everything” (NIS-9). The “somewhat con-
A description of how the interviewees perceived their role nected” approach, identified by three participants,
in the teaching of computer and information skills com- expressed willingness to use innovative technological
pared to actual practice reveals a gap at both schools. All means and an understanding of their advantages. However,
of the respondents recognized the contribution of ICT to this was not done spontaneously or enthusiastically. This
promoting teaching and learning, and the importance of was expressed in statements such as: “I try”; “there’s a
imparting information literacy in school. However, an kind of barrier”; and “not always keeping up.”
analysis of their teaching methods demonstrates that, in Cohen and Berenstok (2014) examined the relationship
this context, they had not developed a culture of transfer between teachers’ mastery of ICT skills and their readiness
(Herring, 2011). Transmitting information literacy was not for change within the framework of the National ICT
based on an organized plan. Program. They found that previous experience in using
10 Journal of Librarianship and Information Science 00(0)

ICT contributed to greater confidence among teachers and blackboard and chalk, and progressed to markers on the
increased integration of technology into their lessons. In board, now we have arrived at the computer and the
our study, five teachers had served as ICT coordinators in projector. (IS-5)
the past or during the data collection for this study—two
from the ICT school and three from the non-ICT school. It However, it appears that these teachers were the exception
appears that the tools acquired by the ICT coordinators, and did not reflect the general situation.
and their experience in the field, were reflected in their
perception of their role as teachers. Respondent IS-3 The organizational culture of the school.  Another explana-
referred to this when she described the transition from her tion for the gap between the theoretical perception of
work at another school, where she served as the ICT coor- their role and actual performance can be related to the
dinator, to this school: “I started teaching here when the schools’ organizational culture (Avidov-Ungar and
community entered the ICT Program .  .  . I was very happy Eshet-Alkakay, 2011; Kalaš et al., 2012). In this context,
because I am very connected to the field.” the interviewees addressed school policy, the schools’
The five interviewees who served as ICT coordinators technological infrastructure, professional development,
saw continuous training as a vital and ongoing need. All and the support teachers received.
had participated in professional training courses in their Regarding the implementation of a school curriculum,
role and continued to develop in the field through both for- most of the teachers did not know of any such program. In
mal frameworks and self-learning. As interviewee NIS-7 the ICT school, most of the interviewees were aware of the
described: “I am constantly learning. That’s the nature of requirement to follow the HLA program but made it clear
the field. I also feel that I do not know everything and that that they did not do so in practice. As IS-1 explained: “We
there’s an infinite amount to be learned here.” This inter- submitted [a plan], but it was . . . only a technical issue.”
viewee was referring to the tools that are offered in voca- In the non-ICT school, the interviewees who spoke about
tional training as an incentive for further learning, and did this topic expressed the hope that their school would join
not expect to master the subject in its entirety from training the National ICT Program, and that they would then
workshops: “I took what I learned in the course and con- receive appropriate instruction.
tinued on my own . . . I looked for more information in As for infrastructure, it was found that installing a
order to prepare for the next session.” teacher computer terminal and connecting the classroom
Table 2 presents the personal characteristics of the par- to the Internet promoted the use of technology, mainly as
ticipants in relation to their use of the teacher’s computer a means of illustration by the teacher. However, the inter-
terminal and the degree to which they engaged in teaching viewees perceived the lack of additional technological
computer and information skills. tools and the malfunction of existing ones as a factor that
An analysis of personal motivation shows that teach- impeded them from acquiring computer and information
ers with seniority in teaching, who had filled the role of skills.
ICT coordinators and received appropriate and ongoing A different point of view was emphasized in each
training, were those who showed high self-efficacy and school. In the ICT school, the difficulty related primarily
succeeded in applying the concept of the role in actual to technical problems and repeated malfunctions, which
practice. Five teachers were found to possess these char- reduced teachers’ ability and readiness to integrate infor-
acteristics. They showed an exceptionally enthusiastic mation literacy into their teaching. One of the teachers,
attitude toward this subject, which attested to their moti- who said that she was among the few who used the com-
vation and personal connection to the field. This motiva- puter room with her students, described the difficulty in
tion was translated into immediate interaction with the functioning there:
students. They saw themselves as personally responsible
for advancing the topic, taking advantage of the possibili- It’s very frustrating to go down [to the computer room],
having no idea what the situation will be that day. I feel like
ties that the system made available to them, without wait-
telling the students to wait in the classroom while I go down
ing for institutional guidance. As interviewee NIS-7 said:
to see if the computers are working at all (IS-1).
“Every year I choose a topic that the children show no
affinity for and I find a way [in conjunction with ICT] to
In the non-ICT school, most of the respondents referred to
connect them.”
the need to add more computer stations for the students.
From these teachers’ point of view, technological devel-
One of the interviewees summed up this problem when she
opment was a necessity. They viewed the combination of
concluded: “You can’t talk about ICT when there is no
ICT and teaching as a very positive, revolutionary, and
computer! We only have one hour a week [in a computer
essential factor:
room] and even that doesn’t always happen” (NIS-2).
In the area of professional development, the interview-
I can say that the integration of the computer into teaching ees from both schools stated that institutionalized train-
practice is a kind of evolution: if once we started with a ing contributed little to developing their ability to teach
Ben amram et al. 11

Table 2.  Personal characteristics, personal accountability, and extent of ICT teaching.

Type of Teacher Teaching Personal Previous Efforts to advance Use of a Degree of

school seniority relation to experience in the field computer involvement in
technology integrating ICT terminal in the imparting information
into teaching classroom and computer skills
ICT IS-1 Short Very connected No Ongoing learning In most lessons Very involved
school
  IS-2 Long Somewhat No In some lessons Not involved
connected
  IS-3 Long Very connected Yes—ICT Introduces new In all lessons Very involved
coordinator tools
  IS-4 Long Very connected No A personal plan In most lessons Moderately involved
  IS-5 Moderate Very connected Yes—ICT In all lessons Very involved
coordinator
  IS-6 Long Very connected No In most lessons Moderately involved
  IS-7 Moderate Very connected No In most lessons Slightly involved
  IS-8 Moderate Somewhat No Gets help from In some lessons Not involved
connected other teachers
Non-ICT NIS-1 Long Very connected No In most lessons Moderately involved
school
  NIS-2 Long Very connected Yes—ICT Workshops, aiding In all lessons Very involved
coordinator other teachers
  NIS-3 Long Very connected No In some lessons Moderately involved
  NIS-4 Short Very connected No Aiding other In most lessons Not involved
teachers
  NIS-5 Short Very connected No In some lessons Not involved
  NIS-6 Moderate Very connected Yes—ICT In most lessons Moderately involved
instructor
  NIS-7 Long Very connected Yes—ICT Ongoing learning, In all lessons Very involved
coordinator integration of ICT
into various fields
  NIS-8 Long Very connected No In some lessons Slightly involved
  NIS-9 Long Very connected Yes—ICT In all lessons Very involved
coordinator
  NIS-10 Long Somewhat No Training workshops In some lessons Slightly involved
connected

computer and information literacy, and did not contribute The level of responsibility assumed by the Ministry of Educa-
to their actual performance in that instructional role. Some tion.  While, theoretically, most of the interviewees sup-
had received no training and those who had found it to be ported a combined approach, they were aware that most
incomplete and inadequate. This argument was heard in teachers did not possess the training and experience neces-
both schools, even though the training was given by differ- sary to teach this field to students. They therefore expected
ent instructors. In the words of respondent IS-4: “I got very the Ministry of Education to assume responsibility for
little [out of the training] . . . If you do a survey here, you guiding the issue from above. These expectations can be
will find that no one gained very much; the training was classified into four categories:
poorly constructed.”
In the ICT school, additional instruction was given by 1. Planning and allocation of time: the Ministry of
the ICT coordinator during the first two years of the pro- Education must give careful consideration to the
gram. Most of the interviewees found this type of support issue, and allow the processes to mature and be
to be advantageous: “The guidance of the computer coor- coordinated between the expectations of planners
dinator was great because she is very well connected to and the existing possibilities in educational institu-
our curriculum and is also a member of the school staff” tions: “I think that in Israel there is a very large gap
(IS-7). However, the Ministry of Education revoked this between what they want up there and what we can
directive, and the interviewees viewed this decision as a accomplish on the ground. The pace is different,
step that made it difficult for them to carry out their and we are not able to keep up with these expecta-
responsibilities. tions” (NIS-8).
12 Journal of Librarianship and Information Science 00(0)

2. Developing an appropriate curriculum: in the ICT processes are required, as well as encouraging initiatives
school, it was argued that the existing plan is not and innovation.
sufficiently crystallized; in the non-ICT school, Our research found that no such processes were carried
there was a request to develop an integrated and out in either school. There was no systematic monitoring of
ongoing lesson plan, as in other fields: “I need to the use of technology and no discussion of its pedagogical
have a predefined program. I cannot create such a implications for teaching development. Nor was any assess-
program [on my own]” (NIS-9). ment made for learning about the knowledge acquired by
3. Professional development: suitable training and the students as a result of their use of technology. It seems
ongoing instruction should be provided. Both that using technology to enrich educational content had not
schools claimed that the training programs pro- been translated into organizational processes, such as devel-
vided thus far had been insufficient, unprofes- oping a curriculum that combined the teaching of computer
sional, and unable to meet the needs of teachers: and information skills, as required by the National ICT
“There is no training that teaches how to take a Program. A transformation such as this requires an innova-
teaching module, to dismantle it, and rebuild the tive change in the very nature of teaching (Zohar, 2011).
content in such a way that I can integrate it into my A further conclusion is that a gap exists between the
lesson and employ technological tools. There is interviewees’ perception of their role—most of whom saw
simply no such thing!” (NIS-1). the integration of ICT and information literacy in teaching
4. Infrastructure: infrastructure and resources should as part of their objective—and the actual implementation
be provided, and budgetary promises should be of this concept. The participants viewed the integration of
kept. The difficulty in integrating ICT into daily technology into teaching as part of their professional iden-
instruction arises from a lack of resources and tity (Ministry of Education, 2015a). Most agreed that their
budget. Computer terminals must be added, as students being “digital natives” did not contribute to the
well as allocating teaching hours and setting development of their information literacy. For this to
standards for working in small groups: “The occur, the mediation of a teacher was required (Çoklar
Ministry of Education requires? That’s a great et al., 2016; Šorgo et al., 2016). On the other hand, most of
idea! Only, in reality, it is impossible to teach a the interviewees were unable to explain the meaning of the
class of 27 pupils when there isn’t a computer for term “information literacy” and did not sufficiently distin-
each student!” (IS-2). guish between the use of technological tools and the sub-
stantive changes required in teaching methods. They used
technology mainly for screening presentations and videos,
Discussion and conclusions in a way that preserved traditional teaching methods
This study explored whether students in primary school (Erstad et al., 2015; Melamed, 2010).
were offered the opportunity by their teachers to acquire It is true that, when preparing a lesson, most of the teach-
information literacy. If so, what were they taught and how ers used procedures that integrated information literacy—
were they taught it? We chose to conduct the research as a seeking information, evaluating the findings, and selecting
case study in two schools: one that was participating in the content following need. However, this was mainly intended
Ministry of Education’s National ICT Program and one to locate educational content, rather than to locate learning
that was not. materials that would help develop students’ computer and
The main conclusion is that both schools incorporated information skills. It appears that they were not sufficiently
online content into their teaching. However, neither aware of the importance of imparting these skills to their stu-
school systematically included teaching information lit- dents and had not developed a “culture of transfer” in this
eracy as part of the curriculum. This finding is true for the context (Herring, 2006; Stockham and Collins, 2012).
school that was participating in the ICT Program, and Most of the interviewees supported an integrated
officially committed to such a program, and for the school approach, which entails that each teacher will teach
that was not participating in the program. As the teachers computer and information skills. Nonetheless, their
were not teaching computer and information literacy in a descriptions of how they taught these skills during class
continuous and planned manner, the principals in both suggest that, in most cases, such teaching happened
schools chose to implement a special study hour for stu- spontaneously when a question arose from one of the
dents to acquire these skills. Both schools identified with students, or as a response to student behavior, as was
a policy that has been defined in this article as “enabling found in a study in Greece (Togia et al., 2014). Even
but not requiring.” This approach has a certain effect on when they taught computer and information skills, most
teachers’ use of technology, however. Similar to what focused mainly on word processing, PowerPoint presen-
Pieterse (2011) found in her study of academic institu- tations, and information-searching.
tions, this condition is not sufficient to create long-term The mapping of knowledge skills related to information
cultural/organizational change. Control and development literacy leads to the conclusion that even the interviewees
Ben amram et al. 13

who had been classified as engaging in information liter- Professionals with knowledge in the field should write
acy to a large extent did not integrate into their teaching the curriculum, as is done in other disciplines. Learning
the information process involved in constructing knowl- materials must be developed and evaluated, and feedback
edge, which is characterized by a sequence of interrelated received, while ensuring that this knowledge is constructed
actions and expressed in models such as “The Big 6” with the abilities of different age groups in mind. Similarly,
(Eisenberg et al., 2004). The teachers may not have been a standardized technological infrastructure is required,
aware of the importance of teaching the subject from this together with the user devices that are necessary to enable
perspective or did not know how to do so. It seems that the students to practice these skills while at school.
gap between the requirements of the National ICT Program Since this study ended, most schools in Israel have
and the theoretical perceptions of the role of the teachers joined the National ICT Program. Specific orientations to
versus their actual performance was influenced by a core “computer and information literacy” have been replaced
concept embedded in the National ICT Program: that all by a broader view which includes a conceptual framework
teachers are capable of teaching computer and information and curriculum under the title “Digital and Technological
skills. Literacy.” Therefore, as a follow-up study, it would be
A study carried out by the Ministry of Education itself worthwhile to examine the extent to which this more com-
assumes that a teacher who prepares their students to cope prehensive approach has indeed led to a change in the state
with the challenges of the 21st century has already mas- of the teaching and learning of information literacy in pri-
tered those skills (Dayan et al., 2013). This is in contrast to mary schools. In addition, it would be interesting to inves-
studies which have found that many teachers lack this abil- tigate the instruction of information literacy in other
ity (Erstad et al., 2015; Wastiau et al., 2013). Nor does this countries.
approach consider the differences among teachers, stem-
ming from personal attitudes, technological training, and Declaration of conflicting interests
their relative experience in the field. Our study found that The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
these factors had a great influence on the preparedness of respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
teachers and their ability to integrate computer and infor- article.
mation literacy into their teaching in an informed and pro-
fessional manner. Funding
Another difficulty stemmed from insufficient training The author(s) received no financial support for the research,
and lack of support, despite numerous studies in Israel and authorship, and/or publication of this article.
around the world that have pointed to the importance of
training, organizational support, and direct guidance for ORCID iDs
those teachers charged with implementing processes that
Sigal Ben amram https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8866-7341
require innovation (Zinn et al., 2016).
These findings show that it is preferable to treat infor- Noa Aharony https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1440-3305
mation literacy, at least within the Israeli educational sys-
tem, as a distinct area of knowledge, with its own agenda Notes
and routine, and to use information literacy models such 1. Available at: https://www.madlan.co.il (in Hebrew). The
as “The Big 6” (Eisenberg et al., 2004), the PSU/BAT Madlan index is based on the achievements of students in
(Preparing/Beginning; Searching/Acting; Using/Telling) the core subjects in the national Meitzav tests, and is cal-
model (Nesset, 2016), or direct instruction (Allison et al., culated as the average of the school’s relative position (in
2016). We assume that teachers who teach information lit- deciles) in the subjects of study in the Meitzav tests, multi-
plied by 10.
eracy should be information-literate themselves, acquire
2. A teaching staff member who is responsible for handling
the knowledge and pedagogy involved in this area, and everything related to the use of ICT in the school.
develop a culture of transfer. Using structured models, as 3. By “infrastructure” we mean a local area network, an
mentioned above, may help teachers to develop their own Internet server, a wireless Internet connection, a computer
information literacy, resulting in them educating their teaching terminal in each classroom, and a computer room
pupils to become information-literate individuals. Both with workstations available for student use.
schools had a small number of teachers whose motivation
and special abilities advanced the field in their way, and References
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Author biographies
technology into teaching is resolved - the challenge now Sigal Ben Amram is a lecturer at the program for an M.Ed degree
is to improve teaching. Education, teaching and learning in the Educational Technology of Kibbutzim College of
in an online environment. Available at: http://files.org.il/ Education, Technology, and the Arts. She received her Ph.D. in
BRPortalStorage/a/88/38/74-vqEaH00lFi.pdf (in Hebrew) 2018 from the Department of Information Science of Bar-Ilan
Rotem A, Dayan R and Magen–Nagar N (2013) Pedagogical University (Israel). Her professional and research interests are in
focus of the ICT program: “Adapting the education system teacher education for Digital Literacy and Information literacy.
to the 21st century.” In: Proceedings of the 9th CHAIS con-
ference for the study of innovation and learning technolo- Noa Aharony is a professor at the Department of Information
gies: Learning in the technological era (ed. Y Eshet-Alkalai, Science of Bar-Ilan University in Israel. She received her Ph.D.
16 Journal of Librarianship and Information Science 00(0)

in 2003 from the School of Education at Bar-Ilan University computer science from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and
(Israel). She was the head of the Information Science Department started her research in information science in the mid-1990s at
at Bar-Ilan University (Israel). Her research interests are in edu- the School of Library, Archive and Information Studies of the
cation for library and information science, information literacy, Hebrew University of Jerusalem. She moved to the Department
technological innovations and the LIS community, and Web 2.0. of Information Science at Bar-Ilan University in 2002. She was a
Prof. Aharony is a member of the editorial boards of the Journal member of the editorial boards of JASIST, Scientometrics,
of Librarianship and Information Science and Online Information Journal of Informetrics, PLoS ONE, Cybermetrics, and Online
Review. Information Review. Her areas of interest included: informetrics,
information retrieval, Internet research, information behavior
Judit Bar Ilan was a professor at the Department of Information and usability. Judith Bar-Ilan passed away in July 2019. This arti-
Science of Bar-Ilan University in Israel. She received her PhD in cle is dedicated to her memory.