M. Sc.

Mathematics
MT-102 : Topology
Unit - 1

Topological Spaces
By Dr. J. N. Chaudhari

1
Topological space : Let X be a set &  be a collection of
subsets of X. Then  is called a topology on X if
i)  , X  
ii) A1 , A2    A1  A2  
iii) Each A   ( I , an arbitrary index set)   A  .
 I
If  is a topology on X, then pair (X , ) is called a topological
space.

Remark : Let (X , ) be a topological space. Then each member

of  is called an open set or  open set in X.

2
Example : 1) Let X be a set &  = { , X}. Then  is a topology
on X & it is called as indiscrete (or trivial) topology on X.
2) Let X be a non-empty set &  be collection of all subsets of
X, ie  = P(X) = the power set of X. Then  is a topology on X &
it is called as discrete topology on X.
3) Let (X , d) be a metric space & d = the set of all d-open sets
in X. Then d is a topology on X & it is known as metric
topology on X. The space (X , d) is called metrizable space.

3
Example : 1) Let X {a , b , c} &  = { , {a} , {b} , {a , b} , X}. Then
 is a topology on X.
2) Let X {a , b , c} &  = { , {a} , {a , b} , X}. Then  is a topology
on X.
3) Let X {a , b , c} &  = { , {a} , {b} , X}. Then  is not a
topology on X because {a}  {b} = {a , b}  .

4
Theorem : Let X be a set &
 = {}  {A  X : AC is a finite set}. Prove that  is a
topology on X. (This topology is called as co-finite topology or
finite complement topology on X & it is denoted by f).
Proof : 1) Clearly   . Also XC =  , a finite set, ie X  .
2) Let A , B  . If AB = , then AB  .
If AB   , then A   & B  .
Hence AC , BC are finite sets.
 AC  BC is a finite set
 (AB)C is a finite set
 AB  
3) Let A   for each   I where I is an indexing set.

If  A =  , then we are through.

 I 
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So suppose that  A  . Hence A   for some .
 I
(A)C is a finite set.
C C C
 
Now   A     A   A
 


 
  I    I      
where (A)C is a finite set.
C
 
   A  is a finite set.
  I  

Hence  A .
 I 
From (i), (ii) & (iii) ,  is a topology on X.
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Theorem : Let X be a set &
 = {}  {A  X : AC is a countable set}. Prove that 
is a topology on X. (This topology is called as co-countable
topology on X & it is denoted by C).
Proof : 1) Clearly   .
Also XC =  , a countable set, ie X  .
2) Let A , B  . If AB = , then AB  .
If AB   , then A   & B  .
Hence AC , BC are countable sets.
 AC  BC is a countable set
 (AB)C is a countable set
 AB  
3) Let A   for each   I where I is an indexing set.

If  A =  , then we are through.

 I  7
So suppose that  A  . Hence A   for some .
 I
(A)C is a countable set.
C C C
 
Now   A     A   A
 


 
  I    I      
where (A)C is a countable set.
C
 
   A  is a countable set.
  I  

Hence  A .
 I 
From (i), (ii) & (iii) ,  is a topology on X.
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Theorem : Let X be a set & {} be a family of topologies on X.
Prove that  =  { :  I, I is an indexing set} is a topology
on X.
Proof : 1) Clearly  , X   , for each .
  , X   { :  I} = 
2) Let A , B  
 A , B   , for each .
 A  B   , for each .
 A  B   { :  I} = 
3) Let {A} be any collection in 
 A   , for each .
 {A}   , for each .
 {A}   { :  I} = 
From (1) , (2) , (3)
 is a topology on X.
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Example : Show by an example that the union of two
topologies is not a topology.
Answer : Let X = {a , b , c} and
1 = { , X , {a}} & 2 = { , X , {b}}.
Then 1 , 2 are topologies on X but 1  2 = { , X , {a} , {b}} is
not a topology on X because
{a} , {b}  1  2 but {a}  {b} = {a , b}  1  2 .
Definition : Let X be a set & 1 , 2 be two topologies on X.
If 1  2 then we say that 2 is finer (or stronger or larger)
than 1 or 1 is weaker (or smaller) than 2 .
Example : Let X be a set. Let 1 be the indiscrete topology on X
& 2 be the discrete topology on X. Then 1  2 . Hence 2 is
finer than 1.

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Example : Let X = {1 , 2 , 3 , - - - } & 1 = { , X , {1} , {1 , 2} , {1 ,
2 , 3} , - - - } & 2 be the co-finite topology on X. See whether
1 is finer than 2 or not.
Here A = X – {3 , 7} & AC = {3 , 7} is a finite set. Hence A  2
but A  1 . ie 2 is not a subset of 1 .
Similarly {1}  1 but {1}  2 . ie 1 is not a subset of 2 .
Thus neither 1 is finer than 2 nor 2 is finer than 1 .

Basis : Let X be a set &  be a collection of subsets of X. Then

 is said to be a basis for some topology on X if
i) for each x  X , there exists B   (B depends on x)
such that x  B.
ii) B1 , B2   and x  B1  B2
 there exists B3   such that x  B3  B1  B2.
where B3 depending on x , B1 , B2 .
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Theorem : Let X be a set &  be a basis for some topology on
X. Denote
 = {A  X : for each x  A , there exists B  
(B depends on x) such that x  B  A}.
Prove that  is a topology on X.
Proof : 1) By definition of ,   .
Let x  X be any element.
Now  is a basis for some topology on X
 for x  X, there exists B   such that x  B.
ie x  B  A
Hence X  .
2) Let A1 , A2  . Let x  A1  A2
x  A1 & x  A2
x  A1 & x  A2
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there exist B1 , B2   such that x  B1  A1 & x  B2 A2 .
Now x  B1  B2 , B1 , B2   &  is a basis
 there exists B3   such that x  B3  B1  B2  A1  A2 .
Hence A1  A2  .
3) Let {A}I be a family of elements of .
Let x  {A :   I}
x  A , for some   I where A  .
there exists B   such that x  B  A  {A :   I} .
 {A :   I}  .
From (1) , (2) & (3) ,  is a topology on X.

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Definition : Let X be a set &  be a basis for some topology on
X. Denote  = {A  X : for each x  A , there exists B  
(B depends on x) such that x  B  A}.
Then  is a topology on X & it is called topology generated by
a basis . (Here we say that  is a basis for a topology ).

Remark : Let X be a set &  be a basis for a topology  on X.

Then   .
Proof : B    for each x  B there exists
B   such that x  B  B
 B 
Hence   .

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Example : Let X be a set &  = {{x} : x  X}. Prove that
1)  is a basis for some topology, say , on X.
2)  = P(X). (ie  is a basis for a discrete topology on X).
Answer : (1) x  X  there exists {x}   such that x {x}.
Now let B1 = {x1}, B2 = {x2}  and
x  B1  B2 = {x1}  {x2} = {x1} = {x2}.
There exists B3 = {x1}   such that x B3  B1  B2 .
Hence  is a basis for some topology, say , on X.
(2) Let A  P(X) and x  A.
 there exists {x}   such that x {x}  A.
A  . Thus P(X)  . But   P(X).
Hence  = P(X).

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Lemma 2.1 (JRM): Let X be a set &  be a basis for a topology
 on X. Prove that
 = {A  X : A = union of some members of }.
Proof : Denote 0 = {A  X : A = union of some members of }.
Let A  .
Now for each x  A, there exists Bx   such that x  Bx  A.
But then A = {Bx : x  A}
A 0 . ie   0 .
Now let A 0
A = {B : B   for some subfamily  of }
= {B : B   for some subfamily  of } ∵   
A  . ie 0  .
From (i) & (ii) ,
 = 0 = {A  X : A = union of some members of }.
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Lemma 2.2 (JRM): Let X be a set &  , ’ are bases for
topologies  , ’ respectively on X. Prove that following
statements are equivalent :
1)   ’
2) for each B  and x  B there exists B’  ’
such that x  B’  B .
Proof : (1)  (2) Suppose that   ’
Let B  and x  B.
 B  and x  B ∵
 B ’ and x  B ∵   ’
 there exists B’  ’ such that x  B’  B
∵ ’ is a basis for ’
(2)  (1) Suppose that for each B  and x  B there exists
B’  ’ such that x  B’  B .
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Let A   & x  A
 A =  B for some   
B 
 x  B for some B    
 there exists B’  ’ such that x  B’  B
∵ ’ is a basis for ’
 there exists B’  ’ such that x  B’  A
A  ’
Hence   ’.
Example : Let (X , ) be a topological space. Prove that  is a
basis for  .
Answer : (1) x  X  there exists X such that x  X.
(2) Let B1 , B2   & x  B1  B2.
Then there exists B3 = B1  B2   such that x B3  B1  B2 .
Hence  is a basis for  .
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Lemma 2.3 (JRM): Let (X , ) be a topological space &  be a
sub collection of  such that for each A and each x  A
there exists C such that x  C  A. Prove that  is a basis
for a given topology on X.
Proof : (1) Claim :  is a basis for some topology say ’ on X.
(i) Let x  X.
Now X   & x  X  there exists C  such that x  C  X.
(ii) Let C1 , C2   & x  C1  C2.
Now     C1  C2  
 there exists C3  such that x  C3  C1  C2.
Hence from (i) & (ii),
 is a basis for some topology say ’ on X.
(2) Claim :  = ’
Now  is a basis for  and  is a basis for ’. Also for each A
and each x  A there exists C such that x  C  A.
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Hence by earlier theorem,   ’ - - - - - - (i)
Now let A  ’

A =  B where  is some subfamily of . But   .

B 
Hence A can be written as union of some members of .
 B
A= 
B 

Thus ’   - - - - - - (ii)
From (i) & (ii),  = ’ .
Hence  is a basis for a given topology on X.

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Lemma : Consider,  the set of reals.
Let  = {(a , b) : a , b   , a < b}. Prove that  is a basis for
some topology on X.
Proof : Let x  
 there exists (x-1 , x+1)   such that x  (x-1 , x+1).
Now let x  B1  B2, where B1 = (a , b) & B2 = (c , d).
Denote p = max{a , c} & q = min{b , d}.
Then there exists B3 = (p , q)   such that
x  (p , q) = B3  B1  B2.
Hence  is a basis for some topology on X.
Definition : Consider,  the set of reals. Then
 = {(a , b) : a , b   , a < b} is a basis for some topology  on
X. This topology  is called standard (or usual) topology on  .

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Lemma : Consider,  the set of reals.
Let ’ = {[a , b) : a , b   , a < b}. Prove that ’ is a basis for
some topology on X.
Proof : Let x  
 there exists [x-1 , x+1)  ’ such that x  [x-1 , x+1).
Now let x  B1  B2, where B1 = [a , b) & B2 = [c , d).
Denote p = max{a , c} & q = min{b , d}.
Then there exists B3 = [p , q)  ’ such that
x  [p , q) = B3  B1  B2.
Hence ’ is a basis for some topology on X.
Definition : Consider,  the set of reals. Then
’ = {[a , b) : a , b   , a < b} is a basis for some topology l
on X. This topology l is called lower limit topology on  .

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Theorem : Prove that lower limit topology on  is strictly
finer than standard topology on  .
Proof : We know that  = {(a , b) : a , b   , a < b} is a basis
for standard topology  on 
& ’ = {[a , b) : a , b   , a < b} is a basis for lower limit
topology l on  .
Let B = (a , b)  be any element and x  B.
x  [x , b)  (a , b) = B.
Hence by an earlier theorem (ie by lemma 2.2)   l .
Now to prove l is strictly finer than .
For a , b   , a < b we have [a , b)  ’  l .
Suppose that [a , b)  .
But  = {(a , b) : a , b   , a < b} is a basis for .
Hence a  [a , b)    there exists (c , d)   such that
a  (c , d) [a , b). It is impossible.
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 [a , b)  
Hence l is strictly finer than .
Sub-basis : Let X be a set &  be a collection of subsets of X.
Then  is said to be sub-basis for some topology on X if

 A =X.
A 
Theorem : Let X be a set &  be a sub-basis for some topology
 n 
on X. Let  =  A  X : A   A , A   , n is finite but var iable 
 i 1 i i 
Prove that  is a basis for a topology on X.
Proof : Clearly A    A  .   .
To show  is a basis for a topology on X.
24
i) Let x  X be any element.
Now  is a sub-basis  there exists A   such that x  A.
But   . Hence there exists A   such that x  A.
ii) Let A , B   and x  AB.
n
Now A    A =  Ai where Ai  
i 1
m
Similarly B    B =  B j where Bj  
j 1

 n   m 
 A  B =   A     B    where Ai , Bj  
 i  1 i   j  1 j 
Hence there exists C = A  B   such that x  C  A  B.
From (i) & (ii),  is a basis for a topology  on X.
25
Definition: Let X be a set &  be a sub-basis for some topology
 n 
on X. Let  =  A  X : A   A , A   , n is finite but var iable .
 i 1 i i 
Let  be a topology generated by basis . Then we say that 
is a sub-basis for a topology  on X.

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Order relation (or simple order relation or linear order
relation) : Let A be a non empty set. A relation R on A is said
to be order relation if
i) a is not related to a for all a  A
ii) if a , b  A & a  b , then aRb or bRa
iii) a , b , c  A , aRb , bRc  aRc.
Definition : A set X with order relation < is called ordered set.
Definition : Let X be a set with order relation < & a , b  X.
Then
i) (a , b) = {x  X : a < x < b} is called open interval in X.
ii) [a , b) = {x  X : a  x < b} is called close open interval in X.
iii) (a , b] = {x  X : a < x  b} is called open close interval in X.
iv) [a , b] = {x  X : a  x  b} is called close interval in X.

27
Definition : Let X be a set with order relation < & a , b  X.
Then
i) (a , ) = {x  X : a < x} & (- , b) = {x  X : x < b} are called
open rays in X.
ii) [a , ) = {x  X : a  x} & (- , b] = {x  X : x  b} are called
closed rays in X.
Definition : Let be a set with order relation < . If
i) X has neither smallest element nor largest element then
 = {(a , b) : a , b  X , a < b} is a basis for some topology 
on X.
ii) X has smallest element say a0 then
 = {[a0 , b) : b  X} is a basis for some topology  on X.
iii) X has largest element say b0 then
 = {(a , b0] : a  X} is a basis for some topology  on X.
In all above cases the topology  is called order topology on X.
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Theorem : Let (X , ) be a topological space & Y be a subset of
X. Prove that Y = {AY : A } is a topology on Y.
Proof : i) We have  , X 
  Y , X Y 
  , Y Y
ii) Let U , V Y
 U = AY , V = BY for some A , B 
 U  V = (AY)  (BY) = (AB)Y
 Y ∵ A , B   AB 
iii) Let {V}I be a family in Y
 V = AY for some A
   
  V    A  Y     A   Y Y   A 
 I  I   I   I
From (i) to (iii), Y = {AY : A } is a topology on Y.
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Sub-space : Let (X , ) be a topological space & Y be a subset
of X. Then Y = {AY : A } is a topology on Y & it is called
topology on Y induced by . Here (Y , Y) is called subspace of
X.
Result : Let (X , ) be a topological space & Y be an open set in
X. If A is open in Y, then prove that A is open in X.
Proof : A is open in Y  A = UY for some U
 A is open in X ∵ U , Y   UY .

Example : Consider the standard topology  on  & Y = [0 , 1].

Then Y is open in Y but not open in .
Answer : If [0 , 1] is open in X, then then there exists (a , b) 
 (where  is a basis for ) such that 0 (a , b)  [0 , 1].
It is impossible ∵ a < 0 & 0  a.
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Theorem : Let (X , ) be a topological space , Y  X &  be a
basis for . Prove that Y = {AY : A } is a basis for the
subspace topology Y on Y.
Proof : i)  be a basis for     .
 B  B    BY Y.
 Y   Y
ii) Now let AY Y & x  AY
 A   & x  A ∵  is a basis for .
 there exists B such that x  B  A
 x BY  AY where BY  Y .
From (i) & (ii) , Y is a basis for the subspace topology Y on Y.

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Closed set : Let (X , ) be a topological space. A subset a of X is
said to be a closed set in X if X – A  . (ie X – A is an open set
in X).
Example : Let X {a , b , c} &  = { , {a} , {a , b} , X}. Then  is a
topology on X. All closed subsets of X are X ,  , {b , c} , {c}.
Theorem : Let (X , ) be a topological space. Prove that (i)  , X
are closed sets. (ii) Finite union of closed sets in X is a closed
set in X. (iii) Arbitrary intersection of closed sets in X is a
closed set in X.
Proof : (i) We have  , X  . Hence X -  = X & X – X =  are
closed sets in X.
(ii) Let A1 , A2 , A3 , - - - , An be closed sets in X.
n n C n n
 
X –  Ai =   A  =  ( A )C =  ( X  Ai )  
i 1  i  i 1 i i 1
i 1 
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 n
  A is a closed sets in X .
i 1 i
(iii) Let A   I be a family of closed sets in X.

C
  C
X –  A =   A  =   =  ( X  A )  
( A )
 I    I    I  I

  A is a closed sets in X.
 I 

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Theorem : Let (X , ) be a topological space & Y be a subspace
of X. Prove that a subset A of Y is closed in a subspace Y iff A =
B  Y for some closed set B in X.
Proof : Let A be a closed set in Y.
Y – A is open in Y.
Y – A = Y  U for some open set U in X.
Y – (Y – A) = Y – (Y  U)
A = Y  (Y  U)C ∵ If A  X, then X – A = X  AC
= Y  (YC  UC)
= (Y  YC)(YUC)
=   (Y  UC)
=Y  UC
= Y  B where B = UC is a closed set in X

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Conversely assume that A = Y  B for some closed set B in X.
Now B is closed set in X  X – B is an open set in X
 (X – B)Y is an open set in Y
 Y – {(X – B)Y} is a closed set in Y
- - - - (i)
But Y – {(X – B)Y} = Y  {(X – B)Y}C
= Y  {BYC}
= (Y  B)(YYC)
= A
= A.
Hence from (i) A is a closed set in Y.

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Example : Let (X , ) be a topological space. Let U be an open
set in X and A be a closed set in X. Prove that
1) U – A is an open set in X
2) A – U is a closed set in X
Answer : 1) We have U – A = U  (X – A). It is an open set in X.
2) We have A – U = A  (X – U). It is a closed set in X.

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Closure of a set : Let (X , ) be a topological space & A be a
subset of X. Then the intersection of all closed subsets of X
containing A is called the closure of A. It is denoted by A .
ie A = {B : B is a closed subset of X & A  B}.
Note : A is the smallest closed set in X containing A.

Interior of a set : Let (X , ) be a topological space & A be a

subset of X. Then the union of all open subsets of X contained
in A is called the interior of A. It is denoted by Ao .
ie Ao = {U : U is an open subset of X & U  A}.
Note : Ao is the largest open set in X contained in A.

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Theorem : Let (X , ) be a topological space & A , B be subsets
of X. Prove that
i) A  B  A  B .
ii) A is closed  A = A
iii) A = A
iv) A  B = A  B
v) A  B  A  B

vi)  A   A
 

vii)  A  A
   

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Theorem : Let (X , ) be a topological space & Y be a subspace
of X. Let A be a subset of Y. Denote A = the closure of A in X
& AY = the closure of A in Y. Prove that AY = A  Y .
Proof : We have A is a closed set in X containing A.
 A  Y is a closed set in Y containing A ∵ AY
But A  Y is the smallest closed set in Y containing A.
AY  A  Y - - - - - (i)
Now AY is a closed set in Y containing A
 AY = Y  B for some closed set B in X.
Now B is a closed set in X & A  AY = Y  B  B
 A B
 A  Y  B  Y = Y  B = AY - - - - (ii)
By (i) & (ii),
AY = A  Y .

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Theorem (6.5(a)) : Let A be a subset of a topological space
(X , ). Prove that x  A  every open set U containing x
intersects A.
Proof : Let x  A .
Let U be an open set containing x.
Suppose that UA = 
Now U is open set  X – U is a closed set in X & A  X – U
 A X–U
xX–U
It is impossible because x  U.
 UA  .
Hence every open set U containing x intersects A.
Conversely, suppose that every open set U containing x
intersects A.
Suppose that x  A .
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 X – A is an open set containing x.
 (X – A )  A   ∵ by given condition
a contradiction ∵ A  A  (X – A )A =
Hence x  A .
Theorem (6.5(b)) : Let  be a basis for a topology  on X & A
 X. Prove that x  A  every basis element B containing x
intersects A.
Proof : Let x  A .
Let B be a basis element containing x.
 B is an open set containing x ∵ 
By above theorem, BA  .
Hence every basis element B containing x intersects A.
Conversely, suppose that every basis element B containing x
intersects A.
Let x  A
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Let U be an open set containing x.
 there exists B   such that x  B  U ∵  is a basis for 
By given condition, BA  .
UA   ∵ BUBA UA
Hence every open set U containing x intersects A.
x  A .
Neighborhood : Let (X , ) be a topological space & x  U  .
Then U is called neighborhood of x.
Theorem () : Let A be a subset of a topological space (X , ).
Prove that x  A  every neighborhood of x intersects A.
Limit point (or cluster point or accumulation point) : Let A be
a subset of a topological space (X , ). A point x  X is called a
limit point of A if every neighborhood of x contains at least
one point of A other that x.
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Notation : The set of all limit points of A is denoted by A’
Theorem : Let A be a subset of a topological space (X , ).
Prove that A = A  A’.
Proof : We have A  A - - - - - - - - (i)
Let x  A’ and U be a neighborhood of x.
U(A-{x})  
UA   . Thus every neighborhood of x intersects A.
x  A .
Hence A’  A - - - - - - - - - (ii)
By (i) & (ii) , A  A’  A - - - - - - - - - (iii)
Now let x  A
If x  A, then we are through. Suppose that x  A.
Let U be a neighborhood of x.
UA   .
U(A-{x})   ∵ x  A  A = A-{x}
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Thus every neighborhood of x contains at least one point of A
other that x.
x  A’.
Hence A  A  A’ - - - - - - - - - (iv)
By (iii) & (iv) , A = A  A’.
Corollary : Let A be a subset of a topological space (X , ).
Prove that A is closed  A’  A.
Proof : Let A be a closed set.
A = A
 A  A’ = A
 A’  A
Conversely, suppose that A’  A.
 A  A’  A
 A A
 A = A . Hence A is a closed set.
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