Flora of North America, Volume 27, 2007

Morphology of Mosses (Phylum Bryophyta)

Barbara J. Crandall-Stotler
Sharon E. Bartholomew-Began

With over 12,000 species recognized worldwide (M. R. Superclass IV, comprising only Andreaeobryum; and
Crosby et al. 1999), the Bryophyta, or mosses, are the Superclass V, all the peristomate mosses, comprising most
most speciose of the three phyla of bryophytes. The other of the diversity of mosses. Although molecular data have
two phyla are Marchantiophyta or liverworts and been undeniably useful in identifying the phylogenetic
Anthocerotophyta or hornworts. The term “bryophytes” relationships among moss lineages, morphological
is a general, inclusive term for these three groups though characters continue to provide definition of systematic
they are only superficially related. Mosses are widely groupings (D. H. Vitt et al. 1998) and are diagnostic for
distributed from pole to pole and occupy a broad range species identification. This chapter is not intended to be
of habitats. Like liverworts and hornworts, mosses an exhaustive treatise on the complexities of moss
possess a gametophyte-dominated life cycle; i.e., the morphology, but is aimed at providing the background
persistent photosynthetic phase of the life cycle is the necessary to use the keys and diagnostic descriptions of
haploid, gametophyte generation. Sporophytes are this flora.
matrotrophic, permanently attached to and at least
partially dependent on the female gametophyte for
nutrition, and are unbranched, determinate in growth, Gametophyte Characters
and monosporangiate. The gametophytes of mosses are
small, usually perennial plants, comprising branched or Spore Germination and Protonemata
unbranched shoot systems bearing spirally arranged
leaves. They rarely are found in nature as single isolated A moss begins its life cycle when haploid spores are
individuals, but instead occur in populations or colonies released from a sporophyte capsule and begin to
in characteristic growth forms, such as mats, cushions, germinate. In the majority of mosses, germination is
turfs, or wefts. While uniform in general life-history exosporic, i.e., the spore wall is ruptured by the expanding
features, mosses show extensive morphological and spore protoplast after its release from the capsule and
anatomical diversification in both gametophyte and prior to any cell division. However, in some mosses, e.g.,
sporophyte organization. Andreaea, Drummondia, and Leucodon, germination is
Currently, mosses are classified into five precocious and endosporic, meaning that cell divisions
morphologically distinct superclasses (B. Goffinet and occur prior to spore release and spore wall rupture,
W. R. Buck 2004) that are circumscribed as follows: respectively. Such taxa are described as having
Superclass I, comprising only Takakia; Superclass II, for multicellular spores. Although there are variations in
Sphagnum and Ambuchanania Seppelt & H. A. Crum; patterns of germination (see K. Nehira 1983), the
Superclass III, with Andreaea and Acroschisma Lindley;
3
4 MORPHOLOGY

fundamental product in most mosses is a highly branched determinant main shoot from which they arise.
filamentous, uniseriate protonema. Cell specialization Perichaetia are differentiated at the tip of the main or
occurs within the protonema to form two types of primary shoot and terminate its growth, so further plant
filaments, a horizontal system of reddish brown, growth occurs only if a branch is produced below the
anchoring filaments, called the caulonema, and upright, perichaetium; such branches are called subfloral
green filaments, the chloronema. Each protonema can innovations. Pleurocarps are generally characterized by
spread over several centimeters, forming a fuzzy green creeping shoot systems, with extensive lateral branching.
film over its substrate. Fragments of chloronema, cut In such systems, the indeterminant main stem may be
out by the formation of specialized abscission cells morphologically distinct from the secondary and tertiary
(tmema), may further disperse the protonema. Usually level branches that arise from it (C. La Farge 1996).
this protonemal stage is short-lived, but in a few taxa, Perichaetia in pleurocarps are produced at the tips of
e.g., Buxbaumia, it persists as the vegetative phase of the very short, basally swollen lateral branches that are
plant. morphologically distinct from the vegetative branches.
As the protonema grows, target cells usually on the Because of the extremely reduced size of the perichaetial
caulonema generate bud initials that will ultimately divide branches, the sporophytes appear to arise from scattered
by sequential oblique divisions to form bud apical cells. positions all along the primary stem. Cladocarpic mosses
This initiates the growth of the leafy gametophore or produce perichaetia at the tips of unspecialized lateral
shoot stage of the moss. Usually, numerous shoots branches that display the same heteroblastic leaf series
develop from each protonema so that, in fact, a single as the vegetative branches. Such branches are themselves
mat or cushion of shoots can be the product of a single capable of branching, and these mosses are neither
spore. acrocarpic nor pleurocarpic (La Farge). Although
acrocarps, pleurocarps, and cladocarps tend to have
different branching architectures, it is the morphology
Shoot Morphology and Habit of the perichaetium-bearing module that defines the
groups, not branching habit (La Farge).
The leafy shoot continues to grow from mitotic activity Pleurocarps form a natural, monophyletic lineage of
of its obovoidal to fusiform apical cell and surrounding true mosses (B. Goffinet and W. R. Buck 2004), but
meristem. Divisions occurring in the apical cell form cladocarpy has evolved in several different lineages.
spirally arranged derivatives, each of which will give rise Acrocarpy, which appears to be the plesiomorphic
to a single leaf and a portion of the stem. The angle of condition, also characterizes the Takakiopsida,
divergence between successive derivatives is responsible Andreaeopsida, and Andreaeobryopsida. The main stems
for the spatial arrangement of the leaves or phyllotaxy of Sphagnum (Superclass II) display a furcate or
of the shoot. In a few mosses, mature leaves are clearly dichotomous branch architecture (H. A. Crum 1984).
ranked; e.g., the leaves of Fissidens and Bryoxiphium are Along the main stems, fascicles of branches are produced
in two rows, a 1/2 phyllotaxy, and Fontinalis and Tetraphis in every fourth leaf (H. Leitgeb 1869), with three or more
have leaves aligned in three rows, a 1/3 phyllotaxy. In branches per fascicle. At least two branches in each
most mosses, however, the leaves are spirally distributed, fascicle hang downwards and are appressed to the stem,
with 2/5 and 3/8 phyllotaxies being most common (W. Frey while one to three are divergent. Despite their distinctive
1971; B. Crandall-Stotler 1984). Branches, which fascicled arrangements, all branch development in
develop from superficial “bud” initials sequestered in the Sphagnum is like that of other mosses, with each branch
leaf axils, mimic the development of the protonemal buds arising from a single axillary bud initial (Leitgeb). At
(J. Berthier 1972) and are generally heteroblastic, meaning the apex of the main shoot, the abundant developing
that leaves at the base of a branch display juvenile fascicles are tightly clustered into a dense tuft called the
morphology as compared to the later-formed leaves. capitulum. Archegonia terminate special, short branches
Especially in pleurocarpic mosses, chloronema- and in the capitulum.
caulonema-like filaments, termed pseudoparaphyllia and
macronemata, respectively, are found at the branch base,
further suggesting its budlike attributes (Berthier). Rhizoids
The peristomate or true mosses (Superclass V) have
traditionally been divided into two broad morphological Except for Takakia and Sphagnum, mosses are anchored
groups, namely, acrocarps and pleurocarps, based on the to their substrates by filamentous, often branched, reddish
position of the perichaetia and subsequent sporophytes brown rhizoids. As in caulonemata, the rhizoids are
(Fig. 1). Acrocarps are characterized by erect or ascending multicellular with oblique cross walls; their walls are
shoot systems that are either unbranched or only smooth or roughened with papillae. Rhizoids can be
sparingly branched. Branching is typically sympodial restricted to the base of the stem, especially in acrocarps,
with the branches morphologically comparable to the
 MORPHOLOGY 5

FIGURE 1. General morpohological features of mosses. The peristome illustrated for the acrocarpic moss
Funaria is of the diplolepidous, opposite type, with endostome segments directly located to the inside of the
exostome teeth. In this genus the exostome teeth remain attached to a small part of the columella, and the
divisural or median line is not easily seen. The terms acrocarpic, cladocarpic and pleurocarpic refer respectively
to perichaetia and the subsequent sporophytes borne at the apex of the main shoot, or on a normal branch, or on
a modified lateral branch.

or arise all along the stem where it is in contact with the and a central strand of thin-walled, hydrolyzed water-
substrate. In some taxa, e.g., Tomentypnum, densely conducting cells, called hydroids (Fig. 2). The epidermal
packed rhizoids form a feltlike tomentum on the stem. cells are typically elongate in surface view and have thick,
Most rhizoids are slender and only sparingly branched pigmented walls and small lumina. Various types of waxy
(micronematal type) but others are larger in diameter and deposits, analogous to cuticle or epicuticular waxes, may
extensively branched (macronematal type). The former cover the surface of the epidermal cell wall, in both stems
arise from any of the epidermal cells of the stem, but the and leaves, especially in endohydric mosses (M. C. F.
latter type is associated only with branch primordia as Proctor 1979). When these waxes are abundantly
discussed earlier. Rhizoids are not major sites of water produced, the plants appear glaucous or iridescent to the
and nutrient uptake, but can enhance capillary movement naked eye. Although a thick-walled epidermis is
of water along the outer surface of the stem (M. C. F. common, in a variety of taxa, e.g., elements of the
Proctor 1984). They function primarily as anchoring Pottiaceae as well as taxa of very wet habitats like
structures and in some taxa, e.g., Leptobryum and Hygrohypnum, epidermal cells are thin-walled and
Pyramidula, form asexual propagules that aid in the swollen, forming a unistratose hyalodermis (Fig. 1). The
spread of the colony over unoccupied substrate. cortex is generally divided into two zones. The outer
zone, or sclerodermis, just to the inside of the epidermis,
is comprised of stereids. These are elongated, thick-walled
Stem Anatomy cells, generally with living protoplasts, that function in
mechanical support, analogous to collenchyma in
In many mosses, the stem is anatomically complex, vascular plants. The inner zone of the cortex, or central
consisting of a differentiated epidermal layer, a cortex, cylinder, contains photosynthetic parenchyma cells that
6 MORPHOLOGY

FIGURE 2. Stem anatomy, paraphyllia, pseudoparaphyllia and variations in leaf morphology and arrangement.

become starch-filled and hyaline toward the stem interior. presence or absence of the central strand and/or leaf traces
Some of the cells of the inner cortex are conducting (I. Kawai 1989). Sphagnum possesses a unique stem
parenchyma that are responsible for the transport of anatomy in which the epidermis consists of one to five
assimilates. The central strand, absent in some taxa, is layers of large cells that are dead at maturity; in some
always a solid core of nonlignified, water-conducting species these cells bear fibril thickening bands, and on
hydroids. Hydroid structure varies among taxa the divergent branches they may be modified to form
(C. Hébant 1977), from very elongate cells with thickened retort cells. The living cells to the inside of the epidermis
lateral walls and partially hydrolyzed end walls in the are differentiated into an outer zone of elongate cells with
Polytrichopsida to the moderately elongate, small thick, often pigmented walls (the woody cylinder) and
diameter, thin-walled hydroids of most taxa. In addition, an inner core of large, thin-walled cells.
the Polytrichopsida have a central strand of hydroids, or Variation also occurs in the formation of external
hydrome, surrounded by a dissected or medullated ring structures that are associated with stems. The stem
of highly differentiated, phloemlike sieve cells, called surface may be smooth, or occasionally papillate, or
leptoids. These more specialized cells function in the especially in pleurocarps, be covered with green,
conduction of photoassimilates in concert with the filamentous, or sometimes foliose paraphyllia (Fig. 2).
elements of conducting parenchyma; they are of These small outgrowths presumably photosynthesize and
widespread occurrence in immature sporophyte setae, but probably enhance water conductivity by capillary action
in the gametophyte generation are restricted to the along the stem. Pseudoparaphyllia are additional
Polytrichopsida. structures found only in pleurocarps. Although
In some taxa, groups of hydroids extend from the leaf structurally similar to paraphyllia, pseudoparaphyllia are
costa into the parenchymatous zone of the cortex (Fig. formed only at the bases of branches. They likely serve
2). These small clusters of hydroids may remain only in to protect the branch primordia with which they are
the cortex as false leaf traces, e.g., Plagiomnium, or may associated.
extend through the cortex to connect with the central
strand as true leaf traces, as occurs in the Polytrichopsida.
There is substantial variation in stem organization that Leaves
is systematically useful, such as number of cell layers in
the sclerodermis, depth of the photosynthetic zone, and The considerable variation that occurs in the arrangement
and structure of moss leaves provides some of the most
 MORPHOLOGY 7

FIGURE 3. Variation in leaf morphology, anatomy and habit.

useful characters for species identification (Figs. 2, 3). outward, then bend abruptly downward; or julaceous,
Leaves typically arise from all sides of the stem, most meaning they are strongly concave on the shoot; or
commonly exhibiting a spiral phyllotaxy, but distichous complanate, meaning the adaxial surface of the leaf lies
and tristichous arrangements can also be found. The against the stem to give the shoot a flattened appearance.
mature leaves of a given shoot are usually all similar in Moss leaves are undivided and are typically lanceolate
size and shape, i.e., isophyllous, but there are taxa that to ovate, except for Takakia, which has unique leaves
are anisophyllous, with either dorsal or ventral leaves that are two to four times divided into cylindrical lobes.
decidedly smaller than the lateral leaves (Fig. 3). Except The fundamental moss leaf consists of a unistratose
for a few taxa like Fissidens, leaves are attached to the lamina and a multistratose costa or midrib (Fig. 3).
stem along broad transverse lines. They are generally However, in a few families, the entire leaf is multistratose,
oriented so their apices diverge radially outward from and in many others, leaf margins are multistratose, or
the stem. In erect mosses, this insertion exposes the otherwise differentiated from the rest of the lamina (Fig.
adaxial surface of the leaf, that surface directed toward 4). For example, often the margin bears a border of
the stem, to light from above and directs the abaxial hyaline, elongated cells with thickened walls. Such
surface down toward the substrate. In prostrate mosses, marginal borders, termed limbidia (singular limbidium),
in contrast, the adaxial surface is directed toward the are thought to provide additional support to the lamina.
substrate, and the abaxial surface is exposed. For this Leaf margins may be plane, recurved, or incurved and
reason, in many keys and descriptions the abaxial surface are often toothed, with the teeth varying from pointed
is defined as the dorsal side of the leaf, and the adaxial cellular protuberances to large, several-celled projections.
surface, as the ventral side (Fig. 1). Sometimes surface The areolation or cellular network of the leaf lamina
features are different on the two sides of the leaf, e.g., also provides useful characters in moss systematics (Fig.
one surface may be smooth and the other papillose. In 4). Laminal cells in acrocarps are often short and
some taxa, all of the apices of the leaves curve to the isodiametric, particularly in the distal portion of the leaf,
same side in a secund arrangement (Fig. 3). In others, while the typical pleurocarp bears laminal cells that are
they may be squarrose, meaning the apices diverge long and thin; however, all cell shapes, from linear to
8 MORPHOLOGY

FIGURE 4. Variation in leaf morphology and types of asexual diaspores. In Sphagnum, leaf shape and cell
pattern differ between the main stem and branches. In Tetrodontium protonema produce leaflike flaps and in
Schistostega dimorphic shoots arise from the light-reflecting protonema. Gemmae are quite variable in size,
shape and location on the plant, while leafy or budlike propagula often occur in the axils of leaves near the shoot
apex, as in Platygyrium.

oblate, can be found in either group. Usually, cell shapes The costa or midrib of the leaf provides yet another
and sizes are not uniform throughout the leaf. In suite of taxonomically useful characters (Fig. 3). Leaves
particular, the cells near the leaf base are comparatively of acrocarps usually have a clearly defined, single costa
longer and broader than those of the leaf middle, and that extends from the base of a leaf to shortly before its
still smaller cells occur at the leaf apex. The basal cells apex, or to its apex (percurrent) or even beyond its apex
of the leaf margin, known as alar cells, are also frequently (excurrent). In a few acrocarps and many pleurocarps,
differentiated in size, shape or color from the other cells the costa is short, generally confined to the leaf base,
of the lamina (Fig. 1). Sometimes this zone of and double, or absent (Fig. 1). Costa anatomy is variable
differentiated cells extends from the margin all the way with several distinctive patterns (I. Kawai 1968). The
to the costa. Hyaline alar cells that are inflated and thin- costa may be homogeneously composed of thick-walled
walled may control leaf orientation in response to stereids, or have adaxial or abaxial epidermal cells larger
hygroscopic conditions, causing the leaf to collapse than the internal cells. Often, a row of large, thin-walled
downward during dry conditions. Laminal cells are cells, referred to as guide cells, or deuters, bisect the costa,
smooth or variously ornamented, commonly bearing a extending between the two laminar segments;
variety of wall projections called papillae (Fig. 3). Papillae occasionally, there will be a small strand of hydroids
are heterogeneous in form, size, and distribution. They between the guide cells and one of the stereid bands,
may be solid or hollow, simple or branched, single or especially in those acrocarpic taxa in which leaf traces
multiple, on both exposed cell surfaces or only on the occur. As suggested by the abundance of stereids in most
abaxial surface, over the cell lumen or just at the distal costae, one of the primary functions of the costa is to
(occasionally proximal or both) end of the cell (prorose provide support for the unistratose lamina, but it can
or prorulose). Various types of epicuticular wax deposits also function in transport. The guide cells of the costa
may add to this ornamentation (M. C. F. Proctor 1979). are conducting elements involved in the symplastic
 MORPHOLOGY 9

transport of photoassimilates from the leaf lamina into discoid, or cylindrical, and often possess pigmented and
the stem cortex (C. Hébant 1977), and the hydroid thickened outer cell walls. They can be produced in
strands move water upward from the stem into the distal special splash cups, as in Tetraphis, or near the tip of
portions of the leaf. elongate shoot apices (e.g., Aulacomnium), in the axils
In the Polytrichopsida, as well as a few other taxa, of leaves (e.g., some species of Didymodon), or on the
unistratose, photosynthetic lamellae arise from the laminar or costal surfaces (e.g., Orthotrichum), as well
adaxial (ventral) surface of the costa. They extend as as on rhizoids and protonemata (e.g., Zygodon).
parallel sheets of cells from just beyond the sheathing Rhizoidal gemmae that are somewhat buried are
leaf base often to the apex of the costa. In some taxa, commonly referred to as tubers. Propagula, sometimes
the lamina is incurved over the lamellae, thereby forming termed bulbils, may be clustered at the tips of the shoots
an almost mesophyll-like tissue. Variations in the number as in Platygyrium, or occur singly in the axils of leaves as
and height of lamellae as well as lamellar cell in Leptobryum.
morphologies provide taxonomically informative
characters in this group. Leaves of the Fissidentaceae
are also distinct from those of other mosses, consisting Sexual Reproduction
of two basal, clasping vaginant laminae and two vertically
oriented, distal laminae, designated as the ventral Gametangia are typically clustered with interspersed,
(superior) lamina and dorsal (inferior) lamina. The two sterile hairs, called paraphyses, at shoot or branch apices.
distal laminae arise from the adaxial (ventral) and abaxial Androecia, or male inflorescences, contain numerous,
(dorsal) surfaces of the costa, respectively, while the elongate, ovoid to cylindrical antheridia (over 100 in some
vaginant laminae extend laterally from the costa as in taxa) and paraphyses, surrounded by perigonial leaves,
other mosses. Still another modification in leaf and may be either budlike or disciform. Gynoecia, or
organization occurs in Sphagnum and several other taxa, female inflorescences, contain groups of long-necked,
e.g., Leucobryum and Leucoloma, in which the leaf is stalked archegonia, paraphyses, and surrounding
composed of two types of cells, very small, chlorophyllose perichaetial leaves, and are only budlike, never disciform.
cells (chlorocysts) and empty, hyaline cells (hyalocysts in In rare cases, e.g., Takakia, organized androecia and
Sphagnum or leucocysts in other taxa). In Leucobryum, gynoecia are lacking and the gametangia simply occur in
the leaf is multistratose, with the chlorocysts embedded the axils of unmodified leaves. Both the organization
beween the two layers of leucocysts. In Sphagnum the and arrangement of androecia and gynoecia are of
chlorocysts form a reticulum within a unistratose leaf; taxonomic importance.
variations in pore distribution in the hyalocysts and Mosses are either dioicous, i.e., bearing androecia and
arrangement of chlorocysts in relation to hyalocysts gynoecia on separate gametophytes, or monoicous,
provide important taxonomic characters in this genus. bearing both sexes on a single gametophyte. There are
Juvenile moss leaves possess one to several uniseriate several different kinds of monoicous arrangements,
hairs in their axils. These are persistent in some acrocarps, depending on the relative positions of the antheridia and
but are usually physiologically active and secrete mucilage archegonia. In autoicous arrangements, there are separate
only near the shoot apex. They often deteriorate as the androecia and gynoecia on the same plant, often on
leaf matures. Variation in the number of hairs per leaf separate branches (cladautoicous), while in both
and the number and length of cells per hair, nonetheless, synoicous and paroicous arrangements antheridia and
has proven useful in some moss groups (L. Hedenäs archegonia occur in a single inflorescence, either
1989). intermixed within the same cluster (synoicous), or in
separate clusters in different leaf axils (paroicous). In
plants described as heteroicous, more than one form of
Asexual Diaspores monoicy occurs on the same plant. In a few dioicous
mosses, e.g., Dicranum, male plants are highly reduced
It has been estimated that up to 15% of moss taxa and actually grow as epiphytes upon the leaves or stems
produce some type of asexual diaspore (H. A. Crum of the much larger female plants. Although
2001). These include caducous leaves, stems, and physiologically dioicous, the production of dwarf males
rhizoids, as well as morphologically specialized brood to some degree mimics the male/female relationship of
bodies. Fragments of gametophytes, if dispersed to a autoicous taxa, so this is sometimes called a
suitable substrate, produce protonemata from which new pseudautoicous condition. When male plants arise from
shoots will develop. Brood bodies are of two major types, the same protonema as female plants, it mimics dioicy,
gemmae, which are small, unicellular or more commonly, and this feature is termed rhizautoicy.
multicellular structures comprised of undifferentiated Numerous biflagellated sperm are produced by mitosis
cells, and propagula, which are small, easily detached inside the antheridia while a single egg develops in the
plantlets or buds (Fig. 4). Gemmae can be filiform, base of each archegonium. When the sperm mature, the
10 MORPHOLOGY

antheridia swell and open at their apices. Drops of rain Usually only one sporophyte matures per gynoecium, but
water or morning dew disperse the sperm to a gynoecium, in some taxa, e.g., Dicranum, more than one can develop,
perhaps aided by microarthropods (N. Cronberg et al. resulting in polysety, or multiple setae emerging from a
2006). Slimy mucilage secretions in the archegonial necks single perichaetium.
help pull the sperm downward to the egg. Fertilization Anatomically, the seta resembles the stem of the
of an egg initiates the diploid sporophyte phase. gametophyte in being differentiated into epidermis, cortex
of outer stereid and inner parenchymatous zones, and a
central conducting strand. There is always a waxy,
cuticlelike covering associated with the epidermis.
Sporophyte Characters
Central strands can be well-developed even in taxa that
lack such strands in their gametophytes, and residual
Embryo Development leptoids are reported to occur in some taxa, e.g., Funaria,
Splachnum, and Meesia, although there is disagreement
Concomitant with growth of the embryonic sporophyte, as to the exact nature of these cells (D. Schulz and
cell divisions in the surrounding archegonial center, basal C. Wiencke 1976; C. Hébant 1977). Prior to capsule
archegonial stalk, and subtending gametophyte shoot ripening, the seta is typically chlorophyllose, but at
produce an enclosing epigonium. Early in development, maturity it becomes reddish or yellowish brown, due to
a nutrient transfer zone, or placenta, is differentiated pigments deposited in the thickened walls of epidermal
between the conical foot of the sporophyte and the basal cells and stereids. It is not uncommon for the interior
part of the epigonium. Both organic nutrients and water cells of the seta, including those of the central strand, to
move from the gametophyte into the sporophyte across deteriorate in late stages of spore maturation, producing
the placenta. A stemlike seta is differentiated above the a hollow seta (W. Lorch 1931; Hébant). In most mosses
foot and embryonic capsule initials are cleaved from an the seta surface is smooth, but in some taxa it is roughened
apical cell at the apex of the sporophyte. The with papillae or bristly outgrowths. Often, the epidermal
establishment of a seta meristem just below the cell rows are helically aligned; this arrangement as well
differentiating capsule elongates the seta, tearing the as differential wall thickness on different sides of the seta
epigonium. The basal part of the epigonium, which still allows the seta to twist as it dries, and untwist when
encloses the lower part of the seta and foot, is now rehydrated. The direction and pattern of the twist is
referred to as the vaginula, and the upper part that taxonomically useful in some groups. The extent of seta
remains over the tip of the sporophyte is the calyptra. In emergence above the perichaetium varies among taxa.
taxa in which the seta is lacking or much reduced, such In the Sphagnopsida and Andreaeopsida the seta is absent,
as Sphagnum and Andreaea, the enlarging capsule and the capsule is instead elevated above the perichaetium
ruptures the epigonium. In a few mosses, e.g., by elongation of the gametophytic cells subtending the
Bryobartramia, the epigonium remains intact, never foot. This extended gametophytic tissue is called a
separating into a vaginula and calyptra (H. A. Crum pseudopodium.
2001, fig. 25A). Variation in the timing of epigonial
tearing can affect calyptra morphology; for example,
calyptrae torn away late in development are elongate, as
Capsule Anatomy
in Encalypta, while those separated early are short and
thin, as in Archidium.
Mosses are monosporangiate, meaning that each
The calyptra remains seated over the developing
sporophyte produces only a single sporangium, or
capsule until spore maturation is complete. Calyptrae
capsule. Very early in development, periclinal divisions
are of two types based on form. The cucullate type is slit
in the apically produced capsule initials separate an inner,
up one side and sits like a hood over the capsule, and the
endothecial zone from an outer ring of amphithecial cells.
mitrate type is conic and undivided or equally lobed at
With the exception of Sphagnum, a columella and spore-
the base. Variations in calyptra shape, size, areolation,
producing archesporium are formed from the
and surface ornamentation provide taxonomically useful
endothecium, and outer parts of the capsule, including
characters, as detailed by P. Janzen (1916).
the peristome, develop from patterned divisions of the
amphithecium. Details of these later stages in capsule
ontogeny have been documented by several workers,
Seta Anatomy including, among others, F. Kienitz-Gerloff (1878),
J. C. French and D. J. Paolillo (1975), S. R. Edwards
The seta and capsule continue to develop after the (1984), and A. J. Shaw et al. (1989).
emergence of the sporophyte from the epigonium, the Variations in the morphology of the mature capsule
seta from a generalized, apical meristem and the capsule provide a wealth of systematically important characters
by patterned divisions in earlier formed capsule initials. (Fig. 5). Capsules vary in shape from spheroid to ovoid,
 MORPHOLOGY 11

FIGURE 5. Variation in capsule dehiscence and peristomes. In Scouleria the columella remains attached to the
operculum and is elevated above the urn when the capsule opens. Interpretations are equivocal regarding the
peristome of Buxbaumia; the endostome is arthrodontous, but the true nature of the external rings of teeth and
the prostome (also known as the parastome) is not clear.

obovoid, pyriform, turbinate, ellipsoid, or long-cylindric, operculum; their capsules open along incomplete
and can be either symmetric, e.g., Orthotrichum, or longitudinal sutures, with the capsule staying intact above
asymmetric, e.g., Funaria. They may be erect, inclined, and below the slits (Fig. 5). There is one spiral suture in
nodding (cernuous), or even pendent. They are typically Takakia and four vertical sutures in Andreaea and
terete in transverse section, but can also be 4-angled, e.g., Andreaeobryum. The globose capsule of Sphagnum
members of the Polytrichopsida, or longitudinally (Superclass II) possesses a small, lidlike operculum, but
furrowed, with 8 or 16 ribs. The exothecium, or lacks a neck; in contrast to true mosses its spore mass, or
epidermis, of the capsule bears a shiny cuticlelike layer, archesporium, overarches a dome-shaped columella, an
and is usually smooth-surfaced, although surface arrangement that is also characteristic of Andreaea and
ornamentations occur in a few genera. Exothecial Andreaeobryum. In Sphagnum, contraction of the
characters, such as cell size, shape, and arrangement can capsule wall releases the operculum, explosively
be of systematic value. Immature capsules are green, but dispersing the spores.
when mature are various shades of yellow, red, or brown. In some mosses, the neck tapers gradually into the
Distinctive types of capsule anatomy characterize the seta, but in others, it is markedly differentiated, as a
five major groups or superclasses of mosses. In the swollen hypophysis (or apophysis), the most notable of
majority of true mosses (Superclass V), capsules consist which is the highly inflated, parasol-like hypophysis in
of three anatomically distinct zones, namely, the basal the Splachnaceae. Stomatal complexes, i.e., stoma and
neck, the median spore-containing urn or theca, and the their associated guard cells, are frequent within the
distal operculum. Capsules with a dehiscent operculum exothecium of the neck; these may be superficial or
are stegocarpous. Capsules that lack an operculum and sunken (immersed) in different species of the same genus,
dehisce irregularly due to generalized breakdown of the e.g., Orthotrichum, and can be either open or closed.
capsule walls are cleistocarpous. In Takakia (Superclass The guard cells are usually completely divided, as in
I), Andreaea (Superclass III), and Andreaeobryum vascular plants, but in some taxa, like Funaria, they are
(Superclass IV), there is no differentiation of a neck or only partially divided so that the stoma appears as a
12 MORPHOLOGY

slitlike opening in a single cell. In Sphagnum, pairs of the operculum. The developmental history and
guard cells occur scattered throughout the exothecium, architecture of the peristome provide a suite of important
but there are no stomata associated with them. Variations systematic characters (Fig. 5). Peristomes are of two
in number, form, and distribution of stomata are fundamentally different types, nematodontous, which are
taxonomically informative (J. A. Paton and J. V. Pearce found only in Polytrichopsida and Tetraphidopsida, and
1957). arthrodontous. In a nematodontous peristome, the teeth
Internally, the central strand of the seta extends up are constructed of bundles of whole, dead cells.
into the neck; this strand is surrounded by a Commonly in the Polytrichopsida, 32 or 64 (rarely 16)
chlorophyllose zone of either somewhat spongy short lingulate teeth, comprised of up to four layers of
parenchyma or highly differentiated aerenchyma, into vertically elongate, very thick-walled cells, are attached
which the stoma open. This is a major site of by their inner surface to a membranous expansion of the
photosynthesis in the developing capsule, providing up columella called the epiphragm. The release of the
to 50% of the photoassimilate necessary for capsule operculum exposes small slits between the teeth through
growth (M. C. F. Proctor 1977). which the spores are slowly released. In the
A solid column of parenchymatous cells forms the Tetraphidopsida, there are four erect, wedge-shaped
central columella that extends from the neck through peristome teeth, each of which represents a quadrant of
the urn to the operculum of the capsule. The often the peristomial cell layers.
elongate spore sac encircles the columella. To the outside In contrast to the cellular peristomes of these taxa,
of the spore sac, the wall of the capsule is differentiated arthrodontous peristomes, found in the rest of
into an inner aerenchyma of air spaces transversed by stegocarpous mosses, consist at maturity only of remnants
chlorophyllose filaments, an outer zone of hyaline cells of paired, periclinal cell walls. As reviewed by several
and the thick-walled exothecium. In Polytrichopsida, a authors (e.g., S. R. Edwards 1984; A. J. Shaw and
filamentous aerenchyma can also be formed between the H. Robinson 1984; W. R. Buck and B. Goffinet 2000),
spore sac and the columella. arthrodontous peristomes differentiate from the three
The operculum of stegocarpous mosses is attached to innermost layers of the amphithecium formed by
the distal end of the urn by an annulus, i.e., a ring of fundamental square divisions (K. Goebel 1900–1905, vol.
differentiated cells that tear to release the operculum 2) in the apex of the embryonic capsule. Following
during capsule dehiscence. Annulus anatomy varies H. L. Blomquist and L. L. Robertson (1941), these are
among taxa, in both the number of cell layers and the termed the outer peristomial (OPL), primary peristomial
structure of the cells comprising it. In its simplest form, (PPL), and inner peristomial layers (IPL). The number
the annulus consists of a ring of small, quadrate cells, of cells in the peristomial layers in a 1/8 slice of a transverse
often several cells high, that differ in wall thickness from section is expressed as the peristomial formula (Edwards
the neighboring exothecial and opercular cells. This type 1979); thus, a peristomial formula of 4:2:3 describes a
of annulus is either persistent or falls off in fragments capsule with 32 OPL, 16 PPL, and 24 IPL cells. The
when the capsule is moistened due to differential swelling number and arrangement of cells in the peristomial layers
of its cells compared to the neighboring cells. This is the cannot always be determined with certainty in mature
common mode of capsule dehiscence in pleurocarps, but capsules, so peristomial formulae are generally not
also occurs in other taxa, e.g., Orthotrichum. In many included in taxonomic descriptions.
acrocarps, e.g., Funaria and Bryum, the annulus consists Arthrodontous peristomes are of two major types,
of an internal ring of enlarged cells with hydrophilic walls namely, haplolepidous and diplolepidous (Fig. 5). The
and an outer ring of small cells with thickened, haplolepidous peristome consists of a single ring of 16
hydrophobic walls (Fig. 1). During dehiscence, the teeth that are formed by cell wall deposition on the paired
internal cells swell with the uptake of water, but the outer walls of the PPL and IPL. The peristomial formula is
cells remain unchanged. This differential swelling causes always 0(4):2:3, with a single column of PPL cells forming
the annulus to coil away in a single piece from the the outer (dorsal) surface of each tooth, and unequal parts
overlapping cells of the operculum; this is termed a of two IPL cells forming the inner (ventral) surface.
revoluble annulus. In either case, removal of the Consequently, the outer surface of the tooth, which may
operculum, or capsule lid, exposes the mouth of the urn be variously ornamented with horizontal striae,
and its spore mass for dispersal. trabeculae, or papillae, lacks median or divisural lines
(= vertical cell walls). The teeth can be forked at their
apices, as in the Dicranaceae, or be fused at the base into
The Peristome an elongate tube, or basal membrane, or be divided into
32 long narrow, filaments, e.g., the Pottiaceae.
In the majority of stegocarpous mosses, spore dispersal Development from the OPL is highly reduced or absent,
is mediated by the peristome, a circular system of teeth forming at best prostomial bumps at the base of the
that is inserted on the mouth of the urn, to the inside of peristome (S. R. Edwards 1984).
 MORPHOLOGY 13

Diplolepidous peristomes have the same number of Spores

cells in the OPL and PPL as haplolepidous peristomes,
but display substantial variation in the IPL numbers, with Most mosses are isosporous, meaning that spore sizes
peristomial formulae ranging from 4:2:4 to 4:2:14. Two are unimodal, with variation ranging around one
sets of teeth are differentiated, the exostome, or outer arithmetic mean (G. S. Mogensen 1983). Some dioicous
peristome, formed by deposition on the paired walls of mosses that produce dwarf males, however, are
the OPL and PPL, and the endostome, formed at the anisosporous (D. H. Vitt 1968). In this case, half of the
PPL–IPL wall junctures. The exostome typically consists spores in any capsule are significantly smaller than the
of 16 teeth, equal to the number of cells in the PPL, while other half, that is, spore sizes are bimodal within a single
the outer surface of each tooth bears a divisural line that capsule (H. P. Ramsay 1979). Culture studies have
marks the two columns of cells of the OPL. The teeth documented that in many taxa the small spores germinate
may be joined together in pairs, or secondarily divided, later than the large spores and give rise to dwarf males
and are often highly ornamented, especially on the outer (M. Ernst-Schwarzenbach 1944). Bimodality of spore
surface (A. J. Shaw 1985). The architecture of the sizes does not, however, always correlate with sexual
endostome is likewise variable, with different patterns dimorphism. In some instances, the small spores are
of surface ornamentation on outer and inner surfaces consistently abortive, a condition termed pseudo-
(Shaw and J. R. Rohrer 1984). In a diplolepidous- anisospory (Mogensen 1978). Mogensen hypothesized
alternate peristome (D. H. Vitt 1984) of the bryoid or that a lethal combination of alleles from two genes is
hypnoid type, the endostome comprises a basal, often responsible for the abortive spores and that this condition
keeled membrane, topped by 16 broad, perforate leads to balanced polymorphism in the taxon.
segments that alternate with the exostome teeth. One to Pseudoanisopory is more common than true anisospory
four uniseriate cilia occur between the segments, opposite and occurs in both dioicous and monoicous taxa.
the exostome teeth. In some taxa, the endostome Spores in the majority of mosses are dispersed as single
segments are highly reduced or absent, and the inner cells, but precociously germinated multicellular spores
peristome consists only of cilia (Fig. 5). In contrast, in occur in some xerophytes or epiphytes, such as
the diplolepidous-opposite peristome of the Funariales, Drummondia. Spores are typically spheroidal, but may
there is no basal membrane, the endostome segments also be ovoid, reniform, or tetrahedral. They are often
occur opposite the exostome teeth, and there are no cilia small, less than 20 µm in diameter, with a finely papillose
(Fig. 1). In some taxa, e.g., Orthotrichum, a short, ornamentation, but much larger, more highly ornamented
rudimentary system of processes, called a prostome or spores can also occur, primarily in cleistocarpic taxa.
preperistome, is formed just to the outside of the outer Ornamentation of the outer spore wall comes primarily
teeth. from the perine, which is formed from deposits of
Movements of the exostome teeth of diplolepidous globular materials produced within the spore sac
taxa as well as the single ring of teeth of haplolepidous (G. S. Mogensen 1983), although in some taxa, e.g.,
taxa are due to the differential composition of the wall Polytrichum and Astoma, the exine also contributes to
deposits on the outer versus the inner surfaces of the teeth. the sculpturing (J. W. McClymont and D. A. Larson
Specifically, one surface readily absorbs water and 1964). In most cases the globular deposits of perine
elongates, while the other does not. This differential appear to be rather randomly deposited over the spore
response to water absorption causes the teeth to bend surface as granulose papillae, e.g., Cinclidium (Mogensen
when moistened. In many taxa the teeth close over the 1981), but in others the deposits seem to be laid down in
mouth of the capsule when moistened, so spores are a regular pattern, perhaps controlled by a predetermined
released only when the air is dry, but in others they bend network on the spore surface, e.g., Funaria
outward when wet, allowing spore release in moist (H. V. Neidhart 1979). Variations in spore wall
conditions (D. M. J. Mueller and A. J. Neumann 1988). ornamentation have been little used in moss systematics,
With drying, the teeth return to their original stance. This with the exception of a few groups that have been studied
process can be repeated several times, resulting in the using SEM, e.g., Polytrichopsida (Gary L. Smith 1974),
gradual release of the spores from the capsule. Encalyptaceae (D. H. Vitt and C. D. Hamilton 1974),
Arrest of peristome development can result in the loss and Pottiaceae (K. Saito and T. Hirohama 1974;
of segments, cilia, teeth, the entire endostome or J. S. Carrión et al. 1990).
exostome, or the whole peristome. Stegocarpous mosses
that lack a peristome, e.g., Physcomitrium, are termed
gymnostomous. Although they lack a peristome at
capsule maturity, such mosses, nonetheless, display
characteristic peristomial layers in their developing
capsules, and can be aligned with peristomate taxa using
their peristomial formulae.