Career Interventions

Johnson & Wales University
Providence, Rhode Island
School of Education
Doctoral Program in Educational Leadership
CAREER INTERVENTIONS: PRACTICES AND PREFERENCES OF

SOUTHERN NEW ENGLAND HIGH SCHOOL COUNSELORS SUPPORTING
STUDENTS’ INDIVIDUAL LEARNING PLANS
A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the
Degree of Doctor of Education
Belinda J. Wilkerson
May 2010
UMI Number: 3398420
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Belinda J. Wilkerson
Dissertation Committee
Major Advisor
Martin W. Sivula, Ph.D.

Director of Research, School of Education
___________________________________
Dissertation Committee Member
Louis A. D‘Abrosca, Ed.D.

Professor, Accounting and Education
___________________________________
Dissertation Committee Member
Joseph Barresi, Jr., Ph.D.

Director, Student Counseling Center
____________________________________
iii
Acknowledgments
In memory of my grandmother, Willie Mae Sykes, who always believed
I could do anything and who believed in the power of education.
Thank you to Dr. Martin W. Sivula, my major advisor, for
challenging me to stay on schedule and for expanding my knowledge of the
use of technology for teaching and learning. I value your patience with
answering my endless questions during this journey. In addition, I offer my
sincere appreciation to my committee members, Dr. Louis D‘Abrosca, Dr.
Joseph Barresi, and my outside reader, Dr. Monica Darcy for their
constructive feedback.
To Lizann Gibson-Cayouette, your Skype messages of
encouragement were much appreciated. Dr. Flaherty, your constant support
meant the world to me.
Thank you to Crystal Evora for helping me hold down the fort at home
and to Karen Franks whose unwavering support, encouragement, and love
kept me going. Shari, I love you forever.
Finally, thank you to my husband Dwight for your love and
patience through this process.
© 2010 Belinda J. Wilkerson

iv
Table of Contents
List of Tables ...........................................................................vii
List of Figures ......................................................................... viii
Abstract ................................................................................... ix
I. Introduction .......................................................................... 1
Chapter Overview ................................................................ 1
Problem Statement .............................................................. 1
Significance of the Problem ................................................... 4
Definition of Terms ............................................................... 9
Research Questions ............................................................ 10
Methodology ...................................................................... 12
Limitations/Delimitations ..................................................... 12
Summary .......................................................................... 13
II. Literature Review .............................................................. 15

Theoretical Orientations for Vocational Tasks ......................... 15
Trait and Factor Theory ............................................... 15
Developmental Theory ................................................ 18
Cognitive Learning Process .......................................... 20
Career Construction Theory ......................................... 22
Career Theory Preference ............................................ 24
Student Preparation, Expectations, and Aspirations ................ 24
Career Interventions and Outcomes ..................................... 29
Student Learning Plans ....................................................... 33
Perceptions, Preferences, and Practices................................. 36
Summary .......................................................................... 40
III. Methodology ..................................................................... 44

Introduction ...................................................................... 44
Research Design ................................................................ 45
Sampling .......................................................................... 46
Instrumentation ................................................................. 47
Data Collection .................................................................. 50
Data Analysis .................................................................... 52
Summary .......................................................................... 54
IV. Findings ............................................................................ 55

Chapter Overview .............................................................. 55
Purpose of the Study .................................................. 55
Sample Demographics ........................................................ 56
Survey Participants..................................................... 56
Group Interview Participants ........................................ 59
Research Question 1 ........................................................... 59
Field-based Items...................................................... 60
v
Advising Items .......................................................... 61

Introductory Items .................................................... 63
Curriculum-based Items ............................................. 64
Field-based Items...................................................... 65
Advising Items .......................................................... 66
Introductory Items .................................................... 67
Curriculum-based Items ............................................. 68
Multiple Stepwise Regression ....................................... 69
Field-based Taxon ...................................................... 71
Advising Taxon .......................................................... 72
Introductory Taxon ..................................................... 72
Curriculum-based Taxon ............................................. 72
Open-ended Questions ................................................ 73
Initial Coding Cycle ..................................................... 73
Second Coding Cycle .................................................. 75
Group Interview ................................................................. 76
Emergent Themes ...................................................... 76
Summary .......................................................................... 78
V. Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations .................. 79

Chapter Overview .............................................................. 79
Sample Demographics ........................................................ 80
Discussion ......................................................................... 82
Actual and Preferred Practices ...................................... 82
Field-based Items ............................................... 82
Advising Items ................................................... 84
Introductory Items ............................................. 86
Curriculum-based Items ...................................... 87
Taxa Level ......................................................... 88
Relationship Between Variables .................................... 89
Individual Learning Plan Support .................................. 90
Emergent Themes .............................................. 90
School Counselor Survey..................................................... 93
Summary .......................................................................... 96
Recommendations .............................................................. 97
Establish Policies and Protocols .................................... 97
Support Students Career Development in Schools .......... 98
Future Research ......................................................... 99
References ............................................................................ 101
Appendices ........................................................................... 113

Appendix A ...................................................................... 113
Appendix B ...................................................................... 122
Appendix C ...................................................................... 124
vi
Appendix D ..................................................................... 126

Appendix E ...................................................................... 127
Appendix F ...................................................................... 134
Appendix G ..................................................................... 139
Appendix H ..................................................................... 144
vii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Number and Percentage of Public High School 56

Counselors by Gender and Years Employed as
a School Counselor
Table 2 Number of Career Courses in College Preparation 57

Program by Gender as Reported by Public High
School Counselors
Table 3 Frequency of Annual Hours of Professional 58

Development and Frequency of Annual Hours of
Career Domain Specific Professional Development
by Gender
Table 4 Public High School Counselors' Actual Practice 61

of Field-based Items Rank Ordered by Mean

of Advising Career Interventions Rank Ordered
by Mean

of Introductory Career Interventions Rank Ordered
by Mean

of Curriculum-based Interventions Rank Ordered
by Mean
Table 8 Public High School Counselors' Preferred Practice 66

of Field-based Career Interventions Rank Ordered
by Mean
Table 9 Public High School Counselors ' Preferred Practice 67

of Advising Career Interventions Rank Ordered
by Mean

of Introductory Career Interventions Rank Ordered
by Mean

of Curriculum-based Career Interventions Rank
Ordered by Mean
Table 12 Correlations of Explanatory Variables to FieldALL 71

Outcome Variables
viii
Table 13 Stepwise Regression Results for Field-based 72

Total and Selected Explanatory Variables
Table 14 Ranked Frequency of Segmented Text of 74

Open-ended Survey Questions by Number
of Groupings and Themes
Table 15 Selected Comments of New Emergent Themes 77

from Group Interview
Table 16 School Counseling Programs Contributions to 94

Student Development in Academic Success,
Career Preparation, and Personal/Social Needs
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Individual Learning Plan Program Cycle 12

ix
ABSTRACT
The primary purpose of this research was to examine public high school
counselors' career interventions practices and preferences in comprehensive
school counseling programs. Secondarily, this study investigated how those
career intervention practices support students' Individual Learning Plans
(ILPs).
The research questions guiding this study examined (a) career intervention
practices and preferences (b) the relationship between career intervention
practices, preferences and selected explanatory variables, and (c) school
counseling support for implementing the career component of students'
Individual Learning Plans. The sample (N = 84) was public high school
counselors in a southern New England state.
Utilizing an explanatory, sequential mixed methods design, Phase I, was a

web-based survey with close-ended and open-ended questions. Cronbach's
alpha (.94) indicated internal reliability of the total scores. Descriptive
statistics (frequency, percentages, means, standard deviations) characterized
the respondents, public high school counselors (N = 84). Multiple stepwise
regression analyses examined relationships between the outcome variables
and selected explanatory variables. Group interviewing expanded the survey
data prior to comparative analysis of data from Phase I, Phase II, and the
Rhode Island School Counselor Survey Report providing a deeper
understanding of the findings.
Respondents indicated 41 of 44 career interventions (93%) they practiced

significantly comprised less of their comprehensive school counseling
programs than preferred. A weak, negative relationship (r = -.30) existed
between the Field-based taxon and five hours or less of annual professional
development in the career domain where the adjusted R2 = 7.4%. Top
ranked emergent themes to examine Individual Learning Plans support were:
delivery system; computer assisted career guidance systems; and multiple
implementation barriers.
Recommendations were to establish policies and protocols for implementing

Individual Learning Plans and to support students' career development in
schools. Several research topics are offered.
1
I. INTRODUCTION
Chapter Overview
This chapter offers a prelude to this study examining the relationship
between career intervention practices and preferences of high school
counselors in a southern New England state. Additionally, the study seeks to
explore how high school counselors support students‘ Individual Learning
Plans, specifically in the career domain. Discussion follows on the need for
students to make informed decisions about postsecondary options and the
consequences of making uninformed decisions. This chapter further explores
the suggested role of school counselors in this decision-making process. A
definition of terms provides a vocabulary to enhance the study along with
research questions guiding this research. The chapter concludes with an
overview of the remaining chapters.
Problem Statement
―Thoughtful, timely, and meaningful planning to help students navigate
a school system continually facing reform, with aspirations to match their
strengths and interests, has never been more important‖ (Feller, 2003, p.
266). Unfocused secondary students without plans or a clear sense of
direction make uninformed decisions about postsecondary options
(Wakefield, Sage, Coy, & Palmer, 2004). Nationally, factors such as students‘
aspirations unaligned to educational outcomes and current dropout rates lead
to a future workforce unprepared for the pace of a global economy with
increased technological advances (Greene, 2001; National Center on

2
Education and the Economy [NCEE], 2007; U.S. Department of Education
[USDOE], 2004; Venezia, Kirst, & Antonio, 2003). Recognizing the need to
provide students with an educational environment promoting successful
transitions, Breaking Ranks II‗s (National Association of Secondary School
Principals [NASSP], 2004) high school reform recommendations includes a
monitored student plan throughout high school with regular reviews.
The American School Counselor Association (ASCA), a national
organization representing school counselors, recommends comprehensive
school counseling programs (CSCPs) to address the goals and aspirations of
all students centered on their academic, career, and personal/social
development needs (ASCA, 2005). The ASCA National Model© and ASCA
position statements advocate for CSCPs to work with students to develop
plans that include career awareness, exploration, and planning that support
informed decisions about appropriate courses for post-secondary options
(ASCA, 2006). Furthermore, a CSCP emphasizes life career development that
is defined as ―self-development over the life span through the integration of
roles, settings, and events in a person‘s life‖ (Gysbers & Henderson, 2000, p.
49; Gysbers & Moore, 1975, p. 648). Conversely, extant research reports
school counselors spend little time on career preparation in their programs.
(US Department of Education [USDOE], 2003). When queried about selected
program goals, school counselors ranked each goal in order of most
emphasized as follows:
1. Help students with their academic achievement in high school
2. Help students plan and prepare for postsecondary schooling

3
3. Help students with personal growth and development
4. Help students plan and prepare for their work roles after high
school (p. 20).
Interestingly, the least ranked goal in 2002 mirrored similar results from a
1984 study (USDOE).
Local education policy mirrors the NASSP‘s and ASCA‘s
recommendation for monitored student plans (Rhode Island Department of
Education [RIDE], 2006). The RIDE requires each school district to ensure
students in grades 6 -12 have Individual Learning Plans (ILP), ― a mapped
academic plan and profile that reflects each student‘s unique set of interests,
needs, learning goals, and graduation requirements‖ (RIDE, 2004, p.19).
Students‘ ILPs should reflect plans to establish academic, career, and
personal/social goals and action steps to achieve those goals. Moreover, the
RIDE positions the ILP as a transition document requiring ongoing planning
(RIDE, 2008) important because
The planning process requires us to envision our future, assess our

need and capabilities, set goals, develop and implement action plans,
recognize our strengths and interests and aspire to future success. It
provides us with a sense of direction and keeps us focused on what
needs to be done to achieve our goals. Planning is critical to any
organization‘s success. It is also a requirement for personal growth
and success. So why not offer students meaningful opportunities to
plan for their future? (Nailor & Squier, 2004, p. 27)
Several issues in higher education may contribute to the
inconsistent transitions of high school students. Lara (2004) and Wyrick
(2004) found practicing school counselors indicated discrepancies between
their preparation to deliver career interventions and their competency in
providing career interventions in CSCPs. Additionally, researchers found a

4
representative national sample of counselor educators and counselors
perceive career development as one of the least important of the eight core
components of the 2001 Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related
Educational Programs (CACREP) (McGlothlin & Davis, 2004). The CACREP
accredits graduate level counseling programs based on several factors: (a)
Professional Orientation and Ethical Practices; (b) Social and Cultural
Diversity; (c) Human Growth and Development; (d) Career Development; (e)
Helping Relationships; (f) Group Work; (g) Assessment; and (h) Research
and Program Evaluation (CACREP, 2009). McGlothin and Davis‘s research
suggested concerns about the level of implementation of career development
pedagogy in counseling programs. Furthermore, more than 90% of counselor
preparation programs in the United States required a minimum of one course
in career development (Pérusse, Goodnough, & Noel, 2001); local college
preparation programs reflect the national model.
Significance of the Problem
Schools are increasing rigor and raising standards, yet students
continue to disengage, thus increasing the status dropout rate which
―measures individuals ages 16 -24 who are not enrolled in school and who
have neither earned a high school diploma nor obtained an alternative high
school credential‖ (USDOE, 2004, p.61). Dropouts tend to have a higher
unemployment rate and when employed, earn less than non-dropouts while
students with baccalaureate degrees and beyond steadily increase their
earnings over the years (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2009; Manning, 2005;
National Center on Education and the Economy, 2007). Today‘s students will
5
be competing for jobs in an economy vastly different from previous
generations where globalization requires a workforce able to adapt to
changing technology and work requirements (Feller, 2003; NCEE, 2007).
These conditions highlight the urgency of students understanding that
continuous learning is a prerequisite to high–skilled occupations whereas
leaving school early puts them at risk of belonging to the working poor
(Nelson, 2006; Feller, 2003). Wakefield et al. (2004) clarify what working
poor means in terms of family income:
A family of four was classified as poor if it had cash income less than
$18,104 last year. The official poverty levels, updated each year to
reflect changes in the Consumer Price Index, were $14,128 for a
family of three, $11,569 for a married couple, and $9,039 for an
individual (p. 21).
Local estimates of dropout rates vary from 11% - 29% (dependent
upon the methodology to calculate this rate); hence, local state government
enacted dropout prevention legislation targeting high schools reporting
dropout rates over 15% (Harrington, Fogg, & Khatiwada, 2009; Rhode Island
General Laws [RIGL], 2007). Emphasizing the gravity of the problem is the
number of uneducated, unemployed local teens. Approximately 4500
adolescents ranging in age from 16 -19 fit this description with 57% lacking
a high school education (Rhode Island KIDS COUNT, 2009). A national study
identified five local high schools as ―dropout factories,‖ a term describing a
school that fails to graduate 40% or more of its freshmen class by their
senior year (Balfanz & Letgers, 2004). Minimally, local attainment of a high
school diploma resulted in a 46% increase in lifetime earnings ($380,000) in
comparison to the lifetime earnings of a local high school dropout. Moreover,

6
high school dropouts paid less tax revenues and are incarcerated at higher
rates than students that completed high school and beyond (Harrington et
al.).
A disconnect between students‘ expectations and their educational
attainment, student identified gaps in vital educational and occupational
information, together with the dropout rate, exacerbate the problem
(USDOE, 2006; Venezia et al., 2003). Longitudinal research of three cohorts
of high school sophomores (1980, 1990, and 2002) depicts discrepancies
between students‘ expectations and the pursuit of postsecondary education.
Each cohort‘s college aspirations increased from the previous cohort;
however, 72% of the 2002 cohort reported college aspirations but only 50%
of the students were enrolled in college preparatory classes (USDOE, 2002).
Some students reported a lack of knowledge about (a) financial aid,
(b) the rigor of high school courses and the connection to academic
preparation for college, and (c) grade point average as a factor in college
admissions (Venezia et al., 2003).
Further substantiating the need for early career interventions
practices, 69% of adults (N = 1,003) in a national survey report that
additional career information in secondary school would have given them the
tools to make informed career decisions (National Career Development
Association [NCDA], 1999). Additionally, more respondents in the 18-25 age
range indicate needing assistance with career plans. When educational
attainment is considered, more non-college respondents than college
educated respondents suggest they would increase their help seeking

7
behaviors if they were initially entering the workforce. Specifically, 72% of
high school graduates and 75% of non- high school graduates compared to
60% of college graduates report they would have sought more help with
their early career plans (NCDA, 1999). Similarly, current college graduates
are experiencing difficulty making the transition from school to work. Some
suggested reasons are (a) a generation raised on instant gratification, (b)
unrealistic expectations of job duties, (c) the inability to self-evaluate job
performance, (d) personal needs coming before company needs, and (e)
poor work skill development (Levine, 2005). Levine states, ―Our graduates
may well lack the practical skills, the habits, the behaviors, the real-world
insights, and the frames of mind pivotal for career startup‖ (p. 5).
Reports, guidelines, and standards abound to address the need for
career education. For example, the Secretary of Labor convened a task force
to address employers‘ trepidation about the future United States workforce.
Consisting of stakeholders from business, education, and labor unions, the
Secretary‘s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS) outlined five
competencies and three foundational skills required for workers at all levels
and in all fields. What Work Requires of Schools (U.S. Department of Labor
[USDOL], 1991), the commission‘s seminal report, delineates the following
competencies for all workers:
 The ability to identify, organize, plan, and allocate resources
(Resources).
 The ability to work with others (Interpersonal).
 The ability to acquire and use information (Information).

8
 The ability to understand complex inter-relationships (Systems).
 The ability to work with a variety of technologies (Technology).
Furthermore, the commission states all workers need basic skills in literacy
and numeracy along with cognitive skills, and personal qualities to succeed in
the workplace.
Given that comprehensive school counseling programs are to benefit
all students, as stated previously, the reported lack of career intervention
activities in CSCPs may also contribute to this problem (USDOE, 2003).
Furthermore, Dykeman et al. (2001) note the lack of structured career
development programs hindered implementation and program evaluation.
Creating a taxonomy for career interventions, Dykeman et al. present a
research-based framework supporting the development, implementation, and
evaluation of career development programs. Within this structure are four
taxa: work-based (changed to field–based in subsequent research), advising,
introductory, and curriculum.
Research is sparse on school counseling interventions, in general.
Addressing this concern, a Delphi study of counseling experts (N = 21)
identifies and ranks (1 = least important, 4 = most important) 42 potential
research questions for CSCPs such as ―Which specific school counseling
interventions result in the greatest gains in students‘ career development?‖
(M = 3.5) and ―What is the impact of implementing a results-based school
counseling program on students‘ career development?‖ (M = 3.5) (Dimmitt,
Carey, McGannon, & Henningson, 2005, p. 221). The current study may
9
provide a framework that supports further research to answer the above
questions.
Definition of Terms
This study employs terminology germane to the topic; therefore,
definitions are given to provide clarity.
Advising Taxon
―The class of interventions designed to provide direction, resolve
impediments, and sustain planfulness in students about their goals for the
future‖ (Dykeman et al., 2001, p.4).
Career Maturity
An individual‘s readiness to cope with developmental tasks at
appropriate stages.
Curriculum Taxon
―The class of interventions designed to promote core student
knowledge and skills through means and content relevant to the world of
work‖ (Dykeman et al., 2001, p. 4).
Field (Work-based) Taxon
―The class of interventions designed to promote student self-efficacy
and motivation through sustained and meaningful interactions in work sites
in the community‖ (Dykeman et al., 2001, p.4).
Individual Learning Plan
A mapped academic plan and profile that reflects each student‘s
unique set of interests, needs, learning goals, and graduation requirements.

10
Each should reflect plans to establish academic, career, and personal/social
goals and action steps to achieve those goals (RIDE, 2006).
Introductory Taxon
―The class of interventions designed to awaken a student‘s interests in
their own personal and professional growth‖ (Dykeman et al., 2001, p. 4).
Professional School Counselor
Local professional school counselors must possess a Master‘s degree in
school counseling from an accredited institution with specified requirements
to maintain certification. Additionally, a state prerequisite to in-state school
counseling certification is two years teaching experience; reciprocity
agreements may waive the teaching requirement (RIDE, 2005a).
Research Questions
The current study proposes to examine career intervention practices
and preferences of public high school counselors in support of students‘
Individual Learning Plans. Figure 1 depicts the RIDE‘s conceptualization of
Individual Learning Plan programs focused on students‘ outcomes in the
academic, career, and personal/social domains in concert with strong family
engagement resulting in successful transition planning for all students. The
ILP program's design is to increase academic rigor, promote the relevance of
school to work, and build relationships that sustain students throughout their
secondary experience (RIDE, 2008).

11
The research questions for this study are:
1. What career intervention practices do public high school
counselors in a southern New England state practice as school
counseling program components?
counselors in a southern New England state prefer as school
3. Is there a relationship between the career intervention practices
and preferences of high school counselors in a southern New
England state and the following variables?
a. gender
b. years as a school counselor
c. hours of professional development in the career domain
d. membership in professional organizations
4. How are public high school counselors supporting the career
domain of students‘ Individual Learning Plans in a southern New
England state?
12
Figure 1. Individual Learning Plan Program Cycle as conceptualized by the
Rhode Island Department of Education.
Methodology
This study examines the career intervention practices and
preferences of high school counselors in support of students‘ ILPs through a
two-phase explanatory, sequential design utilizing mixed methods. Phase II,
a semi-structured group interview expanded the data from Phase I, a survey
questionnaire based on the work of Dykeman et al. (2003). A thorough
description of the methodology will be discussed in Chapter III.
Limitations and Delimitations
The insider-outsider dichotomy may potentially limit this study. Known
to the group participants as a provider of professional development and
technical assistance for school counseling programs, this researcher makes a
conscious effort to hear the data from both perspectives (Breen, 2007). A
potential weakness of the study may be the response rate to the survey
13
(43%), coupled with the low response rate for Phase II, the group interview
(n = 2, 3%). Additionally, the assumption is that Phase II participants
provided genuine responses. Another potential limitation of this study is in
the research design; the assumption is that participants understand and
truthfully answer the survey instrument (Phase I). Furthermore, mixed
method research requires adequate time to analyze both phases, quantitative
and qualitative.
Sample selection, predicated on expert knowledge of local mandates
and the role of school counselors in the implementation of these mandates,
delimits the geographic generalizability of the study. Specifically, school
counseling programs are an integral part of the implementation of ILPs in this
southern New England state, whereas this may not be the case in other
states. Furthermore, purposive sampling restricts the generalizability of the
study beyond the local public high school counselors; elementary and middle
school counselors may have less experience and knowledge of the career
intervention items in the survey instrument (see Appendix A).
This study contributes to the research by examining the career
interventions practices and preferences of high school counselors within the
aforementioned four component taxonomy (Dykeman et al., 2003), thus
addressing a gap in the research and making recommendations to improve
career education for secondary students.
Summary
A changing economy requiring flexible skill sets underscores the
significance of secondary students‘ preparation for and participation in a 21st

14
century workforce (Feller, 2003; NCEE,2007). Discussion of secondary
students‘ unfocused postsecondary plans, their lack of knowledge to make
informed decisions, and their often unaligned aspirations and expectations
provide the backdrop for the current study (Venezia et al., 2003; Wakefield
et al., 2004). Further exacerbating the problem is the troubling dropout rate,
locally and nationally (Balfanz & Letgers, 2004; Harrington et al., 2009);
resulting action is local legislation to address this situation (RIGL, 2007).
One strategy to confront these challenges is comprehensive school
counseling programs. School counselors have the charge to address all
students‘ academic, career, and personal/social goals within their
comprehensive school counseling programs (ASCA, 2005, 2006). A
structured approach to life career development could provide the means to
design, implement, and evaluate the career component of CSCPs (Dykeman
et al., 2001).
Chapter II provides an overview of the research literature focusing on
themes pertinent to this study: theoretical orientations for vocational tasks;
student preparation, expectations, and aspirations; career interventions and
outcomes; student learning plans; and perceptions, preferences, and
practices. Chapter III details the methodology for this study. Using a
sequential explanatory research design, a survey questionnaire and group
interview addressed the research questions. Chapter IV presents the findings
related to each research question and Chapter V offers some discussion and
recommendations resulting from the study.

15
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
The purpose of this chapter is to note extant literature and its
relevance to this study. The framework for this research proposal was divided
into five sub-sections: (a) theoretical orientations for vocational tasks; (b)
student preparation, expectations, and aspirations; (c) career
interventions;(d) student learning plans; and (e) perceptions, preferences,
and practices.
First, theoretical orientations to vocational tasks established a
foundation for research questions one and two; both focused on career
interventions practices, actual and preferred, of public high school
counselors. Second, student preparation, expectations, and aspirations also
supported questions one and two, in addition to research question four
regarding school counselor support of student ILP implementation,
particularly in the career domain. Third, the career interventions literature
provided a backdrop for all of the study questions, whereas student learning
plans provided support to the aforementioned question four. Last, research
question three investigated how public school counselors‘ career intervention
practices and preferences differed.
Theoretical Orientations for Vocational Tasks
Trait and Factor Theory
Career theories provide a foundation for understanding how and why
individuals make various career decisions. Parsons‘ (1909) seminal work laid
the foundation for the proliferation of career theories and approaches.
Parsons‘ tripartite model posited that people made informed decisions by (a)
16
knowing their interests and abilities; (b) understanding occupational
requirements (e.g., education, skills, working conditions); and (c) using ―true
reasoning‖ to make vocational decisions. True reasoning, never fully defined
by Parsons, remains open to interpretation by researchers with bipolar
arguments for its place in the cognitive and affective domain (Hartung &
Blustein, 2002). This framework transitioned into Trait and Factor theories, of
which Holland‘s typology is one of the most cited (Ruff, Reardon, & Bertoch,
2007). Based on six personality orientations (Realistic, Investigative, Artistic,
Social, Enterprising, and Conventional [RIASEC], Holland‘s career model
suggested congruence between work environments and personality produced
a ―good fit‖ between employee and work environment (Sharf, 2010). The
Self-Directed Search (SDS) was developed to assess personality-oriented
interests. Resulting scores from the self-administered instrument produced 3
letter (e.g., SAE, IRS, CRS) personality profiles based on the six personality
types. Subsequent to obtainment of codes, The Occupations Finder and The
Educational Opportunities Finder are consulted to further clients‘ knowledge
of congruent work environments and possible programs of study,
respectively (Holland, Powell, & Fritzsche, 1997).
Recent studies suggested versions of the SDS continue to support
career counseling with diverse populations. For example, Osborn and
Reardon (2006) studied high-risk middle school students (N = 98) enrolled in
a 6-week program designed as a dropout prevention intervention. Significant
gender differences for two personality types, Realistic and Social, were
reported with boys having higher mean scores (M = 22.83, SD = 13.70, p<
17
.0001) with the former, while higher mean scores (M = 30.84, SD = 11.80,
p< .05) in the latter were indicated for girls. In a study of counselor
education graduate students (N = 132), no significant difference was
determined in their personality orientations using the SDS as it related to
their theoretical preference (Freeman, Hayes, Kuch, & Taub, 2007). This
finding concurred with earlier research (N = 58) (Miller, 2006). Furthering
SDS research with diverse populations, Glaser, Calhoun, Bates, and
Bradshaw (2003) used independent sample t-tests to investigate
differentiation with an adjudicated male adolescents sample (N = 28), a
construct in the Holland typology. Differentiation is determined ―by
subtracting the lowest score of any type from the highest score of any type
on the SDS….‖ (Sharf, 2010, p. 138). The SDS Explorer, designed for middle
or junior high school students, produced different paired permutations of
Holland‘s six personality types (e.g., Realistic/Artistic; Enterprising/Social)
revealed significant differences (p <. 05) within all possible combinations
with the exception of Enterprising to Social and Conventional to Realistic (p <
.01) with this sample.
Ruff, Reardon, & Bertoch (2007) examined the currency and viability
of Holland‘s typology determining a continued presence of works related to
Holland on a national and international basis. The majority of publications in
almost 200 journals focused on the applications of the theory. In addition to
journals, in descending order, reports, books, and dissertations were the
publications most frequently cited with references related to Holland‘s work.

18
Developmental Theory
Another approach to career development viewed the career
development of individuals over their lifetimes. The life-span, life space
approach utilized research from sociology and psychology to formulate the
process of career decision making and to inform the counseling field (Super,
Savickas, & Super, 1996). Super‘s (as cited in Brown, 2003) Life-Span, Life-
Space approach identified developmental and vocational stages in the career
development of individuals. Super theorized that individuals functioned in
two dimensions, life span and life space; the life span dimension viewed
individuals career over the course of their lives, whereas life space focused
on the intersection of life roles (e.g., child, student, spouse) with career
development. Developmentally, people cycled and recycled through five
stages over the course of their lives: (a) Growth, (b) Exploration, (c)
Establishment, (d) Maintenance, and (e) Disengagement. During the Growth
stage, curiosity, fantasy and developing interests defined the most salient
tasks of this developmental phase. During the Exploration stage, adolescents
crystallized, specified, and implemented career plans; expectations were for
students to clarify choices, set goals, and take action to meet postsecondary
goals. The Establishment period signified a time of settling into a career and
increasing work-related competencies and responsibility, along with financial
advancement. Established adults adapted to the work environment, learned
new skills, and contributed more by increasing responsibility throughout the
Maintenance stage eventually leading to Disengagement, a period
characterized by decreasing work–related activities.

19
Similarly, Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad, and Herma (as cited in Zunker,
2006) hypothesized that adolescents between the ages of 15-18 developed
the capacity to integrate their goals and values into realistic career choices
while becoming aware of numerous decisions necessary to implement those
choices. As an example, one meta-analysis linked goal setting with high
levels of work performance and strong motivation (Brown & Ryan Krane,
2000). While Super and Ginzberg et al. differed on the timing of career
development in adolescents, both perspectives acknowledged adolescents‘
interests developed before their capacities (Sharf, 2010). Additionally, Super
(1983) measured career maturity, a construct describing adolescents‘ degree
of readiness to make career decisions, using the Career Development
Inventory (CDI), that is comprised of five subscales: career planning, career
exploration, decision making, world-of-work information, and knowledge of
preferred occupational group. With the exception of knowledge of preferred
occupational group, the remaining subscales derived a career orientation
total score used to assist with career counseling. Super (1990) integrated
realism (making a realistic vocational choice) into the career maturity
construct; however, determining its presence in individuals required some
knowledge on the counselor‘s part about clients‘ characteristics.
Recent career maturity research (Savickas, Briddick, & Watkins, 2002)
suggested a positive relationship between enhanced career planning and
social adjustment for students (N = 200) displaying greater career maturity
than students with lower career maturity. Utilizing the California
Psychological Inventory (CPI) and the Career Development Inventory (CDI;

20
College and University form), Savickas et al. (2002) measured personal
maturity and career maturity, respectively. Separately, the subscales of the
latter assessment reportedly has low test-retest reliability (.67 to .79); taken
together, however, reliability increased to .84. Within these findings,
Savickas et al. cautioned against a strict adherence to the career maturity
model as the sole conduit to career development.
Cognitive Learning Theory
Career theory focused on cognitive processes provided another
perspective. Specifically, the cognitive information processing (CIP) approach
to career counseling developed by career practitioners and researchers at
Florida State University, posited that major influencers of people‘s career
decision-making skills reside in the affective and cognitive domains
(Sampson, Peterson, Reardon, & Lenz, 2003). Centered on content and
process, the CIP model recommended a multilevel approach to career
counseling by delivering career services based on individuals‘ needs. Initial
assessment of clients‘ career readiness was identified as essential to this
approach, thus categorizing clients‘ needs into one of three categories: high
level of readiness, moderate level of readiness, or low level of readiness
(Sampson, Peterson, et al.). Assessment of readiness level combined results
from the Career Thoughts Inventory (CTI) and counselor/client interaction.
The CTI measures negative career thinking on three scales: (1) Decision –
making Confusion; (2) Commitment Anxiety; and (3) External Conflict
culminating in a dysfunctional career thinking total score. With the exception
of the External Conflict scale, the reported reliability (α = .93 - .97) and
21
validity for this instrument fell within acceptable professional standards
(Feller & Daly, 2009).
The CIP approach pyramid content domains are knowledge, decision-
making skills, and executive processing or metacognitions. Examples of
questions or concerns within each domain are ―What are my values,
interests, skills, and employment preferences?‖, ―How do I usually make
important decisions?‖, and ―I need help in making this choice‖, respectively
(Peterson, Sampson, Reardon, & Lenz, 2003). Process domains within the
CIP approach are conceptualized cyclically through the communication,
analysis, synthesis, valuing, and execution (CASVE) stages. Within this
cyclical process, specific client tasks are delineated with positive client goal
achievement as the desired outcome. The essential question of CIP is ―What
can we do as career counselors to enable individuals to acquire self-
knowledge, occupational knowledge, career decision skills, and
metacognitions to become effective and informed career problem solvers and
decision makers?‖ (Sharf, 2010, p. 428). To address this central question, a
seven –step process service delivery model prescribed the interaction
between counselor and client:
1. Initial interview
2. Preliminary assessment
3. Define problem and analyze causes
4. Formulate goals
5. Develop individual learning plan (ILP)
6. Execute individual learning plan

22
7. Summative review and generalization (Sampson, Reardon,
Peterson, & Lenz, 2003, Slide 5)
The introduction of the CIP provoked interest in providing applications
of this approach deemed appropriate for high school students. Consequently,
the development of the Career Decision Making Tool (CDMT), an online
resource based on the CIP method, received funding from the Office of
Vocational and Adult Education and is hosted on the America‘s Career
Resource Network‘s (ACRN) website (Donahue, 2006). A search of several
databases, Academic Search Complete, ERIC, PsycARTICLES, and PsycINFO,
revealed no current research for the CDMT.
Career Construction Theory
Savickas (2005) corroborated and addressed prior concerns (Brown,
2002; Lara, 2004) in addition to issues associated with a 21st century
workforce (e.g., flexibility in a changing economy). Savickas‘ career
construction theory integrated components from Holland‘s typology, Super‘s
developmental work, and Adler‘s lifestyle model (Sharf, 2010).
From Holland, Savickas (2005) conceptualized clients‘ career concerns
through a RIASEC framework, focused on the qualitative aspects (personal
narratives) rather than the quantitative (measurement). Next, Savickas
presented Super‘s life stages (growth, exploration, establishment,
maintenance, and disengagement) in terms of career adaptability and career
management. Last, Adler‘s model of life tasks, in particular the concept of
work as a reflection of social interest, contributed the mattering element
within career construction theory. The definition of mattering is the ‖beliefs

23
people have, whether right or wrong, that they matter to someone else, that
they are the object of someone else‘s attention, and that others care about
them and appreciate them‖ (Schlossberg, n.d., p. 3).
Savickas developed the Career Style Interview, structured to elicit
career stories beginning with counselors querying, ―How can I be useful to
you in constructing your career?‖ (Hartung & Taber, 2008, p. 82) followed by
1. Who did you admire when you were growing up? Who would you
like to pattern your life after? List three heroes/role models.
a. What do you admire about each of these role models?
b. How are you like each of these persons?
c. How are you different from them?
2. What magazines do you read regularly? What (author‘s italics) do
you like about them? What TV shows do you really enjoy? Why?
Tell me about your favorite movie/book.
3. What do you like to do with your free time? What are your hobbies?
What do you enjoy about these hobbies?
4. Do you have a favorite saying or motto? Tell me a saying you
remember hearing.
5. What were your favorite subjects in junior high and high school?
Why? What subjects did you hate? Why?
6. What are your earliest recollections? I am interested in hearing
three stories about things you recall happening to you when you
were three to six years old (Hartung & Taber, 2008, p. 82).
24
Savickas‘ (n.d.) extension of established career theory was designed to
―assist clients to fully inhabit their lives and become more complete as they
sustain themselves and contribute to their communities‖ (p.8).
Career Theory Preference
Osborn and Baggerly (2004) investigated the career theory
preferences of school counselors (N = 1280) between Holland‘s typology;
Super‘s life-span, life space; person—environment- correspondence;
cognitive information processing; Hackett/Betz‘s self efficacy; and social
cognitive career theory. Additionally, participants had the option to write in
theories of their choice. Preferences ranged from 33% for Holland‘s RIASEC
model to 2% for social constructivism. Within those ranges, cognitive
information processing and Super‘s life-span, life-space garnered 19% and
11% of the responses, respectively. Participants responding to ―other‖
indicated no response (47%) and not applicable (37%) with an additional 4%
stating no knowledge of the career theories. Similarly, Lara (2004)
interviewed current or past enrollees in master‘s level career counseling
courses. Using a grounded theory approach, participants (N = 6) indicated
career theory emphasis outweighed practical applications, with the
suggestion that enhanced career theory application would strengthen
knowledge in this area, a concern supported by earlier research (Brown,
2002)
Student Preparation, Expectations, and Aspirations
Student expectations and business expectations are in conflict for a
myriad of reasons. National Career Development Association (NCDA) surveys

25
reveal many adults feel that better career information would have given
them tools to make more appropriate career decisions (Feller, 2003). Some
studies report that unfocused secondary students have no plans or clear
sense of direction leading to poor decisions about post-secondary options
(Wakefield et al., 2004). Furthermore, new workplace expectations require
rigorous coursework and increased technological literacy. High school
dropouts often are underemployed and many do not have the academic skills
to sustain post-secondary pursuits (Feller). Correspondingly, college
graduates have similar issues; unprepared for the school to work transition,
they may exhibit a period of confusion and lack of identity and direction
(Levine, 2005). Levine posited that four profiles accounted for this negative
experience: (a) young adults who were still living in the teen world, (b)
young adults who were stars during high school for various reasons who no
longer have an audience, (c) startup adults who made decisions not aligned
with their real interests, and, (d) students whose strengths and weaknesses
were mishandled during adolescence. Additionally, Levine (2005)
recommended four essential factors for positive transitions: Inner Direction,
Interpretation, Instrumentation, and Interaction. Inside insight, foresight,
and self-launching are the subcomponents of inner direction; career theories
such as Holland‘s typology, Super‘s life-span, life-space, and cognitive
information processing support the aforementioned subcomponents as well
(Sharf, 2010). Interpretation (comprehension, pattern recognition, evaluative
thinking), Instrumentation (skill building and adaptation, work efficiency,
productive thinking), and Interaction (communication, alliance formation and

26
reputation management, political behaviors) parallel the SCANS
competencies and skills. Competencies in using resources, developing
interpersonally, accessing and utilizing information, understanding systems,
and managing technology in addition to basic skill sets in literacy, numeracy,
and thinking (US Department Of Labor, 1991) complement Levine‘s work.
Only a few studies directly asked students what they needed to make
informed career decisions. One study of ninth grade students (N = 222)
revealed a lack of knowledge about college and career planning, even though
most of the students indicated an expectation to attend college (Gibbons,
Borders, Wiles, & Stephan, 2006). Another study of high school juniors (N =
17) reported that there were various routes to prepare for work such as
practical work experience and exploration (Phillips, Blustein, Jobin-Davis, &
White, 2002).
Many students have not engaged in career preparation activities such
as résumé writing, completing a career interest inventory, or having practical
experience in their field of interest. Students reported a lack of knowledge
about (a) financial aid, (b) the rigor of high school courses and the
connection to academic preparation for college, (c) grade point average as a
factor in college admissions among other issues, and (d) multiple pathways
to a career (Sirin, Diemer, Jackson, Gonsalves, & Howell, 2004; Venezia et
al., 2003). Sirin et al. (2004) qualitatively investigated urban youths‘ (N =
18) aspirations finding discrepancies in planning with less focus on distal
outcomes versus immediate outcomes. While recognition of contextual
barriers surfaced, participants overall, seemed unaware of strategies to

27
access community resources or the importance of such support. Gender
differences were suggested in pictorial displays of future orientation. Girls
tended to include articles beyond those associated with status (cars, homes)
whereas boys limited their choices to status items. Sirin et al. recommended
cognitive structuring of adolescents‘ understanding of contextual barriers in
relation to distal aspirations. Similarly, Tang, Pan, & Newmeyer (2008)
suggested structuring students‘ career development from a social cognitive
career theory (SCCT) perspective. Focused on the relationship between
environmental factors and outcome behaviors, self-efficacy, the belief in
one‘s ability to achieve desired outcomes, is a central construct of SCCT
(Sharf, 2010). Tang et al. explored high school students‘ aspirations (N
=141) through a SCCT lens and found significant gender differences (p <
.05) in the associations between SCCT concepts (learning experiences, career
self-efficacy, outcome expectations) with career interests and choice.
On the other hand, Cooper (2009) mined existing data from the
Educational Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS) to address students‘ aspirations
from a sociological and economic perspective. The ELS, a national study (N =
12,530), followed students from 10th grade to 12th grade and beyond to
monitor them on multiple variables within their home and school
environments as they progressed from secondary to postsecondary options.
Cooper found that students‘ aspirations changed over time by race/ethnicity
and gender. Data were collected from male and female students
representative of Asian, Black, Latino, Multiracial, and White populations.
Maintenance of aspirations for a 4-year degree ranged from 55.1% for Asian
28
men to 39.1% for Latino men. Aspirations for a 4-year degree decreased
ranging from 30.5% (Latino men) to 13.3% (Asian men) with increased
aspirations ranging from Black women (37.2%) to Latino women (23.4%).
To further the work internationally, Patton and Creed (2007) studied
Australian high school youth (N = 925) and determined significant
discrepancies (p < .001) between occupational aspirations and occupational
expectations. Like previous studies (e.g., Osborn & Baggerly, 2004; Tan et
al., 2008), albeit with different populations, Patton and Creed utilized career
theory to address the career aspirations and expectations of high school
students. Their findings suggested discrepancies between students‘ aspired
occupational Holland RIASEC code and their expected occupational Holland
RIASEC code. Accounting for 64% of the discrepant sample (n = 311),
females were less likely to expect attainment of their aspired RIASEC coded
occupation. Additionally, discrepancies between some common career theory
constructs (i.e., career indecision, career decision-making self-efficacy,
career development attitude) may portend the future of comprehensive
school counseling programs. Patton and Creed (2007) found students‘
aspirations and expectations differed significantly (p < .001) in relation to
the aforementioned constructs.
Prior to Tang et al. (2008), Mau and Bikos (2000) viewed educational
and occupational aspirations through a SCCT lens and like Cooper (2008),
delved into existing national data. Using the third follow up from the National
Educational Longitudinal Study: 1988 - 94, they focused on college and
occupational aspirations in relation to psychological, family, school, and

29
demographic variables. Through logistic multiple regression analyses, Mau
and Bikos reported academic high school program (versus general or career
and technical), the school type (public or private), and socioeconomic status
as strong predictors of educational aspirations. Similarly, when race and
gender were entered last into the prediction equation, high school program
(general and academic) and school type proved to be strong predictors of
occupational aspirations. Overall, analyses found race and gender
differences: Hispanic students reported lower college and occupational
aspirations, whereas Asian American students reported higher aspirations in
both areas. Racial discrepancies were significant (p <.05) as were gender
differences (p <.01).
Career Interventions and Outcomes
Several meta-analyses on career interventions and outcomes were
reviewed for the current study. Evans and Burck (1992) compiled 67
experimental studies with 159,243 participants to investigate the effect of
career interventions on academic achievement. More than 51% of the
participants were in the experimental group (received career interventions
through planned learning activity) and 48% received either no treatment or
an alternative treatment. This study found a positive impact (d = .16) on
academic achievement when career interventions were integrated into
curriculum.
Whiston, Sexton, and Lasoff (1998) reviewed and updated two seminal
meta-analyses (Oliver & Spokane, 1988; Spokane & Oliver, 1983). Spokane
and Oliver‘s (1983) study involved participants (N = 6700) from 52 studies

30
over three decades. One of the major contributions of this meta-analysis was
quantifying effective career interventions leading to subsequent meta-
analyses. One finding from the research indicated classroom interventions
had a larger effect size (d = 1.11) than individual interventions (d = .87).
Adding nine studies to the 1983 meta-analysis, Oliver and Spokane (1988)
obtained effect sizes using Glass‘s delta, ―the mean difference between the
experimental and control group divided by the standard deviation of the
control group‖ (Becker, 2000, p. 4). Their findings suggested that classroom
interventions were the most effective (Δ = 2.05) and expensive.
Advanced meta-analytic methodology produced less biased estimates
of effect sizes in Whiston et al.‘s (1998) replication and extension of Oliver
and Spokane‘s work. Whiston et al. utilized updated procedures such as
coding and analysis of studies that addressed threats to validity and
increased indicators of method quality that met current standards of
research. Overall, career interventions were deemed effective (d = .45; Δ =
.45) with differences dependent on type of intervention (e.g. group
counseling [d+ = .57; Δ = .73], individual counseling [d+ = .75; Δ = 1.08],
classroom counseling [d+ = 15; Δ = .54]). Whiston et al. reported several
concerns for subsequent research. First, demographic information was not
included in many of the studies in their meta-analysis. This lack of
information clouded the findings about the applicability of career
interventions to different groups. Second, treatment fidelity, how the
intervention was implemented, along with the lack of research on effective
treatments, was a concern. Third, future research studies needed to include

31
a diverse population, particularly in the areas of age, gender and ethnicity.
Standardization of measures was a fourth concern with thorough reporting a
final issue.
Whereas Whiston et al. (1998) expressed concern about the types of
treatments, Brown and Ryan Krane (2000) presented revised conclusions
using all the studies from Oliver and Spokane‘s research (1988) in addition to
Ryan‘s (1999) study. From Ryan‘s meta-analysis (62 studies, N = 7725) that
coded 19 interventions within the studies, unlike previous research, five
specific factors emerged as important individually and collectively for positive
career maturity outcomes: ―(1) written exercise, (2) individualized
interpretations and feedback, (3) world of work information, (4) modeling
opportunities, and (5) attention to building support for choices within one‘s
social network‖ (p. 67). Multiple components progressively increased the
effect size ranging from .45 for one component to .99 for three components;
however, no study in this meta-analysis had more than three components.
The reported effect sizes indicated practical significance ranging from
medium to large (Valentine & Cooper, 2003). Kirk (1996) noted, ―What we
want to know is the size of the difference between A and B and the error
associated with our estimate; knowing that A is greater than B is not
enough‖ (p.754).
Valentine and Cooper (2003) substantiated the recommendation by
Whiston et al. (1998) for further research with demographic specificity (e.g.,
gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation).

32
Research on the relationship between career interventions and school
counseling continued. Hughes‘ and Karp‘s (2004) meta-analysis investigated
career interventions delivered through comprehensive guidance programs.
Treatment fidelity, method of measuring the effectiveness of the intervention
and appropriateness of outcomes were characteristics of the selected studies.
Additionally, studies had to be focused on student outcomes as opposed to
program outcomes. Similar to an earlier meta-analysis (Oliver & Spokane,
1988), Hughes and Karp (2004) found the treatment dosage low with 50% of
the studies focused on college students compared to 25% focused on high
school students. However, another meta-analysis questioned the relevance of
those findings to career intervention outcomes (Whiston et al., 1998).
One finding in Hughes and Karp‘s (2004) meta-analysis was student
outcomes of career courses. Outcomes in career courses fluctuated
dependent on variables such as instruction and treatment. Specific
interventions, such as career exploration, produced positive knowledge gains,
particularly with middle school students. A suggested focus for future
research was to examine behavior changes rather than attitude changes.
With the exception of Evans and Burck (1992), the aforementioned
meta-analyses included studies with college–aged students, whereas Evans
and Burck focused on K-12 students, exclusively.
Career research remained a viable topic among practitioners and
researchers alike in the past years. The Career Development Quarterly, a
refereed journal, has produced annual reviews of career literature research
since 1988. Comprised of multiple themes, (e.g., career theory, career

33
assessments) career interventions maintained a presence in the current issue
(Patton & McIlveen, 2009).
Student Learning Plans
Student learning plans have multiple nomenclatures: individual
learning plans, individualized learning plans, and personal education plans to
name a few (Regional Educational Laboratory, 2008). Despite their increased
presence in educational settings, limited research exists on learning plans
and their perceived benefits. Two studies from the United Kingdom focused
on personal learning plans (PLP); the first (N = 477) investigated the
influence of gender and ability on planning (Bullock, Harris, & Jamieson,
1996); the second (N = 1348) examined students‘ benefits from the planning
process (Bullock & Wikeley, 1999). One finding from Bullock and Wikeley
(1999) was that students demonstrated a positive shift in the planning
process. Comments from students included: ―PLP does help you to think
about future opportunities and point out the advantages and disadvantages‖
and ―It‘s good to identify what you are good at and not so good at‖. (Bullock
& Wikeley, p. 24). On the other hand, students in this study expressed some
concern about the PLP process and its relationship to learning and long-term
goals. Conversely, some students, reported benefits to the planning process
with some gender differences. Male students established greater gains from
individual advising sessions, a component of the PLP process, whereas
female students showed an increase in planning and exploring career choices
(Bullock et al., 1996). Another finding was students‘ concern about the
34
effective use of time for the personal learning plan process (Bullock &
Wikeley).
Bullock et al. (1996) reported differences in gender and ability in
relationship to the planning process. Girls identified as high academic
achievers prefer the conversational aspect of the personal learning plan
process, yet boys with lower ability favor the writing component of the plan.
Recommendations to increase the benefits of the planning process included
professional development for teachers, clear outcome expectations, student
ownership of the PLP, and reinforcement of the PLP as a continuous learning
tool.
A subsequent mixed methods study (Welsh, 2005) investigated the
relationship between high school students‘ aspirations and their plans to
attain stated ambitions. Additionally, this study (N = 79) focused on possible
changes in student aspirations resulting from the planning process. Through
observation, student survey responses, and student plans, students
demonstrated a positive relationship between planning and future goals.
Furthermore, student responses indicated an increased sense of belonging.
As previously stated, unlike Bullock & Wikeley (1999), students in this study
showed increased understanding (p<.01) of the significance of planning
through correlated scores on aspirations surveys and quality scores on their
personal learning plans (Welsh).
The existence of student learning plans, personalized education plans,
and individual learning plans for all students expanded throughout the United
States in recent years for multiple educational reasons such as helping

35
students develop competency in planning and goal setting. Some states
passed legislation to implement these various plans while others instituted
less formal policies and procedures. For example, Kentucky‘s legislation,
Section 704 KAR 3:305, required all students grades 6–12 to have an
Individual Graduation Plan ―focused on career exploration and related
postsecondary education and training needs‖ (Kentucky Department of
Education [KDE], 2006). Legislatively, Oregon‘s OAR 581-022-1510
mandated ―a formalized plan and a process that involves student planning,
monitoring, and managing their own learning and career development during
grades 7-12‖ (Oregon Department of Education [ODE], 2009, p.1). South
Carolina defined Individual Graduation Plans for students in grades 8 - 12 as
―a student specific educational plan detailing the courses necessary for the
student to prepare for graduation and to successfully transition into the
workforce or postsecondary education.‖ (South Carolina Legislature [SCL],
2008). Delaware law designed Student Success Plans to ―empower students
to explore possibilities, develop a plan and achieve their goals for the future‖
starting in grade 8 (Delaware Department of Education [DDE], 2009, slide 2).
Recent research (Connolly, 2009) conducted on policies regarding
nationwide implementation of Individual Learning Plans used structured
telephone interviews to collect data. State representatives (from
departments of education) identified which of the following components
comprised their state‘s Individual Learning Plans:
 Academic plan to include at least one year post graduation
 Academic, career, personal goals identified

36
 Integrated career exploration including valid assessments
 Résumé builder
 Updated annually
 ILP shared with student, parent, counselor, and teacher
 Student reflections
 Personality and learning style assessments
 Student strengths and needs
 Action plan with deadlines
 Community service learning
 Learning support reference (p. 7).
Connolly (2009) reported 21 out of the 47 participants (including the
District of Columbia) mandated ILPs, whereas nine states without existing
mandates provided ILP structures. The study revealed seven states
developed a web-based format for implementing the ILP versus using a
paper and pencil format. Suggested benefits of ILPs, in general, included
increased student engagement and increased successful transitions to
postsecondary options. Similar results were suggested in previous ILP studies
(Bullock et al., 1996; Welsh, 2005). Additionally, electronic ILPs might
strengthen the implementation process and foster accountability for student
outcomes (Connolly).
Perceptions, Preferences and Practices
Research on school counselors‘ perceptions, preferences, and practices
escalated with the advent of the ASCA National Standards, the ASCA National
Model, and the Education Trust‘s Transforming School Counseling Initiative

37
(TSCI), which all provided structure for comprehensive school counseling
programs (CSCP). The ASCA National Standards focused on student
competencies and outcomes within a CSCP, whereas the National Model
described four areas of a CSCP: (a) foundation, (b) delivery system, (c)
management, and (d) accountability (ASCA, 2005). In conjunction with
ASCA‘s work, the TSCI identified areas of skill and knowledge development
essential to school counseling program implementation: (a) leadership, (b)
advocacy, (c) teaming and collaboration, (d) use of data, and (e) systemic
change (House & Martin, 1998; Martin, 2002).
A national investigation of public high schools (N = 1,001) reported
on four guidance program goals for students for 1984 and 2002: (a)
preparing and planning for work, (b) personal growth and development, (c)
planning and preparing for postsecondary education, and (d) academic
achievement. Findings for 2002 ranked workforce preparation the least
emphasized goal by 51% of the respondents, followed by personal growth
and development (31%), with postsecondary planning and preparation and
academic achievement accounting for 9% each. In 1984, workforce
preparation ranked 4th with 39% of the participants, while personal growth
and development, planning and preparing for postsecondary education, and
academic achievement received participant responses of 29%, 12%, and
20%, respectively for the least emphasized goal in a guidance program.
Reportedly, written student plans existed for 64% of the high school
guidance programs; however, only 47% required student participation
(USDOE, 2003).
38
Nelson, Robles-Pina, and Nichter (2008) investigated role practices
and preferences of 475 high school counselors using the School Counselor
Activity Rating Scale [SCARS]. The SCARS measures school counselors‘
practices and preferences counseling (e.g., small group counseling, academic
issues); consultation (e.g., coordinate student referrals, consult with
parents); curriculum (e.g., classroom lessons on career development);
coordination (e.g., coordinate parent workshops, attend professional
development activities); and other duties (e.g., schedule students for
classes, perform bus duty) (Scarborough, 2005).
Results found were statistical significance (p < .001) between the
actual and preferred practices of these respondents in addition to practical
significance as indicated by effect sizes ranging from 0.49 – 1.37; overall,
participants preferred to engage in more of the program components than
not (Nelson et al., 2008). The current study proposes to expand on Nelson et
al.‘s research through the examination of the actual and preferred career
intervention practices of public high school counselors. Time spent on other
duties detracted from actual time spent on counseling, consultation,
curriculum, and coordination. This finding was supported by previous
research that reported, ―high school counselors, by spending an inordinate
amount of time carrying out clerical and administrative tasks have limited
ability to deliver effective services to students‖ (Lapan, Gysbers, & Kayson,
2007, p. 7).
Similar to Nelson et al. (2008), Dahir, Burnham, and Stone (2009)
utilized survey research to probe deeper into school counselor practices as

39
they related to school counseling priorities, school setting perceptions,
personal-social development, career and postsecondary development,
academic development, and program management. The Assessment of
School Counselor Needs for Professional Development (ASCNPD), a 56 item
instrument, measured the aforementioned components using a 5-point Likert
scale (1 = not important at all, 5 = very important); internal consistency of
the ASCNPD ranged from α = .69 (program management) to α = .91 (school
counseling priorities, school setting perceptions) with an overall estimate of α
= .94. The career and postsecondary subscale, in particular, approximated
internal consistency of .81. Findings for the career and postsecondary
subscale indicated less emphasis of this component at the elementary and
middle school level than at the high school level. Similarly, Pérusse and
Goodnough‘s (2005) examination of school counselors‘ perceptions of
graduate level training supported the aforementioned finding; their study
suggested elementary counselors attached less importance to career
counseling course content as opposed to secondary school counselors.
Continuing with investigations specifically in the career domain,
Osborn and Baggerly (2004) studied K-12 school counselors‘ perceptions and
practices (N = 1,280) in career counseling and career testing. Career
counseling can be defined as ―verbal interaction between the counselee and
the counselor in which the counselor employs various techniques and
strategies to assist the counselee, usually within a theoretical framework; on
the other hand, career testing utilized qualitative and quantitative
instruments to enhance the career counseling process‖ ( p. 46). Paired

40
sample t-tests showed significant discrepancies (p<.01) between school
counselors‘ actual and ideal time engaging in career counseling and career
testing. In particular, 51.7% of high school counselors indicated career
counseling as a preference, whereas almost 37% identified career testing as
a preferred activity. Regression analyses revealed career counseling actual
time (R2 = .42; ES = .72); career counseling ideal time (R2 = .42; ES = .72);
career testing actual time (R2 = .36; ES = .56); and career testing ideal time
(R2 = .40; ES = .67).
Osborn and Baggerly‘s findings reinforced previous research (i.e.,
Dahir, Burnham, & Stone, 2009; Pérusse & Goodnough, 2005) on career
practices and preferences of elementary school counselors whom reportedly
practiced less career counseling (p < .01) than their secondary counterparts
with comparable results for actual career testing in their elementary
programs. Lara (2004), similar to Pérusse & Goodnough, investigated
counselor preparation programs resulting in findings suggesting inconsistent
advocacy for career counseling content by counselor educators produced
biased perceptions of the importance of career counseling. Furthermore,
concern about adequate coverage of career counseling content in one
required course was noted. As previously mentioned (Pérusse, Goodnough, &
Noel, 2001), the majority of counselor preparation programs mandated only
one career counseling course for master‘s level preparation.
Summary
Career theories continued to provide a foundation for life career
development. From Parsons (1909) tripartite model to Sampson et al.‘s

41
(2003) pyramid approach, research demonstrated the utility and extension of
career theory with multiple populations. Studies viewed multiple theories
through various perspectives; for example, Holland‘s work outlined six
vocational personality types; subsequently, Osborn and Reardon (2006) and
Glaser et al. (2003), among others, demonstrated the adaptability of
Holland‘s work. Super (1990) and Ginzberg et al. (Zunker, 2006)
concentrated on the developmental aspect of career development, with the
latter focused on early adolescents and the former centered on life roles
within each developmental stage.
Uninformed decision-making coupled with changing workplace
requirements produced incongruence between students‘ postsecondary
preparations and their aspirations and expectations (Feller, 2003; Sirin et al.,
2004; Venezia et al., 2003). One strategy to address this conundrum
involved researchers examining discrepancies in racial and gender aspirations
through a social cognitive career theory lens, noting significant differences
(Mau & Bikos, 2000); similarly, Patton and Creed (2007) suggested
discrepancies from the viewpoint of Holland‘s RIASEC code. Some
recommended school counseling program interventions included (a) rigorous
academic programs for all students, particularly those students not
previously identified as college bound; (b) greater attention to contextual
student barriers; and (c) embracing evaluation of career constructs such as
career maturity and career decision-making self efficacy in career
development programs (Mau & Bikos, 2000; Patton & Creed, 2007).
42
Individual learning plans for students sometimes referred to as student
learning plans and individual graduation plans, among other nomenclature,
locally and nationally have an increased presence (Connolly, 2009; DDE,
2009; KDE, 2006; ODE, 2009; RIDE, 2006; SCL, 2008). Sparse research
existed on students‘ outcomes in relation to these plans; however, students
reported some benefits in planning with some gender differences along with
an increased sense of belonging (Bullock et al., 1996; Bullock & Wikeley,
1999; Welsh, 2005).
In the last decade, school counseling programs transformed from a
service-oriented model to a program-oriented model (ASCA, 2005; House &
Martin, 1998; Martin, 2002). Based on this change, the literature addressed
school counselors‘ perceptions, preferences, and practices from instruments
to measure accountability to specific areas such as students‘ career
development with findings that additional research was warranted (Osborn &
Baggerly, 2004; Scarborough, 2005). Studies on graduate programs revealed
discrepancies between the perceived importance of career courses, the actual
practices of school counselors, and the role of school counselors in life career
development (ASCA, 2006; Lara, 2004; Pérusse & Goodnough, 2005;
Pérusse et al., 2001; Wyrick, 2004). Findings suggested rigorous program
evaluation to determine practices and focused career domain professional
development may address reported discrepancies. Similar issues are
investigated in the current study; research questions 1 and 2 explore the
practices and preferences of public high school counselors, specifically
relating to the career domain. Furthermore, research question 3 of the

43
current study explored time spent on career domain professional
development.
Chapter II reviewed the literature supporting this study on the career
intervention practices and preferences of high school counselors Chapter III
describes the research design, sampling, instrumentation, data collection,
and data analysis as it relates to this study.

44
III. METHODOLOGY
Introduction
This sequential, explanatory mixed methods study examined the
current career intervention practices and preferences of high school
counselors within the context of the career domain of individual learning
plans. Results of this study may assist school-based professionals and
educational policymakers in planning and implementing high school career
education programs. Additionally, students may benefit from career
intervention programs that contain field-based, advising, curriculum, and
introductory elements. Such a program could support students‘ behaviors in
making informed decisions regarding postsecondary plans. The research
questions were:
counselors in a southern New England state practice as school
counselors in a southern New England state prefer as school
3. Is there a relationship between the career intervention practices
and preferences of high school counselors in a southern New
England state and the following variables?
a. gender

45
4. How are public high school counselors supporting the career
component of students‘ Individual Learning Plans in a southern
New England state?
Research Design
The purpose of this sequential, explanatory mixed methods study was
to describe the career intervention practices and preferences of high school
counselors in support of students‘ Individual Learning Plans. This research
design required quantitative data collection and analysis, prior to qualitative
data collection and analysis, subsequent to final interpretation (Creswell,
2003). Furthermore, mixed method approaches in counseling research is
increasing; Hanson, Creswell, Plano Clark, Petska, and Creswell (2005)
identified and examined 22 studies from 1986–2000 employing various
mixed methods designs. Of the 22 studies, five utilized a sequential
explanatory format with four of the five studies focused on the career
domain.
Group interviewing post survey research is a viable method to
elaborate on data (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2007; Frey & Fontana, 1991;
Krueger & Casey, 2009; Morgan, 1997). Diverging from typical groups, a
focus group interview format emphasizes data collection; other groups are
designed to reach consensus, generate solutions, or discuss a problem.
Additionally, the data collection is dependent upon group interaction (Clark,
1992; Krueger & Casey). Phase I, a survey questionnaire based on the career
taxonomy structure of Dykeman et al. (2003), included close-ended, open-

46
ended, and demographic questions. In Phase II, group interview participants
were high school counselors who contributed to Phase I.
Sampling
The purposive sample (N = 196) were public high school counselors in
a southern New England state. Inclusion criteria were employment as a
public high school counselor any time during the 2007–2009 school years
and identification in the RIDE database as a certified professional school
counselor. Local school districts are required to update and submit employee
database no later than October 1 of each school year. Purposeful sampling
supports homogeneous groups that have similar experiences (Creswell &
Plano Clark, 2007; Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2007; Huck, 2008; Patton, 1990).
Using The Free Statistics Calculator Website © (Soper, 2009), an a priori
power analysis with an alpha level .05, 4 predictors, a .15 effect size, and a
power level 0.8 established a desired sample size of 84 for the purposes of
determining significant differences in high school counselors‘ career
intervention practices and preferences. For purposes of this study, the
sample was all public high school counselors identified in the RIDE teacher
database (N = 196) in this southern New England state; therefore, the
sampling error was ±7.14.
The state school counseling association and the state education
department's employment database were the sources of information to
ascertain the sample population along with their contact information.
The group participants (n = 2) were self-described as (1) the school
counseling department chair for the past five years (employed as a school
47
counselor for eight) in an urban ring high school and (2) the lone school
counselor of a newly opened career and technical high school. Additionally,
the first participant is a current board member of the state school counseling
association who has taken part in numerous professional development
workshops sponsored by the association that included career domain topics
(e.g., career clusters, computer assisted career guidance system). Although
the second participant indicated less years as a school counselor, this
respondent had prior experience as a middle school counselor. Part of this
participant‘s duties as a middle school counselor included teaching career
education two periods a day using a self-designed curriculum. Additionally,
the second participant was previously employed as a vocational counselor in
a community outreach program, primarily responsible for job coaching and
securing job training positions for the program‘s clientele.
Instrumentation
This study employed online survey research and focus group
interviewing in a two-phase sequence. The self-designed survey, Career
Intervention Practices and Preferences of High School Counselors, was
adapted from a taxonomy of career interventions developed to bring
specificity to career interventions evaluation and research by clarifying,
specifying, and organizing work supporting career interventions. The design
of the 44 career interventions taxonomy resulted from an extensive review of
literature, document analysis, and content experts‘ guidance (Dykeman et
al., 2001; Dykeman et al., 2003). Randomly sampling the Guidance Division
of the Association for Career and Technical Education, Dykeman et al.

48
surveyed 180 professionals as part of their study. Fifty-five percent of the
respondents self-identified as counselors; on average, the total sample
reported 15 years of career development experience. Factor analysis
supported a four taxon structure, namely, Work –Based Interventions,
Advising Interventions, Introductory Interventions, and Curriculum
Interventions. Taxa exemplars determined the final nomenclature; for
example, the exemplar for Introductory Interventions was Career Day/Career
Fair. Dykeman et al. posited a career interventions taxonomy may improve
communication among educators, enhance formative and summative
evaluation, and ameliorate research. Previous studies and current literature
pointed to a need for clarification of CSCP outcomes (Dimmit, Carey, &
Hatch, 2007; Lapan, Gysbers, & Sun, 1997; Whiston & Sexton, 1998); the
taxonomy research provided a structure for CSCPs to address the career
development needs of high school students (Dykeman, Wood, Ingram,
Pehrsson, Mandsager, & Herr, 2003).
Additionally, the survey item scale was derived from the School
Counselor Activity Rating Scale (SCARS), an instrument measuring the
frequency of school counselors‘ actual and preferred activities in five
categories: counseling, consultation, curriculum, coordination, and other
duties (Scarborough, 2005). Using the same scale with a focus on career
interventions may expand the evaluation and research literature for
comprehensive school counseling programs.
The three part survey instrument consisted of 5-point Likert-type
questions focused on career interventions in Part I, rated from I rarely

49
include this to I routinely include this for actual practice; preference ratings
ranged from I would prefer to never include this to I would prefer to routinely
include this. The Cronbach‘s alpha calculated for the eight subscales was:
Field–Actual, .88; Field-Prefer, .88; Advising-Actual, .82; Advising–Prefer,
.90; Introduction-Actual, .73; Introduction-Prefer, .79; Curriculum-Actual;
.69; and Curriculum-Prefer, .80, with .70 an acceptable reliability coefficient
(Gay, Mills, & Airasian, 2006; Nunnally, 1978). Taxa level alphas were .90 for
Field and Advising and .80 for Introductory and Curriculum with total scale
.94.
Part II was comprised of three questions, one close-ended and two
open-ended questions addressing Individual Learning Plan implementation.
Last, demographic information (e.g., gender, hours engaged in professional
development, professional memberships) was collected in the final section.
Prior to using this instrument with the broader sample, eight high
school counselors in this southern New England state were invited to pilot
the instrument for clarity, content validity, and ease-of-use. Of the eight
invitees, three responded indicating the approximate amount of time needed
to complete the survey instrument (15 minutes) and noted the user-friendly
format. One respondent expressed concern about differentiating between
terms such as job shadowing and job coaching along with work-study and
cooperative education. After reviewing the literature and several graduate
level career textbooks, the terminology remained unchanged because each
term was reflected in the reviewed material. To avoid bias, pilot group
respondents did not participate in the actual two-phase study. Based on the
50
pilot group‘s feedback, approximate completion time became part of the
instructions (Creswell, 2002; Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2007).
In Phase II, a group (n = 2) was conducted to expand on the survey
data. A semi-structured format (Appendix D) was employed to allow for
deeper participant perspectives with minimal moderator involvement
(Krueger & Casey, 2009; Morgan, 1997). Moderator involvement was
minimized to allow for greater transference of learning from the participants
to the researcher while insuring confidentiality (Morgan).
Data Collection
The data collection occurred in two phases; Phase I, a web-based
survey using Likert-type scale questions and open-ended questions, was
delivered via SurveyMonkey ™, an online survey program (Appendix B).
Online survey research is used increasingly as a method for data collection
due to increased internet use (Granello & Wheaton, 2003). Privacy issues,
responses rates, and the use of incentives were all possible limitations to
web-based survey research; however, the literature also noted advantages
such as cost of administration, reduced response times, and ease of data
entry (Converse, Wolfe, Huang, & Oswald, 2008; Fleming & Bowden, 2007;
Granello & Wheaton, 2003).
SurveyMonkey ™ featured a data collector designed to email survey
links to selected electronic mail addresses, send out scheduled reminders,
and track respondents and non-respondents. Electronic mail addresses for
the sample were obtained in two ways: (1) the state counseling association's
membership database, and (2) the professional development database of the

51
researcher, and entered into the online collector. Due to high school
counselors‘ responsibilities during the first weeks of school and the scheduled
administration of the state standardized assessment in early Fall, the survey
web link was sent to the sample (N = 196) during the last two weeks of
September. Rejected electronic mail addresses were corrected (n = 4) and
re-sent. A scheduled reminder went to non-respondents (n = 175) one week
after the initial request followed by a second reminder (n = 122) prior to the
closing of the web collector for a 43.9% (n = 84) return rate. Response rate
calculations tend to be more accurate when web based survey requests are
delivered to a selected group as opposed to a listserv or newsgroup. The
latter allowed for possible forwarding of the request to unknown participants,
thus preventing accurate measurement of response rates (Granello &
Wheaton, 2003). On the other hand, Converse et al. (2008) reported
stronger response rates using a combination of mail and web-based delivery
methods with the former as the primary method; however, identified benefits
took precedence in the current study (Converse et al., 2008; Fleming &
Bowden, 2007; Granello & Wheaton, 2003).
Phase II was an invitation only audio taped group interview with a
predetermined date, location, and time. On the last page of the survey
instrument, survey participants received an invitation to participate in the
group interview; the request contained the date, location, time of the
interview, and a financial incentive of entry into a VISA gift card raffle
(Appendix A). The literature supports cash incentives to participate in web-

52
based survey participation and group interviews (Birnholtz, Horn, Finholt, &
Bae 2004; Krueger and Casey, 2009).
The sample group (n = 84) received an email reminder with location,
date, and time of the interview; prior to the interview, group participants (n
= 2) received a briefing on the study‘s purpose, had the opportunity to ask
questions, and signed the consent form. The interview was conducted using a
semi-structured interview guide (see Appendix C).
Data Analysis
Survey research addressed the first research question , ―What career
intervention practices do public high school counselors in a southern New
England state practice as a school counseling program component?‖ and
research question 2, ―What career intervention practices do public high
school counselors in a southern New England state prefer as a school
counseling program component?‖ Stepwise multiple regressions investigated
possible relationships between career interventions practices and preferences
and the explanatory variables: gender, years employed as a school
counselor, hours of professional development in the career domain, and
membership in professional organizations (Huck, 2008). The explanatory
variables were introduced into the regression equation dependent upon each
variable‘s correlation with career intervention practices and preferences
(Huck, 2008), whereas the group interview expanded on data from the
survey questionnaire (Creswell, 2003; Krueger & Casey, 2009; Morgan,
1997).
53
Using PASW (v. 17), descriptive statistics (frequency, percentages,
means, and standard deviations) were calculated to describe the sample.
Additionally, open-ended survey questions underwent analysis for common
themes and patterns. Initial coding through the classic approach sought
emerging patterns, themes, and concepts for the open-ended questions;
transcripts of the answers were cut into sentence strips, spread out, and
analyzed for common themes and patterns (Krueger & Casey, 2009). This
process resulted in emerging themes of goal setting, computer assisted
career guidance system, education planning, career assessment, individual
counseling, group counseling, classroom lessons, proficiency-based
graduation requirements, and implementation barriers. Subsequently, a
second recoding cycle using the zig-zag approach (Creswell, 2003) further
collapsed themes. Throughout the coding cycles, a codebook along with
analytic memos reflecting on the process informed the method (Saldana,
2009). A verbatim transcript from the audio-recorded group interview
underwent a similar process including lexical analysis of the transcribed text
using Sphinx™ software in an effort to cross-validate emerging categories
and themes. Subsequently, a comparative analysis of data from the survey
questionnaire, group interview, and ex post facto data from the Rhode Island
School Counselor Report (CSIEP, 2009) integrated the findings from Phase I
and Phase II. The Rhode Island School Counselor Report is comprised of 34
questions on experiences and practices of local school counselors (e.g.,
planning & strategy, data, student development).

54
Summary
Chapter III delineated the research design, sampling,
instrumentation, data collection, and data analysis. Chapter IV presents
detailed analyses of findings pertaining to each research question. Chapter V
discusses the implications of the study and suggestions for future research.
55
IV. FINDINGS
Chapter Overview
This chapter introduces the current study with a brief description of
the research design. Descriptive statistics (frequency, percentages, means,
standard deviations) for the sample (n = 84) are then presented. Finally,
data analyses for each research question are detailed, concluding with a
summary of the chapter.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this explanatory, sequential mixed methods study was
to explore the career intervention practices and preferences of public high
school counselors. In addition, the study examined the relationship between
selected explanatory variables and the level of career intervention practices
and preferences in four career taxa: Field-based, Advising, Introductory, and
Curriculum. Additionally, public high school counselors‘ support of students‘
Individual Learning Plans in the career domain was investigated. Phase I, a
web-based survey, comprised of close and open-ended questions, focused on
demographic data collection and investigated the career intervention
practices and preferences of local public high school counselors (N = 196).
The sample response rate was almost 43% (n = 84) with a sample error of
± 7.14. Stepwise regression analyses were conducted on the four selected
explanatory variables, (a) gender, (b) years as a school counselor, (c) hours
of professional development in the career domain, and (d) membership in
professional organizations, and the aforementioned taxa. Phase II, a group

56
interview (n = 2), expanded upon the findings from Phase I and ascertained
new themes pertinent to the research questions.
Sample Demographics
Survey Participants
A web-based survey, Career Intervention Practices and Preferences of
High School Counselors (see Appendix A) was sent to the electronic mailing
addresses of the sample via SurveyMonkey‘s™ web collector. An examination
of the Rhode Island Department of Education‘s (RIDE) database of current
employees and the membership database of the Rhode Island School
Counselor Association produced a listing of 196 public high school counselors
with 84 responding to the study. Approximately, three-fourths of the
respondents were female with slightly more than three-fifths of all
respondents indicating 10 years or less as a school counselor. Table 1
reflects the gender and years employed as a school counselor of the
respondents.
Table 1
Number and Percentage of Public High School Counselors by Gender and

Years Employed as a School Counselor
Variable n %
Gender
Male 20 23.8
Female 64 76.2
Years Employed
Less than 5 20 23.8
6 - 10 31 36.9
11 - 15 10 11.9
16 - 20 6 7.1
More than 20 4 4.8
Missing values 13 15.5
57
Consisting of 39 cities and towns, this southern New England state has
36 locally controlled school districts governed by school committees and
superintendents. Respondents represented 28 (77.7%) of the districts;
likewise, 68.4% of the 57 public high schools participated. Of the 57 public
high schools, 53 are stand alone high schools, one is a combination middle
school/high school, and three are joint elementary, middle, and high schools
(RIDE, 2009).
Local counselor education programs (N = 2) mandate one graduate
level three-credit career information course as a program requirement;
national research concurs with that requirement in over 90% of the programs
in the United States (Pérusse et al., 2001). Participants were asked how
many career courses were in their career preparation program. Male
responses ranged from 35% for one course to almost 18% for five courses.
Similarly, female participants‘ course taking patterns ranged almost 11% for
one course to approximately 15% for five courses (see Table 2).
Table 2
Number of Career Courses in College Preparation Program by Gender as

Reported by Public High School Counselors
Variable Career courses

1 2 3 4 5
Gender
Male 6 4 3 1 3
Female 22 18 4 2 8
Note. Number of cases missing = 13
National research investigated the types and levels of professional
development offered to public high school counselors, including career
domain specific information. Respondents ranked workforce preparation the

58
least important of four program goals (USDOE, 2003). Similarly, local
participants reported their annual hours of career domain specific
professional development in Table 3. The majority of males (81%) reported
between 5 -10 hours, while 60% of the females‘ participation ranged from
less than 5 hours to 10 hours; however, over one-fourth of those females
specified less than 5 hours.
Table 3
Frequency of Annual Hours of Professional Development and Frequency of

Annual Hours of Career Domain Specific Professional Development by Gender
Variable Male (n) Female (n)

Annual PD
15 1 5
16-35 4 21
36-55 7 17
56-75 5 5
Over 75 0 7
Annual Career
PD
<5 1 15
5-10 7 18
11-15 6 8
16-20 1 4
> 20 1 10
Note. Male annual PD non-respondents = 3, male annual career
non-respondents = 4. Female annual PD and annual career PD non-
respondents = 9
The ASCA National Model© recommends a student to school counselor
ratio of 1:250. Currently, the estimated ratio for this southern New England
state is 1:360, while the estimated national ratio is 1:460 (ASCA, n.d.).
Almost 50% of study participants reportedly have caseloads averaging
between 250-325 students. With 14% of the sample females (n = 9) not
responding to that question, 47% indicated responsibility for 250-325

59
students, and 30% of the male respondents reported 175-250 students as
their average caseload (15% of the males did not reply to this question).
Group Interview Participants
The group interview participants self-identified as (1) a department
chair of the counseling program in an urban ring high school, and (2) a
counselor in a career and technical high school in an urban area. The very
low response rate (almost 3%) was a concern for this study. The group
interview depends upon the interaction between group members to elicit
information (Krueger & Casey, 2009). Although, it was questionable if low
group membership would produce useful information to the study, the group
interview was included to possibly corroborate the survey findings and
produced additional insight into the research study. Those findings are
discussed later in this chapter.
Research Question 1
What career interventions practices do public high school counselors in
a southern New England state practice as a school counseling program
component?
Actual Practices
Research question 1 was addressed through the examination of item
level responses of the participants. The survey instrument‘s close-ended
questions asked participants to identify the actual career interventions
practices within their comprehensive school counseling programs.
Respondents indicated their actual career intervention practices on a 5-point
Likert scale ranging from 1= I never include this to 5 = I routinely include

60
this (see Appendix A). The first taxon, Field-based, is comprised of 10 items
that require students to participate in interventions outside of the classroom
in a community setting. For example, students may participate in an
internship at a local business for a set amount of time or engage in a
mentorship program where business professionals advise students. Second,
the 20 item Advising taxon focused on student planfulness of which
completing a career interest assessment is one of many options. Next, the
Introductory taxon consisted of seven short-term items focused on preparing
students for their future. Within this taxon, students can participate in career
days, take part in a career field trip, or learn about careers through a
guidance lesson. Lastly, the Curriculum-based interventions (7 elements)
emphasized career related content delivered for longer periods than the
Introductory interventions. Students might attend a career academy that
emphasizes an area of vocational interest or learn more about a career
interest through a student club. Descriptive statistics (e.g., mean, standard
deviation) were calculated for the 44 career interventions.
Field-based items. Descriptive statistics for the ten Field-based items
(see Table 4) determined Internship and Service Learning had the highest
mean (M = 2.61); however, Internship displayed a slightly larger dispersion
in scores than Service Learning (SD = 1.47, SD = 1.22, respectively). In
contrast, 6th ranked Work Study (M = 2.18, SD = 1.37) had a greater
variance from the mean when compared to Service Learning. Overall, Youth
Apprenticeships, the practice of placing students in an apprenticeship related

61
to their technical field of study, ranked last in comparison to the other nine
items.
Table 4
Public High School Counselors’ Actual Practice of Field-based Career

Interventions Rank Ordered by Mean
FIELD - BASED n M SD
Internship 79 2.61 1.47
Service Learning/Volunteer Programs 79 2.61 1.22
Cooperative Education 76 2.49 1.18
Job Shadowing 79 2.27 1.22
Mentorship 78 2.23 1.37
Work Study 77 2.18 1.37
Work-based Learning Project 76 2.12 1.29
Job Placement 78 1.92 1.10
Job Coaching 77 1.84 1.04
Youth Apprenticeships 76 1.79 1.16
Note. n= the number of respondents per item.
Advising items. Participants noted their actual practice of the 20
items deemed as Advising items such as planning activities, strategies, and
techniques (see Table 5). Ordered by descendent means, Academic Planning
(M = 4.79, SD = .47) ranked first in actual practice in CSCPs, whereas the
Career Passport intervention (M = 1.74, SD = 1.11) was practiced the least,
suggesting that the former intervention was more important to all the
respondents in contrast to the latter intervention. Despite possessing the
lowest mean in this group, Career Passport had the 5th lowest variance in
scores; the largest deviation from the mean occurred in College Admissions
62
Testing (M = 3.47, SD = 1.57). In addition to participants reportedly
practicing more Academic Planning and Personal/Social Counseling in their
CSCPS, scores in both items tended to cluster around the mean when
compared to the other items in this taxon.
Table 5
Public High School Counselors’ Actual Practice of Advising Career

Interventions Ranked Ordered by Mean
ADVISING n M SD
Academic Planning Counseling 77 4.79 .47
Personal/Social Counseling 77 4.53 .75
Career Counseling 76 3.88 1.07
Career Interests Assessment 75 3.76 1.00
Portfolio/Individual Career Plan 76 3.71 1.13
Computer Assisted Career Guidance System 73 3.55 1.30
College Admissions Testing 75 3.47 1.57
Career Cluster/Pathway/Major 73 3.29 1.24
Recruiting (College, Military) 75 3.16 1.37
Cooperative/Dual Enrollment 76 3.05 1.21
Referral External Training Programs 74 2.97 1.05
Career Library/Career Resource Center 75 2.96 1.33
Referral External Counseling/Assessment 76 2.93 1.12
Career Focused Parent/Student Conference 76 2.92 1.19
Information Interviewing 72 2.78 1.44
(continued)
63
Table 5
Public High School Counselors’ Actual Practice of Advising Career

Interventions Ranked Ordered by Mean (continued)
ADVISING n M SD
Career Map 75 2.57 1.35
Career Peer Advising/Tutoring 75 2.53 1.35
Job Hunting Preparation 74 2.36 1.22
Career Maturity Assessment 73 1.88 1.13
Career Passport/Skill Certificate 73 1.74 1.11
Note. n = number of respondents per intervention.
Introductory items. Seven items categorized as short –term
interventions of an introductory nature comprised this section of the survey
(see Appendix A). Guidance lessons for academic (M = 4.12, SD = .94),
career (M = 3.57, SD = 1.11), and personal/social (M = 3.55, SD = 1.17)
interventions were the top ranking career interventions, particularly
academic lessons, considered more important by the respondents (see Table
6). Upon further analysis, participants‘ scores for the Career Day
intervention indicated slightly less clustering around the mean in comparison
to other interventions in this taxon. Although the item Community Members
Teach in Class received the least amount of attention in CSCPs, its variance
was similar to the items Career Aptitude Assessment and Career Field Trip
(see Table 6). Overall, Career Day had the widest variance in participants‘
responses.
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Table 6
Public High School Counselor’s Actual Practice of Introductory Career

Interventions Ranked Ordered by Mean
INTRODUCTORY n M SD
Guidance Lessons - Academic 74 4.12 .94
Guidance Lessons - Career 74 3.57 1.11
Guidance Lessons – Personal/Social 74 3.55 1.17
Career Aptitude Assessment 72 3.06 1.24
Career Day 74 2.77 1.62
Career Field Trip 73 2.33 1.27
Community Members Teach in Classroom 73 2.03 1.28
Note. n = the number of respondents to each intervention.
Curriculum-based items. The remaining seven pairs of interventions
were targeted activities and strategies designed with a long-term delivery
system, unlike the Introductory items that were designed to be delivered in
the short-term. The item School-based Enterprise demonstrated the least
variance in participants‘ scores while being identified as the least practiced
(M = 1.53, SD = .93) of the Introductory career interventions (see Table 7).
Table 7
Public High School Counselors Actual Practice of Curriculum Career

CURRICULUM-BASED n M SD
Student Clubs/Activities 66 3.48 1.33
Career/Technical Education Course 66 3.02 1.44
Career Information in Curriculum 68 2.91 1.23
(continued)
65
Table 7
Public High School Counselors Actual Practice of Curriculum Career

Interventions Rank Ordered by Mean (continued)
Career Skills in Curriculum 66 2.65 1.25
Career Academy 63 2.25 1.46
Tech Prep/2+2 Curriculum 62 1.81 1.21
School-Based Enterprise 66 1.53 .93
Research Question 2
What career intervention practices do public high school counselors in
a southern New England state prefer as school counseling program
components?
Participants specified their preferred career interventions practices by
responding to the anchors 1 = I would prefer to never include this to 5 = I
would prefer to routinely include this. Delivered via SurveyMonkey™, the
survey instrument permitted school counselors to indicate their preference
level for the 44 career interventions (see Appendix A). Using descriptive
statistics (e.g., number of respondents, mean, standard deviation),
preferences were organized in descending order within each taxon.
Field-based. This ten-item taxon produced a mean difference of .63
from the highest ranked intervention, Internship (M = 3.99, SD = 1.02), to
the lowest ranked intervention, Job Placement (M = 3.36, SD = 1.30), in
response to preferred practice within a CSCP (see Table 8). Scores tended to
66
be clustered around the mean, noting comparable preferences from this
sample.
Table 8
Public High School Counselor’s Preferred Practice Field-based Career

FIELD BASED n M SD
Service Learning/Volunteer Programs 71 3.85 1.09
Mentorship Programs 72 3.82 .98
Cooperative Education 69 3.74 .95
Youth Apprenticeships 71 3.69 1.14
Work Based Learning Project 71 3.59 1.17
Work Study 69 3.58 1.23
Note. n = the number of respondents per intervention.
Advising. Seven of the 20 items within this taxon exhibited less than
one standard deviation from the mean suggesting the desire to include more
of these components in CSCPs (see Table 9). Overall, the variability was low
for this taxon, with College Admissions Testing garnering the highest spread
(M = 3.73, SD = 1.40) on a 5 point Likert scale. Three areas of counseling,
Academic Planning, Personal/Social, and Career Counseling, placed in the top
fifth of the 20 items while Referral to External Counseling, ranked in the
bottom fifth.
67
Table 9
Public High School Counselors Preferred Advising Interventions Rank Ordered

by Mean
ADVISING n M SD
Academic Planning Counseling 69 4.81 .43

Personal/Social Counseling 68 4.57 .63
Career Interests Assessment 70 4.49 .72
Career Counseling 69 4.36 .89
Computer Assisted Career Guidance System 66 4.35 .83
Portfolio/Individual Career Plan 69 4.17 .94
Career Library/Career Resource Center 68 4.16 1.05
Career Cluster/Pathway/Major 70 4.00 1.12
Career Focused Parent/Student Conference 72 3.94 1.02
Cooperative/Dual Enrollment 68 3.93 .95
Career Map 69 3.81 1.03
Information Interviewing 67 3.81 1.03
College Admissions Testing 64 3.73 1.41
Referral to External Training Programs 65 3.63 1.01
Job Hunting Preparation 68 3.59 1.11
Career Maturity Assessment 68 3.49 1.11
Career Peer Advising/Tutoring 70 3.43 1.21
Referral to External Counseling/Assessment 68 3.38 1.16
Recruiting (college, military) 66 3.35 1.34
Career Passport/Skill Certificate 69 3.17 1.35
Introductory. Computation of preferred introductory practices
resulted in four out of the seven items (57%) signifying little variability in the
scores (see Table 10). Community Members Teach in Classroom accrued the
lowest mean while demonstrating more variability from the mean (M = 3.36,
SD = 1.24) within the grouped items.

68
Table 10
Public High School Counselors Preferred Introductory Career Interventions

Rank Ordered by Mean
INTRODUCTORY n M SD
Guidance Lessons on Academic Planning 68 4.50 .68
Guidance Lessons on Career Development 69 4.48 .72
Guidance Lessons on Personal/Social Development 67 4.33 .79
Career Aptitude Assessment 65 4.18 .92
Career Day/Career Fair 67 4.06 1.11
Curriculum-based School counselors specified a high degree of
preference for the majority of the interventions in this set of items with low
variability of scores for Career Information Infused Into Curriculum, Career
and Technical Education Course, and Career Skills Infused into Curriculum
(see Table 11). However, responses for Tech Prep/2+2 Curriculum (M =
3.02, SD = 1.46) demonstrated almost 1.5 standard deviations from the
mean that suggested a wider range of scores for this intervention in contrast
to other items in this taxon. Overall, preferences for Curriculum-based
interventions revealed slightly higher variance when compared to the
Introductory interventions (see Tables 10 and 11).

69
Table 11
Public High School Counselors Preferred Curriculum-based Career

Career Information Infused Into Curriculum 63 4.21 .83
Career and Technical Education Course 62 4.19 .88
Career Skills Infused Into Curriculum 61 4.13 .94
Student Clubs/Activities 62 4.02 1.14
Career Academy/Career Magnet School 58 3.14 1.41
School-based Enterprise 58 2.98 1.29
Research Question 3
Is there a relationship between the career intervention practices and
preferences of high school counselors in a southern New England state and
the following variables?
a. gender
c. hours of annual professional development in the career
domain
Multiple Stepwise Regression
Four multiple stepwise regression analyses were conducted to
determine if relationships existed between the outcome variables (i.e., Field-
based, Advising, Introductory, Curriculum-based) and the explanatory

70
variables (gender, years as a school counselor, annual career domain
professional development, membership in professional organization). Prior to
the analyses, dummy coding computed categorical variables for male, years
worked as a school counselor and hours of annual career domain specific
professional development for the regression analyses. Dichotomous values of
0 and 1 were assigned to the transformed variables with 1 containing the
variable. The new variables for years worked as a school counselor resulted
in five potential explanatory variables: yearswork1 (less than 5), yearswork2
(6 - 10), yearswork3 (11 - 15), yearswork4 (16 – 20), and yearswork5
(more than 20). A similar transformation for the number of hours of
professional development in the career domain resulted in five new variables:
career PD1(less than 5), careerPD2 (5 – 10), careerPD3 (11 - 15), careerPD4
(16 - 20), and careerPD5 (more than 20). Membership in professional
organizations was determined by assigning dichotomous values to
membership in the American School Counselor Association (ASCA), the
National Career Development Association (NCDA), and local state school
counseling association (see Appendix A). In total, 14 possible explanatory
variables were identified for the stepwise regression analyses conducted to
examine the relationship between the four taxa and the explanatory
variables.
To examine the full range of responses within each of the four taxa,
participant responses were tabulated at the actual practice and preferred
practice levels, thus creating new outcome variables for the regression
71
analyses. The new outcome variables were FieldALL, AdvALL, IntroALL, and
CurrALL.
Field-based taxon
A stepwise multiple regression analysis was conducted to examine the
relationship between the FieldALL outcome variable and the explanatory
variables. The explanatory variable Career PD1 significantly entered the
equation, F (1, 68) = 6.50, p = .013, correlated at r =-.30 (see Table 12)
that accounted for approximately 7.4% of the variance in FieldALL (see Table
13). Criteria for entry into the equation, p = .05, excluded the remaining
explanatory variables from this model.
Table 12
Correlations of Explanatory Variables to FieldALL Outcome Variable
Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
1.FieldALL --- .17 -.05 -.05 -.18 .10 .09 -.05 .06 -.30* .09 .13 -.10 .08 .15
2. ASCA --- .18 .32 -.16 .08 .07 -.15 .18 .03 -.10 .29 .02 -.18 .36
3. NCDA --- .08 -.13 .24 -.08 -.07 -.05 -.11 -.00 .07 -.06 .10 .21
4. RISCA --- .03 -.04 .14 -.21 .08 .08 -.21 .18 -.08 .03 .10
5.YrsWk1 --- -.56 -.24 -.19 -.13 .06 .01 .00 -.18 .07 -.28
6. YrsWk2 --- -.34 -.27 -.19 -.05 .02 .13 -.02 -.07 .23
7. YrsWk3 --- -.12 -.08 .01 -.10 -.09 .06 .07 -.02
8. YrsWk4 --- -.07 .09 -.01 -.15 .31 -.13 .07
9. YrsWk5 --- -.11 -.00 .07 -.06 .10 .05
10.CarPD1 --- -.38 -.26 -.15 -.23 -.22
11.CarPD2 --- -.36 -.20 -.31 .08
12.CarPD3 --- -.14 -.22 .22
13.CarPD4 --- -.12 -.03
14.CarPD5 --- -.15
15. Male ---
*p < .05
Five hours or less of annual career domain professional development
(CarPD1) exhibited a low, negative relationship (r =- .30) with the career

72
interventions Field taxon. All of the remaining correlations were very weak
and non-significant (see Table 13).
Table 13
Stepwise Regression Results for Field-based Total and Selected Explanatory

Variables
Variable R R2 Adjusted t P
R2
Career PD1 .295 .087 .074 -2.55 .013
Note: Outcome Variable: Field-based Total. CarPD1 = less than 5 hours of annual
career domain professional development. Explanatory Variables: Gender, years as a
school counselor, hours of career domain professional development, and membership
in professional organizations.
Advising taxon. The newly formulated AdvALL variable and the
explanatory variables were entered into a regression analysis. The analysis
failed to enter any of the explanatory variables into the model at p < .05.
Introductory taxon. Similar to the previous regression analysis,
none of the explanatory variables entered the regression model to explain
the relationship between those variables and the tallied IntroALL outcome
variable.
Curriculum taxon. The final regression analysis examined the
relationship between the CurrALL outcome variable and the explanatory
variables gender, years as a school counselor, hours of annual career
professional development, and membership in professional organizations.
Like the prior two analyses, the model failed to enter any of the variables
into the equation.

73
Research Question 4
How are public high school counselors supporting the career
component of students‘ Individual Learning Plans in a southern New England
state?
Opened-ended Questions
The Career Intervention Practices and Preferences of High School
Counselors instrument asked participants to indicate their level of agreement
to ―The Individual Learning Plan is fully implemented in my school‖ (see
Appendix A). Anchors varied from 1 = Strongly disagree to 5 = Strongly
agree. Almost 60% of the respondents (n= 66) to this question reported a
fully implemented Individual Learning Plan program (see Figure 1) for a 79%
response rate. Two open-ended prompts on the survey were ―Describe how
your school integrates the career domain into the Individual Learning Plan‖
and ―Other Comments.‖ Of the 84 participants, 86% (n = 72) responded to
the former question and 12% (n = 10) responded to the latter question.
Comments from both questions were combined into one word-processed
document for preliminary analysis. Line numbering was applied to the
document to facilitate an examination of the text line by line.
Initial coding cycle. The comments in the preliminary analysis were
divided into 104 segments of text and arranged into eighteen groups based
on their inclusion of similar words or phrases. The eighteen groups were then
assigned themes that emerged from the analysis. The nine themes were
Assessment, Computer Assisted Career Guidance System, Delivery System,
Career and Technical Education, Community, Proficiency-based Graduation

74
Requirements, Educational/Career Planning, Goal Setting, and
Implementation Barriers (Appendix E). Table 14 provides the number of
groups within each theme in addition to the frequency of text segments in
each emergent theme.
Table 14
Ranked Frequency of Segmented Text of Open-ended Survey Questions by

Number of Groupings and Themes
Themes f Groupsa
Delivery System 22 3
CAGCS 21 1
Implementation Barriers 20 4
Assessment 11 2
Goal Setting 10 3
Educational/career planning 8 2
PBGR 5 1
Community 4 1
Career and Technical Education 3 1
Note: CAGCS = Computer Assisted Career Guidance System; PBGR = Proficiency-
based Graduation Requirements
a
Refers to the number of groups within each theme.
Assessment comprised statements that used the terms assessments,
interests, inventories, or named a specific product (e.g., Harrington-O‘Shea).
Computer Assisted Career Guidance System (CACGS) focused on segments
that mentioned WaytoGoRI, a comprehensive web portal customized for this
southern New England state. A CACGS is an interactive career planning
system that allows students to assess their interests, values, and aptitudes in
the context of postsecondary planning. The Delivery System consisted of text
segments that focused on who was providing the intervention and in what
context (i.e., advisory, classroom, individual counseling). Comments that
mentioned components of a technical education were assigned to the Career
and Technical Education theme, while text that involved people outside of the
75
school setting formed the Community theme. Proficiency-based Graduation
Requirements are a local mandate requiring students to complete a minimum
of two projects that have an applied learning component. Education/Career
Planning consisted of all text focused on course-taking patterns at the high
school and postsecondary level (e.g., course mapping each year). ―Students
documents goals each year‖ and similar statements were categorized under
Goal Setting, whereas all statements that suggested challenges to
implementation of the ILP were listed under Implementation Barriers.
Themes with the most frequent segments of text were Computer Assisted
Career Guidance System, Delivery System, and Implementation Barriers.
Career and Technical education garnered the least amount of text segments
(see Table 14).
Second coding cycle. Prior to the second coding cycle, intercoder
reliability was established by sending the transcript to two outside
researchers. One researcher, the current president of the ASCA, suggested
the groupings within themes for initial differentiation; the second researcher,
a former director of a regional School-to-Career program, validated the initial
coding. The survey instrument's career interventions taxonomy was used to
inform data analysis during the second coding cycle. Each text segment was
compared to the 44 career intervention practices comprising the survey
instrument and all segments were assigned to the corresponding taxon (see
Appendix F). Text segments categorized as Implementation Barriers did not
fit into the taxonomy structure; therefore, Implementation Barriers remained
a separate theme representing almost one-fifth of the total text segments

76
from the open-ended survey questions. With the second coding, the
frequency of comments by taxon was (a) Field-based – 3, (b) Advising – 53,
(c) Introductory – 25, and (d) Curriculum – 3; this accounted for 80% of the
total text segments.
Group Interview
Post survey research, a group interview (n = 2) was conducted to
expand on the survey data. Despite a financial incentive and a central
location, the response rate for the interview was less than 3%. A structured
interview guide designed to elicit additional information was used (see
Appendix C). Lexical analysis using Sphinx™ corroborated the current
themes and line-by-line analysis of the transcribed group interview revealed
additional themes.
Emergent themes. The emergent themes from the group interview
were Connectedness, Professional Development, Co-curricular, and Guidance
Course. Selected comments are presented in Table 15.
The last question in the interview requested the participants to
imagine an opportunity to have an uninterrupted audience with the state
Commissioner of Education to share their views on integrating the career
domain into ILPs. Creation of a guidance course was a shared response for
this scenario. Both participants perceived a dedicated class period
instrumental to implementing a comprehensive school counseling program.

77
Table 15
Selected Comments of New Emergent Themes from Group Interview
Theme Selected Comments

Connectedness
Participant A I think the whole integration of life needs to
be incorporated into school so that students
have the opportunity and the time to
investigate what it is they want from their
lives to give meaning to the courses they‘re
taking
Participant B … some of our kids need to understand that
you can‘t act like a kid when you‘re out
working, you‘d better show up, and you can‘t
come to your job late like you come to school
late and things like that. We‘re working on
things like that, it‘s all connected.
Participant A … the career, personal/social; they need to
have an understanding of how they all blend
together to get them through high school, to
get them through postsecondary…
Professional Development
Participant A I‘ve done a lot of professional development in
order to be able to understand the Career
Clusters, the lessons, the WaytoGo
Participant B The PDs teach you about the workforce
Co-curricular
Participant A …think about extracurricular type activities…
their career interests might even be a hobby
Guidance Course
Participant A I think that school counseling curriculum is so
important that it should be a class every year
Participant B I taught it two periods a day
Note. Guidance course was listed under the Introductory taxon. Co-curricular was
listed under the Curriculum taxon.
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Summary
This chapter presented the findings for the data analysis of the survey
instrument, Career Interventions Practices and Preferences of High School
Counselors. Tables and narratives offered descriptions of the sample (e.g.,
gender, years employed as a school counselor). Means and standard
deviations of the actual and preferred career intervention practices of public
high school counselors were presented for the four taxa: Field-based,
Advising, Introductory, and Curriculum-based. Stepwise multiple regressions
examined the relationships between the outcome variables (Field-based,
Advising, Introductory, and Curriculum-based) and selected explanatory
variables. An inductive process produced emergent themes from qualitative
data (i.e., open-ended questions, group interview); further analysis grouped
the emergent themes by the outcome variables.
Chapter V provides a detailed discussion of the findings, conclusions,
and recommendations.
79
V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, and RECOMMENDATIONS
Chapter Overview
The primary purpose of this explanatory, sequential mixed methods
study was to investigate the actual and preferred career intervention
practices of public high school counselors. Additionally, this study examined
the relationship between four outcome variables (Field-based, Advising,
Introductory, and Curriculum) and selected explanatory variables (gender,
years as a school counselor, annual hours of career domain professional
development, and membership in professional organizations).
Phase I was a web based survey consisting of open and close-ended
questions. Sample demographics were represented by frequencies and
percentages, while means, standard deviations, confidence intervals, and
effect sizes were computed for paired sample t-tests. In addition, multiple
stepwise regression analyses completed the Phase I analysis. Phase II, a
group interview, used a structured interview guide to expand upon the data
from Phase I. Results from the group interview were compared to Phase I
data, corroborating some emergent themes and producing several new
themes.
This chapter was organized by the findings from the quantitative
(survey) and qualitative (open-ended questions, group interview) data
analyses. Post discussion of the current study‘s findings, an overview of ex
post facto data, The Rhode Island School Counselor Report (CSIEP, 2009)
was offered for comparative analysis. Conclusions, based upon the research
literature and the results of this study, were presented next.

80
Recommendations for practice, policy, and subsequent research completed
this chapter.
Sample Demographics
An initial analysis of the demographic data for the current study
indicated a greater participation by female school counselors (n = 64,
76.2%) than male school counselors (n = 20, 23.8%). This is consistent with
previous research investigating the actual and preferred practices of school
counselors. Osborn and Baggerly‘s (2004) study of Florida school counselors‘
preferences for career counseling and career testing yielded responses from
84% female and 16% male participants. Scarborough and Culbreth‘s (2008)
investigation of discrepancies between actual and preferred practices had
similar demographics, 89.3% female and 10.7% male.
The majority of the respondents (n = 51, 60.7%) have been employed
as school counselors for 10 years or less, with almost one-fourth of the
respondents indicating 11 to more than 20 years of employment as a school
counselor. The ASCA National Model, first published in 2003, provides a
framework for implementing a comprehensive school counseling program
that focuses on the academic, career, and personal/social domains. When
asked in 2009 about their level of familiarity and usage with their state‘s
framework for CSCP, which is based on the ASCA National Model,
respondents indicated a higher level of familiarity (M = 2.70, SD = .49) than
usage (M = 2.29, SD = .55) (CSIEP, 2009). This raised the question,‖ How
did current school counselors obtain their knowledge of the state and
national counseling frameworks?‖ Was it through their counselor preparation

81
programs or from professional development activities? This may be
addressed through future research in order to assist state school counseling
associations with upcoming professional development.
Another area of concern was the respondents‘ answers to the number
of career courses in their counselor education preparation programs. More
than 60% indicated two or more career courses in master‘s level certification
programs. Even more striking was that almost 16% (n = 11) reported five
courses in their preparation programs. Conversely, local college preparation
programs listed one career course and the literature maintained that more
than 90% of national counselor preparation programs required a minimum of
one course (Pérusse et al., 2001). Possible explanations could be (a) the
question was not clear to respondents causing confusion between credit
bearing courses and seminars/workshops or, (b) respondents graduated from
out-of-state institutions at a higher rate than in-state institutions.
Seventy-one percent of the respondents to the 2009 Rhode Island
School Counselor Report conveyed they used pieces of the framework; this
underscored a need to decrease the implementation gap. Gysbers (2005)
addressed the difference between program development and full
implementation of a program along with possible barriers to full
implementation. Gysbers posited that potential barriers to full
implementation were tradition, resistance to change, and non-counseling
duties. Local implementation barriers are discussed later in this chapter.

82
Discussion
Actual and Preferred Practices
One of the purposes of this study was to answer the following questions:
1. What career intervention practices do public high school counselors
in a southern New England state practice as school counseling
program components?
2. What career intervention practices do public high school counselors
in a southern New England state prefer as school counseling
program components?
Prior research investigated similar patterns of school counselor practices and
preferences providing evidence of differences between actual and preferred
practice (Nelson et al, 2008; Osborn & Baggerly, 2004; Scarborough, 2005).
This current study expands the research in this area by investigating actual
and preferred career interventions practices within a taxonomic structure.
Dykeman et al. (2001) hypothesized that career interventions
practices in secondary schools would benefit from a viable taxonomy of
career interventions. Through the identification of forty-four career
interventions practices and cluster analysis, Dykeman et al. created a four
taxa structure: Field-based, Advising, Introductory, and Curriculum-based.
Using this as a framework for survey development, the Career Interventions
Practices and Preferences Survey collected data from public high school
counselors in a southern New England state.
Field-based items. Respondents ranked their preferences for these
career interventions higher than their actual practice of these interventions

83
(see Tables 4 and 8). Compared to the self-study (see Table 17), there were
similar outcomes; almost 64% of the self-study respondents recognized
work-based learning opportunities in CSCPs as a contributor to students‘
career preparation while less than 25% of the self study respondents
acknowledged a comparable mind-set for applied learning. This suggested
that the respondents did not include interventions in this area to the level
that they preferred. Historically, the ten interventions are components of a
career and technical education high school; within this southern New England
state, these institutions are configured as both separate entities from the
comprehensive high school and as a companion to the comprehensive high
school. Results suggested several thoughts: (1) school counselors viewed
these interventions only for students associated with a career and technical
pathway, (2) school counselors have limited knowledge of these
interventions and their connection to a CSCP, and (3) barriers existed that
prevented the full implementation of these interventions within a CSCP.
A related concern to the lack of reported practice of the field-based
career interventions is the current graduation requirements for this southern
New England state. Since 2003, dependent upon each local school district‘s
diploma system, graduating seniors are mandated to develop applied
learning projects that require mentors in addition to some school districts
including a service-learning component. Interestingly, graduation
requirements were in the bottom third of the emergent themes (see Table
14), yet school counselors are required to monitor the progress of students‘
graduation requirements and regulatory language insists on connecting

84
graduation requirements to Individual Learning Plans. A major tenet of a
CSCP is teaming and collaboration with other educators. In particular,
―professional school counselors collaborate with administrators, teachers,
staff, parents and the community to ensure that all students have the
opportunity to design a rigorous and relevant academic and career program‖
(ASCA, 2006, Summary section, para. 6). One observation is that school
counselors must intentionally connect their school counseling programs to
the mission of schools through documented interventions.
Advising items. This group of interventions was reported to be
delivered on an individual basis as compared to a group or classroom setting
(Dykeman et al., 2001). Typically, high school counselors are focused on
transitioning students from high school to postsecondary options, thus it is
reasonable to expect strong preferences for these interventions. The top six
ranked interventions were the same for actual and preferred practices, with a
slight change in order (see Tables 5 and 9).
Of particular note was the intervention Recruiting. On the actual
practice side, this ranked 9th, while preferred practice placed it 19th out of 20
interventions. Recruiting included recruitment for college and for the military.
How should these findings be interpreted? Although not primary focuses of
this study, differences in paired samples were calculated to observe any
significant differences (see Appendix H). Paired sample t-tests did not reveal
a significant difference for this intervention; however, it should be noted as a
potential area of concern as school counselors implement their CSCPs. With
the changing economy and the flexibility of workforce requirements, the

85
significant differences observed in a number of Advising interventions might
hinder students from making informed decisions. Prior research indicated
students reported a knowledge gap for postsecondary transitions and some
adults suggested that acquiring career information preceding their entry into
the workforce may contribute to positive outcomes such as job satisfaction
and informed career decision-making (NCDA, 1999; Venezia et al., 2003).
Within the Advising taxon, career interests assessment is supported by
Holland‘s Vocational Typology that hypothesized that measuring one‘s
interests and using those results leads to greater congruence in an
individual‘s career development (Holland et al., 1997). Similarly, Super
(1990) investigated the construct of career maturity and provided support for
career maturity assessments. Moreover, Peterson, Sampson, Reardon, and
Lenz (2003) emphasized the importance of an individual learning plan as a
tool for career development. Similarly, career interests assessments and
career maturity assessment are representative of the Advising taxon;
however, career maturity assessments raked in the bottom fourth for actual
and preferred practice, whereas career interests assessments ranked in the
top fourth. This may suggest a review of local CSCPS in respect to the
assessment needs of their students. An annual evaluation should be
conducted to ensure accountability in meeting the needs of all students.
Comprehensive school counseling programs are focused on the
missions of schools (ASCA, 2005); a local requirement to implement the
missions of schools dictates that all students in grades 6 -12 have an
individual learning plan (see Figure 1.) Although the intervention

86
portfolio/individual career plan ranked in the top fourth of actual and
preferred practice (see Tables 5 and 9), there was a moderate, practical
observed difference between the actual and preferred practice (see Appendix
H). One possible explanation can be derived from the comments coded as
Implementation Barriers (see Appendix F). Suggestions of lack of time and
inadequate policies and protocols for this intervention were noted by the
respondents.
Introductory items. Interestingly, the item Community Members
that Teach in Classroom received the lowest ranking on both levels (actual
and preferred) which is substantiated by the responses from the open-ended
prompt Please describe how your school integrates the career domain into
the Individual Learning Plan (see Appendix A). Of the 104 text segments
culled from the responses, less than 4% (n = 4) were coded as Community.
Only Career and Technical Education had fewer assigned text segments (see
Table 14). Again, the importance of community involvement in proficiency-
based graduation requirements cannot be overstated. Senior projects and
exhibitions are dependent upon community members as judges. Engaging
community members in aspects of a CSCP such as career days might
encourage more community participation as PBGR judges.
Within the school counseling profession, the ASCA National Model is
recognized as an important contribution to the field that has affected the
development and implementation of comprehensive school counseling
programs. Foundation, Delivery, Management, and Accountability are the
quadrants of the national framework; guidance curriculum is one component

87
of Delivery. Even though Guidance lessons on personal/social development,
career development, and academic planning were the top three in the
Introductory taxon for actual and preferred practice (see Table 6 and Table
10), additional findings implied further research is needed to examine the
gaps in the actual and preferred delivery of guidance lessons (see Appendix
H). For example, while the qualitative data included guidance lessons under
the Delivery System code, there was slightly more emphasis on individual
meetings with the school counselor (see Appendix E). With local school
counselors averaging 360 students on their caseload, small and large group
interventions might increase program efficacy. It should also be noted that
responses to school counseling programs‘ contributions to student success in
Table 17 ranked the classroom environment last out of four specified
interventions. Further exploration of the Implementation Barriers denoted in
Appendix G could provide some answers.
Consideration must be given to the categorization of the 44
interventions within the taxonomy. The structure of the taxonomy was
created prior to the publication of the ASCA National Model; therefore, the
inclusion of guidance curriculum under Introductory and not Curriculum
strongly advocates for alignment of the taxonomy to current practice.
Curriculum items. Student Clubs/Activities had the lowest mean
difference from responses to the close-ended portion of the survey; however,
it received scant attention as a way to support the career domain of students‘
ILPs from the open-ended prompt (see Appendix A). Qualitatively, only one
participant in the group interview connected student clubs/activities to career

88
development (see Table 12). Decreasing the gap between the actual and
preferred practices of utilizing the Career Skills in Curriculum intervention
(mean difference = 1.57), the largest in this taxon (see Tables 7 and 11),
could be accomplished through ongoing collaboration between school
counselors and classroom teachers. In addition, as noted in the previous
section, the guidance curriculum was not included in this taxon. Again,
further research might uncover reasons for this gap between actual and
preferred practice as the next step in closing this gap and others. For
instance, paired sample t-tests, though not a focal point of this study, did
ascertain significant differences between all the paired items in this taxon
and most in the other three taxa (see Appendix H).
Taxa level. Taken together, the taxa presented significant differences
at the actual and preferred stages (see Appendix H). A review of specific
interventions within all taxa would assist in pinpointing areas for future
professional development. Additionally, disaggregating this data by selected
variables (e.g., gender, years as a school counselor, caseload) may highlight
areas of discrepancy.
The significant differences between the actual and preferred practices
in the Field-based were corroborated by the low frequency of comments from
the open-ended prompt in this area that accounted for less than 4% of the
text segments (see Table 14). Again, the implication for greater collaboration
between school counselors and career and technical education personnel is
substantiated. Additionally, career and technical education in this state has
not been featured prominently in the current diploma system guidelines for
89
this southern New England state and the inconsistent standards for its career
and technical programs may further hinder increased interventions through
the high school comprehensive school counseling programs.
Relationships Between Variables
Is there a relationship between the career intervention practices and
preferences of high school counselors in a southern New England state and
the following variables?
a. gender
Research question 3 was explained using multiple stepwise regression
analyses for each of the four taxa. The new variables, FieldALL, AdvisingALL,
IntroductoryALL, and CurriculumALL served as the outcome variables;
explanatory variables b and c were dummy coded to produce categorical
variables for the analyses. Only Career PD1, having less than 5 hours of
annual professional development, exhibited a relationship with the FieldALL
taxon (see Table 12), albeit it was weak (see Table 13). Because this
relationship was minor, additional research with other samples might
produce different outcomes. Even though it was weak, a relationship existed
and this information might be useful to the professional development
committee of the state school counseling association for future workshops
and conferences.
90
The remaining explanatory variables were not entered into the
equation, thus indicating they did not contribute to the variance of the
FieldALL taxon; subsequent analyses for AdvisingALL, IntroductoryALL, and
CurriculumALL entered none of the explanatory variables into the models.
The implication is that this sample did not explain the relationship between
the explanatory variables (with the exception of CareerPD1) and the outcome
variables. It is possible that a different sample may have different outcomes
and that additional explanatory variables need to be considered.
Individual Learning Plan Support
Emergent Themes. Research question 3 prompted respondents to
―Describe how your school integrates the career domain into the Individual
Learning Plan‖. Through several coding cycles, nine themes emerged from
the open-ended prompt: (a) Assessment, (b) Computer Assisted Career
Guidance System [CACGS], (c) Delivery System, (d) Career and Technical
Education, (e) Community, (f) Proficiency-based Graduation Requirements,
(g) Educational/Career Planning, (h) Goal Setting, and (i) Implementation
Barriers. From the group interview, emerged the themes Connectedness,
Professional Development, Co-curricular, and Guidance Course.
Respondents most frequently identified CACGS, Delivery System, and
Implementation Barriers text in their comments. While CACGS represented
21 of the 104 text segments in the qualitative portion of the survey,
respondents significantly differed in their actual and preferred practices
regarding CACGS in their school counseling programs. More indicated
preference to utilize this intervention than were actually using it. A review of
91
Table 17, however, showed a large percentage of respondents to the Rhode
Island School Counselor Report utilized CACGS in their school counseling
programs. It could be surmised that having an open-ended prompt as
opposed to forced choices lead to under identification of CACGS in the
qualitative portion of the Career Interventions Practices and Preferences
instrument. Additionally, the strong advocacy and ongoing professional
development for WaytoGoRI, a computer-assisted career guidance system
offered at no cost to school districts in this state, may have contributed to
the positive showing in the qualitative analysis. Conversely, utilization of the
CACGS requires equipment and resources that some districts lack which may
have affected participants‘ responses.
Delivery System‘s strong showing in the open-ended prompt analysis
(n = 22) may parallel the ASCA National Model that classifies Delivery as one
of the four components of a comprehensive school counseling program. Of
the school counselors responding to the School Counselor Report (CSIEP,
2009), almost 70% reported familiarity with the framework, thus it is
reasonable for Delivery System to rank high in the emergent themes.
The Implementation Barriers text segments detailed perceived
challenges to institutionalizing support for the career domain of students‘
ILPs. Time, lack of knowledge, and inadequate policies and protocols are
several reasons emerging from the data (see Appendix G). Consideration by
districts and the state department of education in conjunction with the state
school counseling association to address the reported barriers may produce
fully implemented Individual Learning Plans.

92
Assessment, Goal Setting, and Educational/Career Planning
represented the next most frequent group of text segments. (see Table 14).
The literature on career theory supports assessment as one aspect of career
counseling (Holland, 1997; Super, 1983; Savickas et al., 2002). While
Assessments were moderately represented, prior research revealed a lack of
value for career courses in counselor preparation programs that could
influence school counselors‘ view of the applicability of career theories and
their relevance to current practice (Osborn & Baggerly, 2004). Goal Setting
and Educational/Career Planning are major aspects of ILPs; therefore, the
expectation exists for more emphasis on these categories.
The least frequent themes were Career and Technical Education,
Community, and Proficiency-based Graduation Requirements. The link
between Career and Technical Education and local school counseling
programs is perceived as less than ideal, which may provide an explanation
for the low ranking of applied learning in the Rhode Island School Counselor
Report. Applied learning ranked lowest out of seven specified contributions to
student development for career preparation (see Table 17). Another plausible
explanation is that the current level of local educational reform might
contribute to the perceived lack of connection between career and technical
education, applied learning, and comprehensive school counseling programs.
With competing initiatives, it presents a challenge to implement and sustain
multiple programs.
It is disconcerting that Community received low consideration from the
respondents because local Proficiency-based Graduation Requirements have

93
a mentoring component dependent upon the munificence of community
members. Again, this could be attributed to ongoing efforts to align all of the
components of the multiple local initiatives into a coherent system. In
addition, respondents‘ views may not be representative of all local public
high school counselors. Focused professional development on the topics
outlined in Table 14 in addition to increased knowledge of systemic change
may support school counselors in these areas.
School Counselor Survey
The Rhode Island School Counselor Report (CSIEP, 2009) was
designed by local school counselors to parallel the annual School
Accountability for Learning and Teaching (SALT) Survey for parents,
teachers, and students, a report that collected data with a focus on school
improvement (Kajiji, 2009). With input from the Center for School
Counseling Outcome Research and the Center for School Improvement and
Educational Policy (formerly the National Center on Public Education and
Social Policy), 34 questions were chosen for inclusion to the survey.
Selected questions from the 2009 Rhode Island School Counselor Report
informed the research questions for the current study (see Appendix D).
94
Table 16
School Counseling Programs Contributions to Student Development in

Academic Success, Career Preparation, and Personal/Social Needs
Variable n (%) M SD
Academic Success
Individual Learning Plans 63 (91.3%) .91 .284
Career Planning 59 (85.5%) .86 .355
Classroom 38 (55.1%) .55 .501
Consultation 66 (95.7%) .96 .205
Other (Unspecified) 7 (10.1%) .10 .304
Career Preparation
Individual Learning Plans 60 (87%) .87 .339
Career days/career fairs 33 (47.8%) .48 .503
Work-based learning opportunities 44 (63.8% .64 .484
Computer-assisted career guidance 56 (81.2%) .81 .394
Applied learning 17 (24.6%) .25 .434
Group sessions on career choices 36 (52.2%) .52 .503
Career assessment 48 (69.6%) .70 .464
Personal/Social Needs
Life skill development 37 (53.6%) .54 .502
Individual counseling 64 (92.8%) .93 .261
School-wide prevention 11 (15.9%) .16 .369
Referrals internal 61 (88.4%) .88 .323
Career planning 45 (65.2%) .65 .480
Social skills training 10 (14.5%) .14 .355
Group counseling 26 (37.7%) .38 .488
Referral to external agencies 40 (58%) .58 .497
Peer mediation 18 (26.1%) .26 .442
Note. All variables were dummy-coded 1 or 0, with 1 indicating the variable.
Classroom = interventions and/or curriculum (e.g., Student Success Skills).
Consultations are with parents, teachers, and/or administrators regarding academic
Issues. Referrals internal are referrals to school psychologist/social worker.
Source: 2009 The Rhode Island School Counselor Report
The current study investigated school counselors‘ support for
implementing the career domain of students‘ Individual Learning Plans.
Although there were perceived implementation barriers, school counselors
identified multiple themes supporting this initiative (see Appendix G).
Likewise, Table 17 reflected agreement on the importance of ILPs for
academic success and career preparation in prior research. Earlier research
suggested selected ILP components (i.e., written exercise, individualized

95
interpretation and feedback, world of work information) might increase the
efficacy of students‘ career maturity outcomes (Ryan, 1999).
Similar to respondents from the current study (see Table 14),
respondents to the 2009 School Counselor Report (CSIEP, 2009) ranked
computer-assisted career guidance systems (M = .81, SD = .39) above other
interventions. Additionally, the latter respondents indicated the importance of
this intervention with a low variance of scores, comparable to the former
respondents‘ attribution of 21 of the 104 text segments from the open-ended
prompt to CACGS, ranking it second among nine themes.
Self-study respondents (CSIEP, 2009) gave little credence to the
importance of Applied Learning (M = .25, SD = .43) for career preparation,
but did place more value on Work-based Learning Opportunities (M = .64, SD
= .48). Correspondingly, the current study respondents perceived Field-
based interventions (see Table 4) as less important to their actual practice
than interventions in the Advising, Introductory, and Curriculum taxa (see
Tables 5, 6, and 7). This is further corroborated by the under identification of
Career and Technical Education, associated with Field-based learning, in the
text segments from the open-ended prompt (see Table 14).
Interestingly, self-study respondents considered Career Planning (M =
.86, SD = .36) a more important intervention for academic success than
Career Planning (M = .65, SD = .48) for personal/social needs. Overall, the
respondents in the current study indicated a greater preference for career
intervention practices than what current practices indicated.

96
Summary
This explanatory, sequential mixed methods study examined the
actual and preferred career interventions practices of public high school
counselors. Furthermore, the study assessed the relationship between the
career interventions practices and preferences and selected explanatory
variables: gender, years as a school counselor, hours of annual career
domain professional development, and membership in professional
organizations. Additionally, this study investigated how public high school
counselors‘ supported the career domain of students‘ Individual Learning
Plans.
Descriptive statistics (frequency, mean, standard deviation) were
computed to determine the rank order of public high school counselors‘
actual and preferred career interventions practices. Next, multiple stepwise
regression analyses were conducted to test for possible relationships
between the outcome variables (FieldALL, AdvALL, IntroALL, CurrALL) and
four explanatory variables. Lastly, comments from open-ended prompts and
a group interview addressed school counselor support of students‘ ILPs.
Although not a primary focus of this study, differences between the actual
and preferred career interventions practices were briefly examined.
Several principal findings were derived from this study. First, it was
evident that the participants were not practicing the level of career
interventions in their comprehensive school counseling programs, as they
preferred. As a subset of this finding, public high school counselors perceived
Field-based interventions to be less important than Advising, Introductory,

97
and Curriculum interventions. Next, the study revealed a weak, negative
relationship between the outcome variable, FieldALL and five hours or less of
annual career domain professional development. Finally, respondents
perceived multiple barriers to implementing Individual Learning Plans.
Recommendations
Establish Policies and Protocols
Many challenges to implementing students‘ Individual Learning Plans
were noted by the participants in Appendix G. A lack of policies and protocols
for this initiative permeated throughout the responses. It is important for
infrastructures to be in place in order for meaningful change to happen.
Senge, Kleiner, Roberts, Ross, and Smith (1994) posited ― when we first
work to articulate guiding ideas, and then design the infrastructure reform in
harmony with those ideas, the results seem to be far more sustainable‖ (p.
41).
The process for implementing ILPs is well underway; however, it is
recommended that meaningful and sustainable Individual Learning Plan
programs need:
 schools and districts to establish and communicate policies and
protocols with all stakeholders.
 schools and districts to delineate the roles and responsibilities for all
involved in the process.
 schools and districts to provide adequate time and professional
development for designing and implementing ILPs.

98
 schools and districts to implement an evaluation process measuring
selected student outcomes.
Support Students’ Career Development in Schools
The literature offered several themes within the career domain. One
perception was that the career domain receives inadequate attention in
counselor preparation programs (Lara, 2004; Wyrick, 2004). Another body of
research upheld the supposition that career interventions may have positive
effects on students‘ outcomes but further research is needed to determine
the type and dosage of career interventions and their potential outcomes for
various subgroups (Brown, & Ryan Krane, 2000; Ryan, 1999). The current
study revealed that public high school counselors would prefer to increase
their delivery of career interventions in their CSCPs. In support of these
findings, several recommendations are:
 connect school counselors with current literature on career
interventions to increase their knowledge and skills of evidence-based
practices.
 implement professional learning communities (PLCs) for school
counselors focused on current career domain research. The PLCs could
be facilitated by the state counseling association through their
professional development committee or incorporated into current
professional development at the local level.
 use web tools such as webinars and social networking media to allow
for maximum participation.

99
 ensure school counselors have adequate time to provide direct
services to students. A recurrent issue in the Implementation Barriers
theme was the lack of time to implement program components,
including career interventions.
 provide data on students‘ outcomes for counseling interventions to
demonstrate program effectiveness. Exacerbated by local and national
stereotypes about the efficacy of school counseling programs, school
counselors must continue to advocate for CSCPs for all students
through multiple venues and with many stakeholders using data. Data-
driven decision-making should dispel some of the myths about the
roles and responsibilities of school counselors that could lead to
adequate time to implement CSCPs.
 increase collaboration between the state school counselor association,
the department of education, and local school counselor preparation
programs is recommended to investigate the potential for increasing
the career domain curriculum in the preparation programs. National
research reported the majority of preparation programs required one
career information course. With the global economy and the
requirements for high skills, high wages jobs, is that enough?
Future Research
Several recommendations for conducting future research emerged
from this study.

100
 Provide a paper and pencil alternative to the web-based survey to
increase the response rate. The web-based survey assumed
technological literacy and the equipment to participate.
 Offer several opportunities to participate in a group interview to
increase participation.
 Expand the sample population to students, parents, and administrators
to measure their perceptions of local comprehensive school counseling
programs.
 Include document analysis of Individual Learning Plans in the research
design.
 Redesign the survey instrument to reflect current practices.
 Analyze proximal and distal student outcome data for evidence of
career interventions effectiveness and Individual Learning Plans
efficacy.
 Conduct research on specific local interventions such as WayToGoRI, a
computer assisted career guidance system, to measure selected
student outcomes.
 Conduct research to assess the adequacy of graduate level counselor
preparation programs‘ career course offering.

101
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113
Appendix A
Career Intervention Practices and Preferences of High School Counselors
Doctoral Program in Educational Leadership, Johnson & Wales University
Informed Consent for Career Interventions: Practices and Preferences of

Southern New England High school Counselors Supporting Students’
Individual Learning Plans
Description of the Research and Your Participation: You are being invited
to participate in a research study. The purpose of this research is to develop
an understanding of school counselors' practices supporting the career
development of students and supporting the career component of students'
Individual Learning Plans. If you agree to participate in this study, you will
be asked to complete an online survey and provide some demographic
information about you and your school. Your identity will be unknown to the
researcher. The amount of time required for your participation will be
approximately 20 minutes.
Discomforts and Risks from Participating in the Study: There are no

apparent risks to you that would result from your participation in this study.
Potential Benefits: There are no known benefits to you that would result
from your participation in this research. This research may help us better
understand the practices of school counselors in the career component of
students' Individual Learning Plan process. Your participation may provide an
indirect benefit by contributing to the literature for school counseling
programs.
Voluntary Participation: Your participation in this study is voluntary. You are

free to withdraw from participation in this study at any time without penalty.
Contact Information: If you have any questions or concerns about this

study, please call 401-598-1803. If you are not satisfied with the way in
which this study was conducted, you may convey your concerns to the Johnson
& Wales University Institutional Review Board, which can be contacted at 401-
598-1803.
Agreement: If you click "Next" and complete this survey, you are consenting
to participate in this research.
114
*Career Intervention Practices and Preferences of High School Counselors
Part I. Career Interventions- Field-based
In this section, please indicate how career interventions are addressed in your
school. Please answer to the best of your ability. There are no right or wrong
answers.
1. In Column A, please select the number that indicates the frequency with
which you ACTUALLY include each career intervention in your school
counseling program.
1 = I never include this; 2 = I rarely include this; 3 = I occasionally include

this; 4 = I frequently include this; 5 = I routinely include this
In Column B, please select the number that indicates the frequency with
which you would PREFER to include each career intervention in your school
counseling program.
1 = I would prefer to never include this; 2 = I would prefer to rarely include

this; 3 = I would prefer to occasionally include this; 4 = I would prefer to
frequently include this; 5 = I would prefer to routinely include this
Please answer each question to the best of your ability. There are no right
or wrong answers.
Column A – In program Column B – Prefer in

program
a. Cooperative Education
b. Internship
c. Job Shadowing
d. Job Coaching
e. Job Placement
f. Mentorship Program
g. Service Learning/Volunteer
Programs
h. Work-based Learning
Project
i. Work Study
j. Youth Apprenticeships
*Replication of web- based survey using drop-down menu format for answers.
115
Career Intervention Practices And Preferences of High School Counselors
Career Interventions: Advising
In Column A, please select the number that indicates the frequency with
counseling program.

counseling program.

or wrong answers.

program
a. Academic Planning
Counseling
b. Career Focused
Parent/Student Conference
c. Career Peer
Advising/Tutoring
d. Career Map
e. Career Maturity Assessment
f. Career Counseling
g. Career Interests
Assessment
h. Career Library/Career
Resource Center
i. Career
Cluster/Pathway/Major
j. Career Passport/Skill
Certificate
k. College Admissions Testing
116

program
l. Computer Assisted Career

Guidance
m. Cooperative/Dual
Enrollment
n. Information Interviewing
o. Job Hunting Preparation
p. Personal/Social Counseling
q. Portfolio/Individual Career
Plan
r. Recruiting (e.g., college,
military)
s. Referral to External Training
Programs
t. Referral to External
Counseling/Assessment
117
Career Interventions: Introductory
counseling program.

counseling program.

or wrong answers.

program
a. Career Day/Career Fair
b. Career Field Trip
c. Career Aptitude
Assessment
d. Community Members Teach
in Classroom
e. Guidance Lessons on
Personal/Social Development
f. Guidance Lessons on Career
Development
g. Guidance Lessons on
Academic Planning
118
Career Interventions: Curriculum
counseling program.

counseling program.

or wrong answers.

program
a. Career Information Infused

into Curriculum
b. Career/Technical Education
Course
c. Career Skills Infused into
Curriculum
d. Career Academy/Career
Magnet School
e. School-based Enterprise
f. Student Clubs/Activities
g. Tech Prep/2+2 Curriculum

119
Part II. The Individual Learning Plan and Career Interventions
This page is to gather information to further understanding of school

counselors and their career interventions as it relates to the Individual
Learning Plan. Please answer this question to the best of your ability. There
are no right or wrong answers.
5. The Individual Learning Plan is fully implemented in my school.
1 = Strongly disagree
2 = Disagree
3 = Neither agree nor disagree
4 = Agree
5 = Strongly agree
1 2 3 4 5
6. Please describe how your school integrates the career domain into the
Individual Learning Plan.
7. Other Comments?
120
Part III. Demographic Information*
The purpose of this page is to collect demographic information to support

this study.
8. Your gender
 Female  Male
9. Number of years worked as a school counselor
 Less than 5  6 – 10  11-15  16 -20  More than 20
10. Choose the number of career courses in your counselor

preparation program (master’s or certification)
 1  2  3  4 5
11. Approximately how many hours of annual professional
development do you engage in?
 15  16 - 35  11 - 15  16 -20  More than 20

12. Of those hours indicated in your answer to question 11,
how many are related to the career domain?
 Less than 5  5 – 10  11-15  16 -20  More than 20

13. What is the average number of students on your caseload?
 100-175  175-250  250-325  325-400  Over 400 No caseload

14. Are you a member of the American School Counselor
Association?
 Yes  No
15. Are you a member of the National Career Development
Association?
 Yes  No
16. Are you a member of your state school counseling
association?
 Yes  No
* Respondents clicked on their answers in the web-based version.

121
Focus Group Invitation

A focus group will be held on Tuesday, October 6, 2009 as a follow up to this
questionnaire. If you would like to participate in the focus group, please send an
email to bwilkers@providence.edu with Focus Group Participant in the subject
line. Participants will be randomly selected and will be notified through email of their
selection.
The focus group will meet from 3:00 pm to 4:30 pm in the Conference Room at the
Rhode Island Higher Education Assistance Authority, 560 Jefferson Boulevard,
Warwick, RI.
As an incentive, focus group participants' names will be entered into a drawing for a
$75 VISA gift card.
122
Appendix B
You are invited to participate in a study, CAREER INTERVENTIONS:
PERCEPTIONS AND PRACTICES OF RHODE ISLAND HIGH SCHOOL
COUNSELORS, as part of the doctoral program at Johnson & Wales
University.
Description of the Research and Your Participation: The purpose of this

research is to examine high school counselors‘ career intervention
perceptions and practices supporting students‘ Individual Learning Plans. If
you agree to participate in this study, you will be asked to participate in a
focus group on TBD at the regional collaborative for your school district.
Discomforts and Risks from Participating in the Study: There are no

apparent risks to you that would result from your participation in this study.
If you experience any negative effects, you are free to stop at any time. If
you need to speak with someone about your experience, please consult your
community mental health agency.
Potential Benefits: This research may help us better understand career

intervention perceptions and practices of high school counselors in support of
students‘ Individual Learning Plans. Your participation may provide an
indirect benefit by contributing to the literature for school counseling
programs.
Voluntary Participation: Your participation in this study is voluntary. You

are free to withdraw from participation in this study at any time without
penalty.
Contact Information: If you have any questions or concerns about this

study, you may convey your concerns to the Johnson & Wales University
Institutional Review Board, which can be contacted at 401-598-1803.
Consent for Audio Taping: The study requires audiotaping of the focus
group interview. Neither the name nor other identifying information about
the participant will be associated with the tape(s) or with the transcript. Only
the researcher and a professional transcriptionist will listen to the tape(s). A
professional transcriptionist will transcribe the tapes. Once the transcription
is checked for accuracy, the tape will be erased. Interview transcripts may be
reproduced in whole or part for use in presentations or written documents
that result from the study; however, participant identity will be confidential.
Your consent to participate signifies confidentiality of members‘ identities and
responses.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 I consent to participate in the focus group interview

 I do not consent to participate in the focus group interview
123
Signature of Participant ______________________________
Date_____________
I hereby agree to abide by the participant‘s instructions as indicated above.
Signature of Researcher _____________________________
Date______________
124
APPENDIX C
Group Interview Guide
1. Set ground rules
a. One person speaks at a time
b. No right or wrong answers
2. Introduce yourself (name and school)
3. Key Questions
a. What is the first thing that comes to mind when you hear the
phrase ―Individual Learning Plan (ILP) and career
development‖?
b. Subsequent questions that may develop from Phase I data
analysis:
1. Could you describe the professional development for
implementing ILP?
2. Could you describe the career interventions practices in
your school? Are they delivered collaboratively? Delivered
in classroom, small groups, individually?
3. Can you describe your level of preparation to deliver
career interventions?
4. How familiar were you with the interventions in the
survey?
125
5. How do you keep informed about local and national
workforce information?
4. Possible Follow Up Question
a. Can you tell us more?
5. Possible Ending Questions
a. Overall, do you feel the Individual Learning Plan benefits
students?
b. Suppose you had one minute to speak with the
Commissioner of Education. What would you say?
c. Is there anything we missed?

126
APPENDIX D
RHODE ISLAND SCHOOL COUNSELOR REPORT: HIGH
2008-2009 SCHOOL COUNSELOR REPORT OF STUDENT DEVELOPMENT
Our school counseling program… % responding

2008-2009
contributes to the academic success of students in the
following ways:
Individual Learning Plans (ILPs) 69
Career planning 65
Classroom interventions and/or curriculum 70
Consultations with teachers, parents, and/or administrators 93
Other 16
prepares students for careers the following ways:
Individual Learning Plans (ILPs) 61
Career days/career fairs 43
Work-based learning opportunities (e.g., job-shadowing, 31
internships)
Computer-assisted career guidance programs 60
Opportunities to apply real-life contexts 17
Large/small group sessions on career choices 46
Assessment (e.g., ASVAB, Harrington-O‘Shea) 37
Other 11
addresses students’ personal/social needs in the following
ways:
Life skill development (e.g., time management, study skills) 64
Individual counseling 95
School-wide prevention/support (e.g., Bully Busters, Second Step) 50
Referrals to school psychologist/social worker 90
Career planning 56
Social skills training 51
Group counseling 66
Referrals to external agencies 70
Peer mediation 40
Other 5
Note. Percentages do not total 100% because School Counselors may have selected more
than one response.
Reprinted with permission
127
Appendix E
Initial Coding Cycle of Combined Open-ended Survey
Comments
Assessment
These are similar but worded slightly different.
Group 1
 Students use interest and career assessments
 Inventories
 Students can utilize career assessment
 Once or maybe twice in four years, they complete the

Harrington-O‘Shea Interest Inventory
 Career interest inventories
 Career interest inventory assessment
Group 2
 Inventories to help them pinpoint possible career interests
 We use career clusters and interest inventories to help the

students select a career
 Students take an interest inventory and it becomes part of

their ILP
 It requires the student to do skills and interest inventories
 The student complete a Harrington- O‘Shea in grade 10 &

ASVAB testing in grade 11
Computer Assisted Career Guidance System

These seem overwhelmingly WayToGoRI—some give more
detail
 Use of WaytogoRI to collect individual career assess information
 We use Way to Go RI
 We are just beginning this year through waytogori.org and

advisories
128
 We include a career piece from grades 9 -12 including

www.waytogori.org
 We are utilizing programs such as Way to Go RI
 Computer center - Way to Go RI
 By using WaytoGoRI.org
 We use waytogori.org. The students reflect on career planning in

the ILP.
 Students use waytogori as part of the ILP
 Waytogori.org website. Students are then encouraged to use the

site to continue their career search and investigate careers of
interest.
 Way to Go RI
 The implementation of a new ILP through Way to Go RI
 Use of waytogoRI. Students in grade 9 computer class set up

accounts
 Way to Go RI lessons
 Way to Go RI in advisories
 Waytogori.org
 Waytogori.com assessment is attached
 Way to Go sessions 9 – 12th including interest inventory
 Through Advisories and the use of WaytoGoRI.org
 We use waytogori for career exploration each year
 We heavily use the WaytoGoRI site
Delivery System
Advisory/Classroom/School Counselor
Group 1: teach lessons on careers
 A variety of course offerings expose our students to many
different perspectives
129
 With lessons in the class…
 We give classes on career exploration and college planning
 Computer course with a unit on career analysis for all 9th
 Lessons in classes by going into classrooms
 All 10th and 11th graders do a guidance unit (on waytogori)
Group 2: collaborate with teacher/advisors

 ILPs are started in all grades with the counselor and advisor
working together. Classroom teachers are involved
 Group counseling is used through advisory to integrate the

career domain
 The Advisories must be used
 During Advisories by Guidance Counselors
 During advisory period these lessons are implemented
 Advisors work with the students on planning all 3 domains of

the ILP. Counselors come in and help, too
Group 3: students meet individually with counselors

 Students meet with counselors who give advice and resources
including web sites to help in career planning
 We talk to students about updated career information that

comes through guidance
 Reviewed with students in guidance when discussing their

future
 Then the counselors discuss the education/training needed to

reach goal
 Our Guidance Dept. meets individually with each student
 Counselors work individually to do career counseling with

students
130
 Students are asked individually at least once a year to discuss

career goals and plans and this is recorded on ILP
 We meet with students individually and discuss careers
 Individual discussions throughout high school years
 Each year with individual interviews with counselor for

feedback
Career and Technical Education

 We have an entire department and staff that works with
students in this area. Guidance supports this initiative and
frequently works closely with School to Career
 Each student receives a certificate after completing 1500 hours

in their chosen career
 Tech school: career domain fully implemented into technical

courses
Community
 Job shadowing
 We invite local businesses to visit our school
 By using RI career day
 Career fair
Proficiency-based Graduation Requirements

 Senior Projects, intern experience
 The school counselors visit the students during their portfolio

class to implement the ILP
 Through the process of the senior portfolio which incorporates

the best samples of student work across the disciplines
 The digital portfolio
 12th graders do senior project

131
Educational /Career Planning

Group 1: connects career interests with current course choices
 Course mapping each year
 Base their schedule around career choice and college plans
 We drive the students to take the proper courses that will help
them qualify for their career goals
 We ask students to consider how their coursework and interests

correlate and discuss how they translate into school and career
 throughout the year as we do course selection
Group 2: connects courses with post-high school panning
 Post-secondary planning
 Students indicate career pathways and connect current courses

or future coursework to career choice
 We plan what courses to take for life after high school
Goal Setting
Group 1: mentions reflection

 Goal setting, action steps, and reflection within the career
domain
 Once goals are set, students reflect on and record steps towards
their goals
 Students set forth goals on their ILP reflecting

career/postsecondary path they are interested in
 Career goals and reflection section
Group 2: does not mention reflection—more mechanics of decision

 Major part of ILP is setting career goals with clear steps
 Goals and plan for meeting goals on ILP
 Write some goals and reflections based on their (inventories)

results
132
 Students are asked to set goals. These goals are revisited

throughout the year
 Students document career goals each year
Group 3: only comment that mentions parent involvement

 Parent feedback on student entries with comments relating to
student goals and course selection
Implementation Barriers
Group 1: speaks of collaboration (to a degree) as a means of helping

I would like to see more discussion of careers during advisory so that
it becomes a routine topic
 I don‘t believe that the career domain is fully integrated into the
ILP. I believe that it relates mostly to postsecondary
Group 2: speaks of external reasons/excuses

 When the plan is electronic it will be more widely used
 Some students receive more career information if they take

certain classes during the school year. It would be great if this
information were available to all students in a regular class
setting
Group 3: either doesn‘t know or needs more information

 We are instituting a web based ILP within the month. At some
point later in the year we are adding careers that match with the
courses we offer here
 We are currently in the process of deciding how it will be used

and by whom
 The last two years have brought many major changes to our
school department including a new middle school, a new student
information system, new administration at the high school, a
new high school schedule, and last, but not least, a new advisory
program and the implementation of a new ILP through Way to
go RI.
 Am not sure. Anything I said would be more conjecture than

actual fact and so I prefer not to comment
133
 The ILP process in our school is developing to the next phase.

We had already started two years ago but had limitations.
Recent changes in our collective bargaining agreement will
enhance our efforts with the ILPs and students will benefit from
these changes
Group 4: negative
 I feel that we are currently lacking in internship, job shadowing,
and technical opportunities for our students. I would love to see
an internship program implemented in our school
 We cover all the components of the ILP without having a formal

format in place
 Has not been started in my school
 ILP serves little purpose. It is not meaningful to students as they

are uncertain how to make decisions their future without any
information provided to them
 Not enough time in the day!
 To date I have not seen a complete ILP so I have no way to

respond
 It is briefly touched upon
 Not enough
 Counselors in my building are frustrated with the ILP because

students respond with frustration. We have no support from the
teachers when delivering the program in advisory
 We have only 15 minutes in each advisory to complete the ILP

with little time to provide direction or information. It ties our
hands from providing relevant career information
 An ILP has been developed and we used it once in grade 9 two

years ago. It was done by administration and not in the way it
was intended to be used. It was quite frustrating to have a tool
we worked so hard on used in that way
134
Appendix F
Second Coding Cycle of Combined Open-ended Survey

Comments by Taxon
FIELD
Community
 Job shadowing
Graduation Requirements
ADVISING
Assessment

 Inventories
 We use career clusters and interest inventories to help the students
select a career
 Students take an interest inventory and it becomes part of their ILP
 Once or maybe twice in four years, they complete the Harrington-
O‘Shea Interest Inventory
 The student complete a Harrington- O‘Shea in grade 10 & ASVAB
testing in grade 11

 We are just beginning this year through waytogori.org and advisories
www.waytogori.org
 We use waytogori.org. The students reflect on career planning in the
ILP.
 Waytogori.org website. Students are then encouraged to use the site
to continue their career search and investigate careers of interest.
135
 Way to Go RI
 Use of waytogoRI. Students in grade 9 computer class set up accounts
 Waytogori.org
Graduation requirements
 The school counselors visit the students during their portfolio class to
implement the ILP
 Through the process of the senior portfolio which incorporates the best
samples of student work across the disciplines

 We drive the students to take the proper courses that will help them
qualify for their career goals
 Students indicate career pathways and connect current courses or
future coursework to career choice
 … throughout the year as we do course selection
Goal Setting
 Goal setting, action steps, and reflection within the career domain
 Once goals are set, students reflect on and record steps towards their
goals
 Students set forth goals on their ILP reflecting career/postsecondary
path they are interested in
 Write some goals and reflections based on their (inventories) results
 Students are asked to set goals. These goals are revisited throughout
the year
136
 Parent feedback on student entries with comments relating to student

goals and course selection
INTRODUCTORY
Delivery System
 A variety of course offerings expose our students to many different

perspectives
 ILPs are started in all grades with the counselor and advisor working
together. Classroom teachers are involved
 Group counseling is used through advisory to integrate the career
domain
 Advisors work with the students on planning all 3 domains of the ILP.
Counselors come in and help, too
 We talk to students about updated career information that comes
through guidance
 Reviewed with students in guidance when discussing their future
 Then the counselors discuss the education/training needed to reach
goal
 Counselors work individually to do career counseling with students
 Students are asked individually at least once a year to discuss career
goals and plans and this is recorded on ILP
 Each year with individual interviews with counselor for feedback
Community
 Career fair
137
CURRICULUM

 We have an entire department and staff that works with students in
this area. Guidance supports this initiative and frequently works
closely with School to Career
 Each student receives a certificate after completing 1500 hours in their
chosen career
 Tech school: career domain fully implemented into technical courses
IMPLEMENTATION BARRIERS

 Some students receive more career information if they take certain
classes during the school year. It would be great if this information
were available to all students in a regular class setting
 I would like to see more discussion of careers during advisory so that
 I don‘t believe that the career domain is fully integrated into the ILP. I
believe that it relates mostly to postsecondary
 I feel that we are currently lacking in internship, job shadowing, and
technical opportunities for our students. I would love to see an
internship program implemented in our school
 We are instituting a web based ILP within the month. At some point
later in the year we are adding careers that match with the courses we
offer here
 We cover all the components of the ILP without having a formal format
in place
 ILP serves little purpose. It is not meaningful to students as they are
uncertain how to make decisions their future without any information
provided to them
 To date I have not seen a complete ILP so I have no way to respond
 Not enough
 Counselors in my building are frustrated with the ILP because students
respond with frustration. We have no support from the teachers when
delivering the program in advisory
 We have only 15 minutes in each advisory to complete the ILP with
little time to provide direction or information. It ties our hands from
providing relevant career information
 An ILP has been developed and we used it once in grade 9 two years
ago. It was done by administration and not in the way it was intended
to be used. It was quite frustrating to have a tool we worked so hard
on used in that way
138
 We are currently in the process of deciding how it will be used and by

whom
 The last two years have brought many major changes to our school
department including a new middle school, a new student information
system, new administration at the high school, a new high school
schedule, and last, but not least, a new advisory program and the
implementation of a new ILP through Way to go RI.
 Am not sure. Anything I said would be more conjecture than actual
fact and so I prefer not to comment
 The ILP process in our school is developing to the next phase. We had
already started two years ago but had limitations. Recent changes in
our collective bargaining agreement will enhance our efforts with the
ILPs and students will benefit from these changes
139
Appendix G
Third Coding Cycle of Combined Open-ended Survey Comments

and Group Interview
Italicized text represents group interview text segments
FIELD
Community
 Job shadowing
Graduation Requirements
ADVISING
Assessment

 Inventories
 We use career clusters and interest inventories to help the students
select a career
 Students take an interest inventory and it becomes part of their ILP
 Once or maybe twice in four years, they complete the Harrington-
O‘Shea Interest Inventory
 The student complete a Harrington- O‘Shea in grade 10 & ASVAB
testing in grade 11
 Look at the careers that are suggested based on the various interest
inventories

 We are just beginning this year through waytogori.org and advisories
www.waytogori.org
140
 We use waytogori.org. The students reflect on career planning in the

ILP.

 Waytogori.org website. Students are then encouraged to use the site
to continue their career search and investigate careers of interest.
 Way to Go RI
 Use of waytogoRI. Students in grade 9 computer class set up accounts
 Waytogori.org
 The juniors went on last week, on Way To Go, and they’re just putting
in their background information
Graduation requirements
 The school counselors visit the students during their portfolio class to
implement the ILP
 Through the process of the senior portfolio which incorporates the best
samples of student work across the disciplines
 …help freshmen get introduced to… the portfolio system we use
 …help them even choose a senior project

 We drive the students to take the proper courses that will help them
qualify for their career goals
 Students indicate career pathways and connect current courses or
future coursework to career choice
 … throughout the year as we do course selection
 …more effectively plan out their high school and post high school
training
Goal Setting
 Goal setting, action steps, and reflection within the career domain
141
 Once goals are set, students reflect on and record steps towards their
goals
 Students set forth goals on their ILP reflecting career/postsecondary
path they are interested in
 Write some goals and reflections based on their (inventories) results
 Students are asked to set goals. These goals are revisited throughout
the year
 Parent feedback on student entries with comments relating to student
goals and course selection
 Write a goal and to follow a plan to reach the goal
 We wrote goals last month and in the last quarter we’re going to write
new goals, hopefully
INTRODUCTORY
Delivery System
 A variety of course offerings expose our students to many different

perspectives
 ILPs are started in all grades with the counselor and advisor working
together. Classroom teachers are involved
 Group counseling is used through advisory to integrate the career
domain
 Advisors work with the students on planning all 3 domains of the ILP.
Counselors come in and help, too
 We talk to students about updated career information that comes
through guidance
 Reviewed with students in guidance when discussing their future
 Then the counselors discuss the education/training needed to reach
goal
142
 Counselors work individually to do career counseling with students

 Students are asked individually at least once a year to discuss career
goals and plans and this is recorded on ILP
 Each year with individual interviews with counselor for feedback
 Built into that curriculum to have counselors go into those classes and
work with students for a couple of days
Community
 Career fair
CURRICULUM

 We have an entire department and staff that works with students in
this area. Guidance supports this initiative and frequently works
closely with School to Career
 Each student receives a certificate after completing 1500 hours in their
chosen career
 Tech school: career domain fully implemented into technical courses
Co-Curricular
 … think about extracurricular type activities
 … their career interests might even be a hobby
IMPLEMENTATION BARRIERS

 Some students receive more career information if they take certain
classes during the school year. It would be great if this information
were available to all students in a regular class setting
 I would like to see more discussion of careers during advisory so that
 I don‘t believe that the career domain is fully integrated into the ILP. I
believe that it relates mostly to postsecondary
 I feel that we are currently lacking in internship, job shadowing, and
technical opportunities for our students. I would love to see an
internship program implemented in our school
 We are instituting a web based ILP within the month. At some point
later in the year we are adding careers that match with the courses we
offer here
 We cover all the components of the ILP without having a formal format
in place
143
 ILP serves little purpose. It is not meaningful to students as they are

uncertain how to make decisions their future without any information
provided to them
 To date I have not seen a complete ILP so I have no way to respond
 Not enough
 Counselors in my building are frustrated with the ILP because students
respond with frustration. We have no support from the teachers when
delivering the program in advisory
 We have only 15 minutes in each advisory to complete the ILP with
little time to provide direction or information. It ties our hands from
providing relevant career information
 An ILP has been developed and we used it once in grade 9 two years
ago. It was done by administration and not in the way it was intended
to be used. It was quite frustrating to have a tool we worked so hard
on used in that way
 We are currently in the process of deciding how it will be used and by
whom
 The last two years have brought many major changes to our school
department including a new middle school, a new student information
system, new administration at the high school, a new high school
schedule, and last, but not least, a new advisory program and the
implementation of a new ILP through Way to go RI.
 Am not sure. Anything I said would be more conjecture than actual
fact and so I prefer not to comment
 The ILP process in our school is developing to the next phase. We had
already started two years ago but had limitations. Recent changes in
our collective bargaining agreement will enhance our efforts with the
ILPs and students will benefit from these changes
 I can’t do professional development on the concept that the advisors
could be doing the ILPs because it’s a contractual thing
 We don’t have time to teach them how to write good goals
 Unfortunately, it’s rushed because guidance counselors are trying to
do all of the work themselves
 I am doing all the scheduling, and all the scheduling, and all the
scheduling
 I don’t know how NECAP is done in other schools, but all my day is
kind of taken up with that for the last three/four days
 I do all of the AP testing, so come the end of the year I’m tied up for
at least two and a half weeks with all that testing
144
APPENDIX H
Table H17
Paired Sample Differences of Preferred and Actual Field-based Career
Interventions Practices at the Item Level
Field – based item n M SD
Youth Apprenticeship 71 1.93 1.31
Mentorship Program 72 1.67 1.23
Work - based Learning Project 71 1.48 1.17
Work Study 69 1.39 1.34
Cooperative Education 69 1.32 1.21
Service Learning/Volunteer 71 1.28 1.10
Note. p = .005 post Bonferroni adjustment for all items.
Table H18
Paired Sample Differences of Preferred and Actual Advising Career
Advising n M SD
Career Maturity Assessment 67 1.60* 1.36
Career Passport/Skill Cert. 67 1.37* 1.41
Career Library 68 1.24* 1.20
Career Map 68 1.22* 1.23
Job Hunting Preparation 67 1.16* 1.23
Career Focused Student/Parent Conference 71 1.11* 1.21
(continued)
145
Table H18
Paired Sample Differences of Preferred and Actual Advising Career

Interventions Practices at the Item Level (continued)
Advising n M SD
Information Interviewing* 66 1.09* 1.17
Career Peer Advising/Tutoring 69 1.00* 1.19
Cooperative/Dual Enrollment 68 .90* 1.12
Computer Assisted Career Guidance System 66 .76* 1.12
Career Cluster/Pathway/Major 68 .72* 1.24
Career Interests Assessment 69 .71* .96
Referral External Training 65 .63* .96
Career Counseling 68 .53* .92
Portfolio/Individual Career Plan 68 .53* .89
Referral External Counseling 68 .40* .90
Recruiting (college, military) 66 .24* .90
College Admissions Testing 64 .17 1.14
Academic Planning Counseling 69 .03 .48
Personal/Social Counseling 68 .00 .65
Note. p = .002 post Bonferroni adjustment for all starred (*) items.
146
Table H19
Paired Sample Differences of Preferred and Actual Introductory Career

INTRODUCTORY n M SD
Career Day 74 1.39 1.53
Career Aptitude Assessment 72 1.16 1.22
Guidance Lessons - Career 74 1.00 1.15
Guidance Lessons – Personal/Social 74 .85 1.15
Guidance Lessons - Academic 74 .41 .89
Table H20
Paired Sample Differences of Preferred and Actual Career Interventions

Practices by Item Level
Career Skills Infused Into Curriculum 61 1.57 1.28
School-based Enterprise 58 1.48 1.30
Career Information Infused Into Curriculum 63 1.35 1.28
Career and Technical Education Course 62 1.19 1.45
Career Academy/Career Magnet School 58 .83 1.36
Student Clubs/Activities 62 .55 1.13

147
Table H21
Paired Sample Differences of Preferred and Actual Career Interventions

Practices by Taxa Level
Taxa n M SD
Field-based 77 14.94 10.00
Advising 73 11.56 17.74
Introductory 71 5.97 7.49
Curriculum-based 66 6.50 7.84

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Johnson & Wales University

Providence, Rhode Island

CAREER INTERVENTIONS: PRACTICES AND PREFERENCES OF

A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment

All rights reserved

INFORMATION TO ALL USERS

Martin W. Sivula, Ph.D.

Dissertation Committee Member

Louis A. D‘Abrosca, Ed.D.

Dissertation Committee Member

Joseph Barresi, Jr., Ph.D.

In memory of my grandmother, Willie Mae Sykes, who always believed

I could do anything and who believed in the power of education.

Thank you to Dr. Martin W. Sivula, my major advisor, for

challenging me to stay on schedule and for expanding my knowledge of the

answering my endless questions during this journey. In addition, I offer my

sincere appreciation to my committee members, Dr. Louis D‘Abrosca, Dr.

To Lizann Gibson-Cayouette, your Skype messages of

encouragement were much appreciated. Dr. Flaherty, your constant support

meant the world to me.

and to Karen Franks whose unwavering support, encouragement, and love

kept me going. Shari, I love you forever.

Finally, thank you to my husband Dwight for your love and

patience through this process.

© 2010 Belinda J. Wilkerson

List of Tables ...........................................................................vii

List of Figures ......................................................................... viii

II. Literature Review .............................................................. 15

III. Methodology ..................................................................... 44

IV. Findings ............................................................................ 55

Advising Items .......................................................... 61

V. Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations .................. 79

References ............................................................................ 101

Appendices ........................................................................... 113

Appendix D ..................................................................... 126

Table 1 Number and Percentage of Public High School 56

Table 2 Number of Career Courses in College Preparation 57

Table 3 Frequency of Annual Hours of Professional 58

Table 4 Public High School Counselors' Actual Practice 61

Table 5 Public High School Counselors' Actual Practice 62

Table 6 Public High School Counselors' Actual Practice 64

Table 7 Public High School Counselors' Actual Practice 64

Table 8 Public High School Counselors' Preferred Practice 66

Table 9 Public High School Counselors ' Preferred Practice 67

Table 10 Public High School Counselors' Preferred Practice 68

Table 11 Public High School Counselors' Preferred Practice 69

Table 12 Correlations of Explanatory Variables to FieldALL 71

Table 13 Stepwise Regression Results for Field-based 72

Table 14 Ranked Frequency of Segmented Text of 74

Table 15 Selected Comments of New Emergent Themes 77

Table 16 School Counseling Programs Contributions to 94

Figure 1: Individual Learning Plan Program Cycle 12

Utilizing an explanatory, sequential mixed methods design, Phase I, was a

Respondents indicated 41 of 44 career interventions (93%) they practiced

Recommendations were to establish policies and protocols for implementing

This chapter offers a prelude to this study examining the relationship

between career intervention practices and preferences of high school

counselors in a southern New England state. Additionally, the study seeks to

explore how high school counselors support students‘ Individual Learning

students to make informed decisions about postsecondary options and the