BMAT Biology Notes Pack

BioMedical Admissions Test (BMAT)
Section 2: Biology
Summary Notes
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Contents Page
B01 and B02 Cells and Movement Across Membranes Page 1
B03 Cell Division and Sex Determination Page 5
B04 Inheritance Page 7
B05 & B06 DNA and Gene Technologies Page 13
B07 Variation Page 18
B08 & B09a Enzymes and Organ Systems Page 20
B09b Hormones, Homeostasis and Diseases Page 29
B10 Ecosystems Page 35
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Topics B1 and B2 - Cells and Movement Across Membranes
Cells
The basic units that all living things are made from are called cells. Unicellular organisms
contain only one cell, whereas multicellular organisms are made of many.
Eukaryotic cell structure

All eukaryotic cells (e.g. in plants and animals) contain a cell membrane and cytoplasm. Most
eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus, except for mature red blood cells. Plant cells also have a cell
wall and a sap vacuole and certain plant cells contain chloroplasts.
Sub-cellular Function
structure
Cell membrane ● Partially permeable layer

● Contains cell contents
● Controls movement of substances in and out of the cell, e.g. allows
CO2 to leave
Cytoplasm ● The site of chemical reactions

● Holds the cell organelles, e.g. nucleus and mitochondria
● Contains enzymes and food reserves, e.g. starch
● Contains dissolved salt ions and sugar
Nucleus ● Contains DNA in the form of chromosomes

● Found inside the cytoplasm
● Regulates cell functions
Mitochondria ● Controls production of energy from aerobic respiration

● Contains an inner and outer membrane
Chloroplast ● Contains chlorophyll to trap light energy and convert to chemical
(plants only) energy through photosynthesis
● Found inside the cytoplasm of plant cells
Vacuole ● Stores water-soluble chemicals

(plants only) ● Helps to keep plant cell firm
● Found inside the cytoplasm
● Fluid-filled (sap) containing sugars and salts
Cell wall ● Outer layer made of cellulose

(plants only) ● Provides protection and rigidity to the cell
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Prokaryotic cells
Prokaryotic cells are smaller than eukaryotic cells and DNA is not found in a nucleus.
Subcellular Function
structure
Cell membrane ● As above
Cytoplasm ● As above
Chromosomal ● Circular coiled molecule of double-stranded DNA

DNA ● Not found in a nucleus, but freely suspended in the cytoplasm
● Carries genetic information and regulates cell processes
Plasmid DNA ● Small molecule of double-stranded circular DNA

● Carries genetic information for particular specialist functions, e.g.
antibiotic resistance
● Can replicate separately from the chromosomal DNA
● Can be moved between bacterial cells
● This is the section that is used when bacteria is a vector for
genetic engineering.
Cell wall ● Provides protection and structural support to bacteria

● Freely permeable to small molecules so does not control
movement of substances
● Made of proteins, lipids and sugars - different from plant cell
walls
● Some bacterial cells also have a slime capsule around the cell
wall
Levels of Organisation
➔ A tissue is a group of similar cells with a similar structure and function, working together
to do a particular job, e.g. muscle
➔ An organ is made from a group of different tissues that work together to do a particular
job, e.g. liver
➔ An organ system is made of a group of different organs that work together to do a
particular job, e.g. circulatory system containing the heart, different blood vessels etc.
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Specialised Cells
Differentiation describes the process of eukaryotic cells becoming specialised to a particular
function. Here are some examples of important specialised cells:
Function Adaptations
Red blood Oxygen transport ● Concave shape to increase the surface
cells area to volume ratio
● Contains haemoglobin, which allows them
to carry oxygen
● No nucleus to increase available volume
for haemoglobin
● Mature RBC have no mitochondria
Egg cells Reproduction ● Large food store in order to build

molecules for the developing embryo
Sperm cells Reproduction ● Long tail and streamlined head

● Many mitochondria in order to provide the
energy for swimming
Root hair cell Absorption of water and ● Long hair-like structure to provide large
mineral ions from soil surface area
Movement Across Membranes

Diffusion is the spreading out of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of
low concentration.
● This is a passive process as it does not require energy.
● Factors affecting rate:
○ Concentration gradient - greater difference will have a faster rate of diffusion
○ Temperature - higher temperature increases kinetic energy so increases rate
○ Distance - the further the particles need to travel, the longer it takes to diffuse
○ Size of particles - smaller particles diffuse faster
○ Surface area - large surface area will increase the rate of diffusion.
Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules across a partially permeable membrane
from a region of higher water concentration to an area of lower water concentration.
● Cells in water
○ When a cell is placed in pure water, there is a higher water potential outside the
cell than within, causing water to enter the cell.
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○ Plant cell - this flow of water will exert pressure on the cytoplasm, which will
press against the cell wall. This is called turgor.
○ Animal cell - does not contain a cell wall and therefore the membrane will burst
from the pressure.
● Cells in a more concentrated solution
○ Concentrated salt solution has a lower water potential than the cytoplasm so the
cells will lose water.
○ Plant cell - becomes flaccid as pressure reduces and cell membrane and
cytoplasm shrink away from cell wall.
○ Animal cell - become crenated as cytoplasm decreases.
Active transport allows molecules to be moved against a concentration gradient, using

energy released by respiration.
● Cells using active transport tend to have lots of mitochondria for energy.
● Thought to be achieved by carrier proteins that are found in the membrane.
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Topic B3 - Cell Division and Sex Determination
Cell Division
There are 2 key ways in which cells are produced in our bodies:
Mitosis Meiosis
Function ● Growth, repair and replacement ● To create genetically diverse

of damaged or worn out cells offspring
● Asexual reproduction
Where it ● In damaged or worn out cells ● In human reproductive organs -

occurs ● In organisms that reproduce ovaries and testes.
assexually. ● Produces genetic variation
Stages ● Interphase - chromosome number ● Fertilisation - male and female

doubles gametes fuse to form a zygote with
● DNA from nucleus split in a diploid number
singular division ● 2 rounds of cell division to reduce to
haploid number
Daughter ● 2 identical daughter cells which ● 4 genetically diverse daughter cells

cells are clones of parent cell ● Gametes
● Diploid (46n, i.e. 23 pairs) - ● Haploid (23n) - either mother’s or
identical to the parent cell father’s
In summary:
● In mitosis, the parent cell divides once to form 2 identical diploid daughter cells.
● In meiosis, the parent cell divides twice to form 4 genetically unique daughter cells,
which all contain different combinations of DNA. The daughter cells are known as
gametes, and are haploid: they contain half the number of chromosomes.
Exam Tip - The processes of meiosis and mitosis are one of the most commonly tested
subjects in BMAT Biology, so make sure you understand them well!
The key comparisons are outlined in the table above. To revise them, you may find it useful
to cover the “meiosis” and “mitosis” columns with one hand, and try to recall the answers to
the headings on the left.
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Asexual Reproduction
● Requires only one parent, so there is no fusion of gametes
● Offspring will be genetically identical to the parent
● E.g. strawberry plants produce runners from which new plants grow from
● E.g. bacterial cells undergoing binary fission
○ However, due to mutations when DNA is copied the bacteria produced are not
always genetically identical.
Sexual Reproduction
● Two parents - fusion of gametes produced by meiosis occurs
● Offspring are genetically different to parents due to receiving only half from each
● Offspring are genetically different from each other due to random fusion of gametes
● Creates genetic variation - important for survival through natural selection
Sex Determination
The 23rd pair of chromosomes are the X and Y chromosomes; the sex chromosomes.
All women have two X chromosomes (XX), while all men have one X and one Y (XY). It is
therefore the sperm that determines the sex of the zygote.
In a male, a single gene on the Y chromosome is transcribed and translated into a protein,
which results in the development of testes (the male reproductive organ). The testes then go
on to produce male sex hormones, which cause male characteristics.
A female, however, lacks the gene so develops ovaries, female reproductive hormones, and
female characteristics instead.
Using a Punnett square we are able to show that there is a 50% chance of male and 50%
chance female.
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Topic B4 - Inheritance
Genetic Terms
Gene Short sequences of DNA on chromosomes which code for a protein
Allele Different versions of genes. For example, the gene for blue eyes and the
gene for brown eyes are 2 different alleles of the same gene.
Dominant Only one dominant allele is needed to determine the phenotype
Recessive Only determines the phenotype if there are two copies of this allele
Heterozygous If an individual has two different alleles of that gene, e.g. Tt
Homozygous If an individual has two alleles of a gene that are the same, e.g. TT
Genotype The combination of alleles e.g. Tt
Phenotype The visible characteristics as a result of the alleles
Chromosomes Condensed strands of DNA. All our genetic material is held in 23 pairs of
chromosomes
Genetic Diagrams
You need to understand how to create and analyse monohybrid crosses (i.e. for a single
gene)
Genetic diagrams can help you determine:

● The likelihood of offspring being male or female.
● The probability of offspring having a certain characteristic.
Exam Tip - Simple genetic diagrams help you determine the likelihood of offspring having
a certain characteristic, when a single gene controls that characteristic.
However, it is often more complicated than that; one characteristic can be influenced
by several different genes. It is likely that the BMAT exam will only give you genetic
diagrams with characteristics controlled by a single gene, but keep this point in mind as it
could be useful in identifying trick answers.
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Monohybrid Crosses
A punnett square based on a monohybrid cross is a diagram that shows you the possible
genetic combinations from two parents for a single trait for simplicity. However, it is important to
note that most phenotypic features are a result of the interaction of many genes, rather than a
single gene inheritance.
When drawing punnett squares, letters are often used to represent alleles.
● An uppercase letter is used to represent the dominant allele (e.g. A)
● A lowercase letter for the recessive allele (e.g. a).
In order to display a recessive characteristic, the organism must be homozygous recessive for
that trait. Both homozygous dominant and heterozygous individuals will display the dominant
characteristic.
Example
Let’s look at this using the example of the gene for eye colour.
➔ The father is homozygous recessive and has blue eyes. This means his genotype is
aa.
➔ The mother is heterozygous and has brown eyes. This means her genotype is Aa.
To make a punnett square, all you need to do is draw a grid like the one below, filling in the
mother’s and father’s genotypes as given, and then combining the alleles to complete the
squares for the offspring.
Father’s
genotype
a a
Mother’s A Aa Aa
genotype
a aa aa
Interpretation
We can use the punnett square above to calculate the probability of a child having a certain
phenotype or genotype.
● Of the 4 possible combinations, 50% are homozygous recessive and 50% are
heterozygous. This means that at every pregnancy, there is a 50% probability of the
child having ‘Aa’ alleles, and a 50% probability of the child having ‘aa’ alleles.
● Since the homozygous recessive genotype (‘aa’) causes individuals to have blue eyes,
there is a 50% probability that the offspring will have that phenotype. Similarly, given
that the heterozygous genotype (‘Aa’) results in the brown eyes, there is a 50%
probability that the offspring will have brown eyes.
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We can also create a punnett square for the X and Y chromosomes.
Father’s
genotype
X Y
Mother’s X XX XY
genotype
X XX XY
From this diagram, we can see that there is always a 50% probability that the parents’
offspring will be male (with the XY phenotype) or female (with the XX phenotype).
Other genetic diagrams

A genetic diagram is an umbrella term. As well as a punnett square, we can also determine
monohybrid crosses using family trees.
Assuming that the alleles for a certain characteristic are denoted by q, and Q represents the
dominant allele, this diagram represents a situation where both parents are homozygous
dominant. If both parents are homozygous dominant for a trait, the offspring will always be
homozygous dominant and express the same trait.
It’s worth noting here that the same is true for 2 parents homozygous recessive for a particular
trait: all offspring will also be homozygous recessive for the trait. The absence of the dominant
allele means that the only possible combination for offspring is 2 recessive alleles.
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Inherited conditions
Polydactyly
● Caused by a dominant allele, meaning that inheriting one disease allele is enough to
cause the condition.
● Polydactyly is a condition where babies are born with extra fingers and toes.
● If a child has the disease allele, at least one parent must carry the allele. Since it is a
dominant alle, it therefore follows that this parent must also have the disease.
● This punnett square outlines how the dominant allele for polydactyly (D) is inherited:
Father’s genotype
d d
Mother’s D Dd Dd
genotype (has
polydactyly) d dd dd
● You can see from the diagram that 50% of the offspring will be heterozygous, and 50%
will be homozygous dominant. This means there is a 1:1 ratio of offspring without
polydactyly to offspring with polydactyly, when only one parent has the disease.
Exam Tip - Make sure you understand ratios relating to genetic diagrams. For example, if
each box in a punnett square is one child:
● If 3 children out of the 4 (75%) inherit the condition,there is a 3:1 ratio of offspring
with the condition to offspring without the condition.
● If 1 out of the 4 (25%) inherit the condition, there is a 1:3 offspring of ratio with the
condition to offspring without the condition.
● As in the example for polydactyly, if 2 out of the 4 offspring (50%) inherit the
condition, then there is a 1:1 ratio of offspring with the condition to offspring without
the condition.
Cystic Fibrosis
● Caused by a recessive allele.
● Cystic fibrosis involves problems such as difficulty breathing and digestive problems.
These problems are due to a thick sticky mucus that sufferers produce; it blocks
passageways around the lungs and pancreas.
● Unlike a genetic disorder caused by a dominant allele, to acquire cystic fibrosis, 2
copies of the recessive allele must be inherited. In other words, a sufferer would be
homozygous recessive for the disease allele. Therefore, both of the child’s parents must
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possess at least one of the recessive alleles.
● It is possible that both parents are asymptomatic if they are both heterozygous for the
trait. Carrying the recessive allele for cystic fibrosis is not as rare as you might think: 1 in
25 people carry it.
Exam Tip - A carrier is someone who is heterozygous for a trait: they carry one
recessive allele, and one dominant allele.
For a genetic disorder like cystic fibrosis which is caused by a recessive allele, a
carrier will not experience symptoms. He or she is asymptomatic. If the disorder is
caused by a dominant allele, however, the individual will show the symptoms of the
disorder.
Family Pedigree Diagrams

The inheritance of genetic disorders can be illustrated in a family tree.
● Shaded squares or circles represent someone who expresses the trait.
● Half-shaded squares or circles symbolize someone who is a carrier (heterozygous)
● Women are always represented as circles, whereas men are always squares.
Worked example
In the diagram below, Finn is a carrier of cystic fibrosis, and so is his son Ed, who also inherits
the recessive allele. Many years later, Ed decides to have a child with his partner, Fatima.
Since she is also a carrier, what is the probability that their child will have cystic fibrosis? It might
help you to draw a punnett square to see this.
Answer: 25%.
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Look at the punnett square below for guidance. Let’s assume F is the dominant allele, and f is
the recessive allele. If both parents are carriers of the trait (heterozygous), you can see from the
punnett square that:
● 25% of the offspring will be homozygous dominant.
● 50% will be carriers (heterozygous), like their parents.
● 25% will be homozygous recessive and will therefore have the symptoms of cystic
fibrosis.
Ed’s genotype
F f
Fatima’s F FF Ff
genotype
f Ff ff
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Topics B5 and B6 - DNA and Gene Technologies
DNA
● In eukaryotic cells DNA is contained within a nucleus in long, thread-like structures
called chromosomes.
● DNA is a large polymer made of smaller monomers.
● This monomer is a nucleotide, made of three components: a sugar (called ribose), a
phosphate and a nitrogenous base.
● There are 4 bases:
○ Adenine
○ Cytosine
○ Guanine
○ Thymine
● Nucleotides always pair in a specific way (complementary base-pairing): A and T, C
and G bond by hydrogen bonding
● The joined together nucleotides form a polynucleotide chain
● A DNA molecule is made of 2 polynucleotide chains (strands) that are twisted around
each other to form a double helix
Protein synthesis
● A chromosome consists of millions of bases of DNA
● A gene is a section of a chromosome, which codes for a specific protein
● The cell only uses the template strand to make a protein
● The code is read as triplets, e.g. ACG CTA, and each triplet codes for a single amino
acid.
● There are some triplets that code for the same amino acid
● The sequence of amino acids produces the protein
Gene mutation
● Mutation: a change in a DNA sequence.
● Harmful mutations:
○ Mutations can be harmful if it changes a triplet, which will then code for a different
amino acid and therefore change the structure of the protein.
○ If the mutation occurs within an enzyme, the active site may no longer be
complementary to the substrate.
● Most mutations have no effect on phenotype:
○ Because large sections of DNA do not code for proteins
○ Therefore any mutations here are unlikely to affect phenotype
○ These are called silent mutations
○ In some cases, this could happen if a change in a triplet occurs but the new triplet
still codes for the same amino acid
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Genetic Engineering
Genetic engineering is the modification of an organism’s genetic material. It involves taking
a copy of a gene from one organism and inserting that gene into another organism’s DNA. This
creates a genetically modified organism (GMO), which is also called transgenic.
Genetically engineering bacterial cells:

1. The useful gene is cut from the DNA of an organism using a restriction enzyme
a. This enzyme cuts DNA is a staggered way, which creates ‘sticky ends’ (short
sections of unpaired DNA)
2. The bacterial plasmid DNA is cut open using the same restriction enzyme, also
creating sticky ends
a. By using the same restriction enzyme, the unpaired bases on the ends of the
plasmid (the sticky ends) are complementary to that on the useful genes
3. The useful gene and the plasmid DNA are mixed and the gene is inserted into the
plasmid, through hydrogen bonds that form between the complementary bases in the
sticky ends
4. DNA ligase (an enzyme) is used to join the plasmid DNA and the gene together,
creating a recombinant plasmid
5. This recombinant plasmid is then inserted into a bacterial cell
a. The plasmid acts as a vector, as it carries the gene into the bacterial cell
6. The bacterial cell can be cultured through cloning, so multiple genetically modified
bacteria containing the recombinant plasmid will be made.
Examples of proteins that can be produced through bacteria in this way:

● Hormones, e.g. insulin to treat diabetes
● Enzymes, e.g. rennin for producing cheese
● Blood clotting factors, e.g. factor VIII in order to treat haemophilia
● Antibiotics, e.g. penicillin
Genetically engineering of plants:

● This process is slightly different to the one just discussed, as plant cells do not have
plasmids like bacterial cells do
● Instead the bacteria Agrobacterium tumefaciens is used to make GM plants
○ These have a plasmid called Ti plasmid that is able to enter plant cells and the
genome when the bacteria infects the plant
● In the previous method, the bacteria cells were cultured through cloning. In a similar
way, the plant cells are grown in culture and then develop into new plants that contain
the useful gene
● Examples of GM plants:
○ Pest resistance in Bt cotton
○ Disease resistance in bananas
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○ Adding nutrients to avoid malnutrition in countries, e.g. golden rice infused with
-carotene to prevent vitamin A deficiency
Genetic engineering in medicine:

● Producing medicine e.g. insulin, blood clotting factors
○ These can produce larger quantities of medicine
○ Fewer side effects as human proteins
○ However, there are concerns about unknown long-term consequences as
relatively recent technology
● Producing vaccines, e.g. hepatitis B
○ Can produce more vaccines that are safer and cheaper
● Producing human-like organs, e.g. GM pigs
○ Help to reduce shortage of suitable donor organs
○ However, concerns over the spread of disease from pigs to human
○ Ethical objections of using pigs
● Reducing spread of diseases, e.g. malaria
○ Modifying Anopheles mosquitoes to have a more efficient immune response
when infected with parasite so does not survive within them
○ Concerns over the implications of other wild populations of insects
Gene Therapy
● Gene therapy is the use of genes to cure or prevent severe genetic diseases. This is
done by introducing a normally-functioning gene into a patient’s cells to replace a faulty,
mutated gene that causes the disease.
● However, if the therapeutic gene is accidentally inserted too close to a cancer-causing
gene then it can cause this gene to be switched on.
Exam Tip - Gene therapy in gametes is a controversial topic. It is a good topic to try to
understand, both for the BMAT exam and for medical school interviews!
You may want to look at these videos for more insight into gene therapy.
❖ Editing Genes Inside the Human Body (7 minutes)
❖ Genetic Engineering Will Change Everything Forever (16 minutes)
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Body cells Gametes Stem cells
Example Cystic fibrosis: can Gene therapy on gamete cells is Sickle cell anaemia:
add a gene to lung currently illegal in the UK GM bone marrow cells
cells to enable cells to can be used to create
produce a protein to healthy red blood cells
reduce symptoms for oxygen transport
Pros/ ● Longer lasting ● Any therapeutic gene added into ● Provides

Cons treatment a gamete cell will be found in longer-term cure
● Increased quality every cell of child formed from ● Can use patient’s
of life gamete, so can prevent offspring own stem cells so
● Provides possible developing genetic condition no need to find a
cures for genetic ● Very controversial and currently suitable donor and
conditions, e.g. illegal no risk of rejection
CF ○ Could lead to the creation
● Reduces need for of “designer babies”
daily medication ○ Changes are passed onto
● Less controversial offspring so can have
unanticipated results on
the next generation
Stem Cells
● Stem cells are undifferentiated cells, which can renew themselves through mitosis.
● They have the potential to become many different types of cells in the body through
differentiation.
● Throughout a person’s life the ability of stem cells to differentiate changes:
● At fertilisation these stem cells are totipotent
○ Totipotent stem cells: can differentiate and develop into any of the specialised
cells found in an adult
● As mitosis occurs, an embryo has stems cells that are pluripotent
○ Pluripotent stem cells: can differentiate it to almost every specialised cell,
except cells that become the placenta
● Adult stem cells are found in several organs in the body, e.g. liver, brain, heart, and are
multipotent
○ Multipotent stem cells: can only differentiate into a small number of different
cells, e.g. in bone marrow they can only differentiate into types of blood cells
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Stem cells in medicine:
Bone marrow Embryonic stem cells Induced pluripotent stem

stem cells cells (iPSC)
Examples ● Can be used ● Treat diabetes by ● Produced in the laboratory

to treat replacing insulin-secreting using adult body cells (less
certain cells in the pancreas controversial) so can be
cancers ● Treat burns through used instead of embryonic
replacing damaged skin stem cells
tissue ● Test effectiveness of drugs
● Replacing neurons to before used on patient
treat spinal cord injuries ● No rejection as from
patient’s body
Issues ● Risk of ● Risk of rejection

rejection ● Moral and ethical
objections as they must
be taken from human
embryos.
Selective breeding
1. Animals with desirable characteristics, e.g. rapid growth, more muscle, are selected
2. These animals are bred together
3. The animals with the most desirable characteristics are selected from offspring
4. These offspring are then bred together
5. Cycle repeated over several generations until the desirable trait increases in the
population
As well as farm animals like cows or pigs, dogs have also been selectively bred over time. For
example, greyhounds have been bred for their intelligence and border collie’s for their
obedience.
Disadvantages of selective breeding:

● Reduces genetic variation within the population so more at risk of disease etc.
● Inbreeding increase risk of genetic conditions presenting
● Ethical concerns of welfare of animals
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Topic B7 - Variation
Natural selection and evolution
Within a population of a particular species, there will be genetic variation due to mutations.
Variation refers to the differences between organisms of the same species.
You need to be able to distinguish between 2 important concepts:

● Evolution is the slow process whereby organisms change over many generations.
● Natural selection is the mechanism by which it occurs.
Charles Darwin explained evolution through the process of natural selection. The theory
states that organisms who are better adapted to their environment are more likely to survive and
produce offspring. This means that, over time, their genes and characteristics will become more
common in the population. The example below shows how the crab population has evolved by
means of natural selection:
Exam Tip - Remember, natural selection favours individuals with an advantageous allele
that allows them to survive and reproduce. This allele could do anything from longer limbs
to better eyesight!
Natural selection doesn’t favour a higher reproductive capacity per say, but the particular
allele which gives the individual a higher reproductive capacity!
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Another example that is relevant to medicine is the increasing risk of antibiotic resistance:
● Within the bacteria population there is variation due to mutations
● One mutation provides resistance to certain antibiotics
● When the selection pressure of antibiotics is used (i.e. the patient starts using it), the
bacteria with this beneficial allele will survive
● They will then reproduce and pass these advantageous alleles on, until the number of
bacteria which are resistant increase
Sources of variation
Genes are passed on from parents to offspring, in various combinations, via gametes. Each
individual is genetically unique because they have inherited genes from each of their parents, in
a random combination. Examples of exclusively genetic variation include eye colour, blood
group and genetic disorders, such as Huntington’s, polydactyly and cystic fibrosis.
The environment can also cause members of the same species to show different
characteristics. For example, you might notice your friend looks very different after coming back
from a holiday with a sunburn and completely bitten by mosquitos.
Most variation is due to a combination of genetic and environmental factors. For example,
your maximum height is decided by the genes that you inherit from your parents. However, your
environment plays a key role too; you can’t grow tall without the nutrients to do so! Other
examples include body mass, skin colour and how well you do in school.
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Topics B8 & B9 (part 1) - Enzymes and Organs Systems
Nervous System
Structure of the Nervous System

Sensory organs contain receptors which detect changes in the environment - for example, the
eyes detect light. The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord,
and is responsible for coordinating a response. The nervous system consists of multiple
different types of neurons:
Sensory Neurons Relay Neurons Motor Neurons
Carry signals from receptors Carry signals from sensory Carry signals from CNS to the
to the central nervous system neurons to motor neurons muscles and glands
(effectors)
All neurons have the same general structure:

● Axon - A long structure containing cytoplasm and surrounded by a cell membrane, the
axon carries the electrical impulse along the neuron.
● Cell Body - Contains a nucleus enclosing DNA, this codes for the proteins needed by
the cell.
● Dendrites - Branched structures that allow different neurons to communicate.
Some neurons also have a fatty myelin sheath surrounding the axon which increases the rate
of signal transmission, acting as an electrical insulator.
Synapses
A synapse is a ‘gap’ between two neurons. This ‘gap’ is very small, and is the slowest part of
the neuronal pathway.
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Chemical transmitters are released from the end of one neuron and diffuse passively across
the synapse. The order of events at the neuron is often examined and is important to learn. It is
as follows:
1. Nerve impulse travels down the axon of the first neuron.
2. Impulse triggers release of chemical transmitters.
3. Chemical transmitters diffuse across synapse.
4. Chemical transmitters bind to receptors on the second neuron.
5. Nerve impulse is initiated in the second neuron.
Drugs can affect the actions of a synapse:

● Ecstasy changes the way serotonin is removed from a synapse.
● Serotonin is our ‘mood hormone’ - this changes things like pain and aggression.
● Ecstasy causes a lack of removal of serotonin, meaning the concentration of serotonin
increases.
● This normally leads to mood being enhanced.
Reflexes
Reflexes are unconscious actions that do not require any thought in order to carry out. You
should remember that reflexes are involuntary, rapid and automatic responses to a stimulus
Information, in the form of an electrical impulse, travels through a reflex arc:

● A stimulus is detected by receptors.
● Electrical impulses travel along the sensory neuron.
● In the spinal cord, the sensory neuron and the relay neuron synapse.
● Impulses are further passed to a motor neuron via a synapse to an effector (muscle or
gland).
Reflexes are protective, these involuntary actions increase the likelihood of survival. For
example, lifting the foot after stepping on a pin or rapidly withdrawing your hand after touching
something hot. Babies are born with reflexes that are later lost through development, such as
grasping and suckling.
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Respiratory system
Respiration
Respiration is the process of releasing energy from glucose, and occurs in every living cell.
This process is catalysed by enzymes.
Aerobic respiration requires oxygen, and is the most efficient way to release to energy.
Exam Tip - The word equation for aerobic respiration is as follows:

Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy
Anaerobic respiration occurs in cells if there is insufficient oxygen - this is the incomplete
breakdown of glucose (and releases less energy). Lactic acid is produced, which causes
muscles to fatigue
Exam Tip - The word equation for anaerobic respiration is as follows:

Glucose → Lactic Acid + Energy
Some glucose is stored as glycogen, this is normally in the muscles and liver. During vigorous
exercise, glycogen is converted back to glucose for use.
The Thorax
Air enters through the mouth and nose and then passes to the larynx. It then continues to the
trachea. The trachea splits into 2 main tubes called bronchi. These bronchi then split into
progressively smaller tubes called bronchioles. These end in alveoli; the site where gas
exchange takes place.
Gas exchange occurs in the lungs; oxygen is transferred into the blood and carbon dioxide is
removed. The process of gas exchange occurs in the alveolus: the alveolus is specialised in a
number of ways:
● The walls of the alveolus are one cell thick to minimise diffusion distance and time
● The alveolus has a large surface area to increase rate of gas exchange
● Capillary networks surround the alveoli to maintain a high concentration gradient
Ventilation
Ventilation is the process of breathing in and out. When breathing in:
● Intercostal muscles contract, and the diaphragm contracts and flattens. The
diaphragm is a dome shaped muscle, and flattens on contraction.
● The intercostal muscles cause the rib cage to move up and out. This, in addition to the
contraction of the diaphragm, causes the thorax volume to increase.
22
● Since the volume increases, but the air inside the thorax remains the same, thoracic
pressure decreases. This causes air to be drawn into the lungs in inhalation.
When breathing out, the opposite occurs.
Circulatory system
The Heart
Humans have a double circulatory system, meaning there are 2 circuits for blood within the
body; one pumps oxygenated blood to the body and the other pumps deoxygenated blood to
the lungs.
The heart is a muscular pump that keeps blood flowing around the body. Each side of the heart
has two chambers: the upper chambers are called atria and the lower chambers are called
ventricles.
The heart also contains valves. These are present between the atria and the ventricles, and
the ventricles and arteries. Valves prevent a backflow of blood.
23
Blood vessels
Arteries Veins Capillaries
Wall Thickness Thick Thin One cell thick
Lumen Small Large Very small
Blood Pressure High Low High
Other Muscular and elastic Veins have valves to Walls are very thin
Characteristics walls to withstand prevent the backflow of to give a high
high pressure blood diffusion rate
Heart Rate
The rate at which the heart beats is determined by the body’s demand for oxygen. This is
affected by the individual’s activity and conditions in the body.
During exercise, heart rate increases from resting to cope with the extra oxygen demand.
The heart rate is controlled by pacemaker cells within the heart. These clusters of cells are
known as the sinoatrial node (atrial contraction) and the atrioventricular node (ventricular
contraction).
We can trace the heart’s electrical activity using an electrocardiogram (ECG). An ECG is a
diagnostic test that can show heart attacks and irregular heartbeats. The ECG below shows
two full heart beats for a healthy individual.
24
Composition of blood
● Plasma:
○ The watery part of the blood where cells are transported
○ Contains dissolved glucose, amino acid, urea, carbon dioxide and proteins
○ Also distributes heat
● Red blood cells:
○ Contain haemoglobin to carry oxygen in the form of oxyhaemoglobin
○ Cells are concave in shape
○ Do not have a nucleus so that the cell can carry as much oxygen as possible
● White blood cells:
○ Fight infection
○ Can change shape in order to engulf microorganisms (phagocytes)
○ Also produce antibodies in order to neutralise microorganisms (lymphocytes)
○ Do have a nucleus
● Platelets:
○ Causes blood to clot at the site of a wound
○ Fibrinogen is converted into fibrin through a series of enzymes, creating a mesh
that traps platelets and red blood cells to stop blood loss
○ No nucleus
Exam Tip - Thinking about the function of a cell can be beneficial when trying to recall its
specialisations.
For example, red blood cells carry oxygen to all tissues. Therefore, maximising space for
haemoglobin and being able to pass through capillaries is vital!
Blood groups
Blood groups are assigned depending on the antigens on the surface of the individual’s red
blood cell. There are A antigens and B antigens. Therefore you can be blood group A group B,
group AB (having both), or group O (having neither).
Blood Group Antigens Antibodies Can donate Can receive

blood to... blood from...
A A Anti-B A and AB A and O
B B Anti-A B and AB B and O
AB A, B None Only AB Anyone
O None Anti-A, Anti-B Anyone Only O
25
We can see that O is the universal donor and AB is the universal recipient.
If we give a patient red blood cells with antigens corresponding antibodies in their blood, an
agglutination reaction will occur and can be fatal.
Digestive system
Structure
Food passes through the system in this order:
1. Mouth
2. Oesophagus
3. Stomach
4. Small intestine
5. Large intestine
Food is moved through a process called peristalsis, where wave-like muscle contractions move
food along the digestive tract.
Digestion can either be mechanical (e.g. being ground in teeth) or chemical (e.g. bile and
enzymes in the stomach)
Enzymes
The main function of the digestive system is to break down large molecules into smaller soluble
molecules. This is done with the use of enzymes.
Enzymes increase the rates of reaction - we call them biological catalysts. A catalyst
increases the rate of reaction without undergoing any permanent chemical change. Enzymes
are proteins, which means they are vulnerable to changes structure caused by alterations in
temperature and pH. Different enzymes have different optimum temperatures and pH,
depending on the function of the enzyme.
Enzymes have an active site, where the substrate binds and undergoes a reaction. The active
site of an enzyme are extremely specific, and therefore only catalyses a specific reaction - this is
called the ‘Lock and Key model’.
The nutrients in blue are broken down by the enzymes written in black:
● Starch → amylase → maltose → maltase → glucose
● Protein → proteases → amino acids
● Lipids → lipases → glycerol + fatty acids
26
You should know where the different digestive enzymes are produced:
Amylase:
● Salivary glands
● Pancreas
● Small intestine
Proteases:
● Stomach
● Pancreas
● Small intestine
Lipases:
● Pancreas
● Small intestine
Exam Tip - Look at a diagram of the digestive system to ensure you know the function of
the different organs, including the pancreas, liver, gallbladder and stomach!
Bile is made in the liver and is then stored in the gall bladder until needed. It is then released
into the small intestine. Bile is important for a process called emulsification, where large lipid
droplets are broken down into smaller droplets, therefore increasing the surface area. This
means that the rate of digestion increases.
Food absorption
● The small intestine is the main site of absorption. It is adapted for the role, as the wall
contains millions of villi - finger-like projections that increase the surface area for
absorption.
● Villi contain many blood capillaries so that a high concentration gradient is maintained,
to ensure that diffuse is efficient.
● Nutrients are absorbed through diffusion and active transport and water is absorbed
through osmosis.
● These absorbed nutrients are then used in order to make new macromolecules, for
respiration, growth and repair or energy storage.
● The parts of the food that are unable to be digested (e.g. cellulose) leaves the body as
faeces, which is brown due to bile pigments. Faeces is egested out from the anus.
27
Excretory System
Excretion is the removal of toxic substances that were created through metabolic processes in
the body.
● Liver
○ Excess amino acids are broken down by liver through deamination. The nitrogen
parts of these are converted into urea - a toxic substance which is then excreted
by the kidneys (more detail below)
○ Breaks down haemoglobin to create bilirubin, which is excreted with faeces
● Lungs
○ Removes carbon dioxide from the body, which is a waste product of aerobic
respiration
● Skin
○ Produces sweat, containing sodium chloride and small amounts of urea
dissolved in water
○ Skin is not an excretory organ in the same way that the lungs or kidney are
● Kidneys
○ Removes urea
○ Adjusts water content
○ Adjusts ion levels
The Kidneys
Each kidney receives blood from a renal artery (a branch of the aorta). The filtered blood is
returned to the renal vein, which then forms the vena cava.
Each kidney contains millions of nephrons. Within each nephron there is a glomerulus, which
is a ball of capillaries that is surrounded by a Bowman’s capsule. This leads to a proximal
convoluted tubule, the loop of Henle, the distal convoluted tubule and the collecting duct.
Exam Tip - Look at the structure of the nephron and make sure you understand the
processes occurring at each part.
Large cells and substances, such as red blood cells and proteins, cannot filter through the
glomerulus and therefore stay within the capillaries. However, smaller molecules such as water,
urea and dissolved ions are forced through the walls through ultrafiltration (filtration under
pressure), forming the filtrate.
The filtrate passes through the tubule and selective reabsorption of glucose, some salt and
water occurs.
Excess salts, urea and uric acid continue into the collecting duct to form urine, which passes to
the bladder and then is expelled through the urethra.
28
Topic B9 (part 2) - Hormones, Homeostasis and Diseases
Hormones
Hormones are chemical messengers released from specific endocrine glands that travel in the
blood plasma. However, hormones will only have an effect on specific cells, which we call
‘target cells’.
Nerves and hormones exhibit differences in their actions; hormones are slower, act for a longer
period of time and have more general effects. These are important things to remember and
they occur because hormones are limited by the speed of blood passing around the body.
Thyroxine:
● Thyroxine is important for regulating basal metabolic rate (the rate at which chemical
reactions within the body take place when at rest)
● Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) controls the release of thyroxine through negative
feedback
● Levels in blood is monitored by the hypothalamus
● When thyroxine is too high
○ The TSH released by the pituitary gland is inhibited
○ Less thyroxine is released from thyroid gland
○ Level falls back to normal
● The opposite occurs when levels in the blood are too low
Adrenaline:
● Released by the adrenal glands
● Responsible for ‘fight or flight’ response
● Actions:
○ Increases heart rate
○ Stimulate liver to break down glycogen to glucose for energy
○ Increases breathing rate
○ Causes dilation of vessels to direct blood to muscles
○ Causes the pupils to dilate
Hormones in human reproduction

● Oestrogen is the main female reproductive hormones and is produced in the ovaries
● Testosterone is the main male reproductive hormones and is produced in the testes
29
Menstrual cycle:
● Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
○ Produced by the pituitary gland
○ Acts in the ovary
○ Stimulates ovaries to develop follicle containing an egg and to produce oestrogen
● Oestrogen
○ Produced by the ovaries
○ Stimulates the uterus lining to thicken
○ Inhibits FSH and LH
● Luteinising hormone (LH)
○ Produced by the pituitary gland
○ Acts on ovaries
○ Stimulates the mature follicle to release the egg around day 14 - ovulation
● Progesterone
○ Secreted by empty follicle in ovary (corpus luteum)
○ Maintains the lining of the uterus so that the fertilised egg can implant
○ Inhibits LH
○ Decrease levels cause the lining to break down - menstruation
Contraceptives:
● Hormonal contraceptive
○ Oral pill - combined or progesterone only
■ Not 100% effective
■ Side effects, e.g. nausea, headaches
■ Does not protect against STDs
■ Need to take every day
○ Skin patch
■ Same hormones as combined pill
■ Patch changed every week
○ Implant
■ Lasts up to 3 years
■ Continuous amount of progesterone
○ Injection
■ Lasts up to 3 months
○ Intrauterine devices
■ T-shaped device inserted into the uterus
■ Stops implantation and plastic IUDs release progesterone
● Non-hormonal methods
○ Barrier methods
■ Condoms, diaphragm, spermicide
■ Condoms protect against STDs
○ Natural methods
30
■ Abstinence - 100% effective
■ Planning to avoid sex during most fertile time of ovulation
■ Not very effective
○ Intrauterine devices
■ As mentioned before
■ Copper IUDs instead of plastic - can stop sperm surviving
○ Surgical methods
■ Cutting/tying structures, e.g. oviducts or sperm ducts
Exam Tip - If a response is rapid, it is likely caused by nerves; if a response is

longer lasting, it is likely caused by a hormone.
Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the process of maintaining a constant internal environment in the body - this
means balancing what goes into the body, with what comes out.
Homeostasis is maintained using negative feedback - this is a process where a condition’s

level becomes too high or too low, and this is fed back to the brain. The brain then alters the
level of this condition to bring it back to the normal value.
Body temperature:
● The thermoregulatory centre in the hypothalamus detects changes in temperature
and sends signals to effectors that can alter these changes
● When body temperature is too high
○ More sweating occurs to maintain body temperature
○ Kidneys respond to more water being lost in sweat by producing smaller volume
of more concentrated urine to avoid dehydration
○ Vasodilation occurs to remove more heat from the blood
● When body temperature is low
○ Less sweating occurs
○ Kidneys respond by producing a higher volume of less concentrated urine
○ This avoids excess water being taken in by osmosis, causing the cells to burst
○ Hairs stand up on end to create an insulation layer
○ Vasoconstriction occurs to reduce heat lost from blood
○ Involuntary muscle contraction (shivering) occurs to raise body temperature
31
Blood glucose:
● When blood glucose is too high, a hormone called insulin is released from the
pancreas into the blood. This acts to decrease glucose levels in the blood
● When glucose is too low, a hormone called glucagon is released to increase glucose
levels
Water content:
● The water content of the blood is controlled by a hormone called ADH
● This is released into the blood by the pituitary gland
● If water content is too high, less ADH is released so the kidneys reabsorb less water and
more urine is produced.
● Alcohol causes a suppression of ADH production, so that higher volumes of dilute urine
are produced.
● Ecstasy causes an increase of ADH production, so that smaller volumes of very
concentrated urine are produced.
Exam Tip - To remember the function of ADH, you can just remember that it causes more
urine to be produced, which decreases water levels. Therefore, it is released when water
content of the blood is too high.
ADH stands for Antidiuretic Hormone, and diuresis is the process of making urine - knowing
this makes solving questions a lot easier!
Communicable Diseases
Communicable diseases are infectious diseases that are caused by pathogens. These include
viruses, bacteria, protists and fungi.
Viral diseases:
● HIV/AIDS
○ Retrovirus - RNA and contains reverse transcriptase
○ HIV passes through infected body fluids, e.g. sexually, blood through infected
needles or transfusions, breast milk
○ Reduces white blood cell count, meaning a weakened immune system which
leads to AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)
○ No cure but anti-retroviral drugs can control infection
● Influenza
Spread in airborne droplets, e.g. sneezing
○ Vaccines containing inactive or weakened virus are available
■ This forms an immune response where antibodies to the pathogen’s
antigens are created and retained in memory cells.
32
■ When the person comes into contact with the real virus, the memory cells
can produce that antibody faster and in larger amounts so that the person
does not have any symptoms (secondary immune response)
● Measles
○ Spread by direct contact, e.g. touching infected person, and by airborne mucus
droplets, e.g. sneezing
○ Red blotchy rash that spreads across skin
○ mmR vaccine contain live attenuated version of virus
● Tobacco mosaic disease
○ Tobacco mosaic virus attacks tobacco plants
Bacterial diseases:
● Salmonella food poisoning
○ Occurs when someone eats food contaminated with bacteria
○ Oral rehydration supplements can be given to replace lost electrolytes from
diarrhoea and vomiting caused by the bacterium
● Antibiotics can be used against bacteria, although recently antibiotic resistance is
increasing amongst bacteria populations
Non-Communicable Diseases
These types of diseases are not infectious and are caused by the interaction of many
different factors in a person’s life. Some of the main non-communicable diseases that you
should be aware of are: cardiovascular disease (CVD), many forms of cancer, some lung
diseases, some liver diseases and nutrition-influenced diseases (e.g. type 2 diabetes).
Cardiovascular disease (CVD)

● Coronary heart disease - an atheroma or blood clot blocking the coronary arteries,
stopping oxygen and glucose reaching the heart and causing anaerobic respiration to
occur, which can cause the cells to die
● Hypertension - consistently raised blood pressure (over 140/90mmHg), due to the
narrowing of an artery lumen
● Stroke - narrowing or hardening of arteries supplying the brain tissue, which leads to
part of the brain becoming deprived of oxygen and glucose and dying.
Risk factors:
● Diet high in fat and cholesterol or salt
● Too little exercise
● Smoking
● Obesity
● Non-modifiable risk factors, such as genetics, age and gender
33
Treatments:
● Life-long treatment
○ Statins - reduce cholesterol production to avoid an atheroma blocking arteries
○ Anticoagulants - reduce likelihood of blood clots
○ Anti-hypertensive drugs - relax blood vessels to reduce blood pressure
● Surgical procedures
○ Stent - a mesh tube is placed into the coronary arteries to increase the lumen
diameter so that blood can flow freely
○ Bypass - a small part of a blood vessel is removed from elsewhere in the body,
e.g. the leg, and used to reroute blood around a blockage
● Lifestyle changes
○ Reducing smoking
○ More exercise
○ Balanced diet
34
Topic B10 - Ecosystems
Organisation Levels In Ecosystems
➔ An individual is a single organism.

➔ A population is a group of organisms of the same species that live within the same
area.
➔ A community is a collection of all the different populations that live together in the same
ecosystem.
➔ A habitat is the area where organisms live.
➔ An ecosystem describes the way that the living (i.e. the community of organisms) and
non-living components of the environment interact.
Environmental Change
The environment in which organisms live and compete is constantly changing. Communities
are affected by both:
Biotic (living) factors:

● Competition for resources
● Infectious disease
● Predation
● Food supply
Abiotic (non-living) factors:

● Light intensity
● pH of water/soil
● Temperature
● Availability of water
● Availability of oxygen
● Pollution of air/water
Changes to any of these factors can lead to changes in population:

● Population size can increase e.g. if more food is available or there is less predation
● Population size can decrease e.g. if less food is available or there is more predation
● Population distribution can change e.g. if there is a rise in average temperature
Competition Between Organisms

In order for organisms to survive and reproduce, they must retrieve resources from their
environment. Animals and plants require slightly different things to survive:
● Plants:
○ Light
○ Space (for example, for roots to spread)
35
○ Water
○ Mineral ions from the soil
● Animals:
○ Territory
○ Food
○ Water
○ Mates
Environmentally, there are limited amounts of these resources, and therefore organisms will
have to compete with each other.
There are two types of competition, depending on who is competing:

● Interspecific - individuals compete with those of another species
● Intraspecific - individuals compete with those of the same species: ‘survival of the
fittest’
Exam Tip - Intraspecific competition tends to be more important than interspecific

as the organisms have the same needs. Therefore, they’ll be competing for exactly
the same resources, rather than just similar ones.
Relationships Between Organisms
Predator-Prey Cycles:
● In a typical predator-prey cycle, the peaks and troughs of each population numbers
generally follow each other - prey numbers are higher than predator numbers!
● More prey, means more predators are able to feed, survive and reproduce - this leads to
an increase in predator numbers.
● These cycles take a while to sync up because it takes time for the populations to
respond to changes.
Parasitic Relationships:
● Parasites are organisms that ‘feed’ off a host, without giving anything back to the
host.
● This means that only the parasite benefits, whereas the host is harmed
● An example of this is animal fleas
Mutualistic Relationships:
● Here, an organism lives on a host organism, but in return there is an exchange of
resources.
● Both organisms benefit from this relationship.
36
● An example of this is with hermit crabs who place sea anemones on their shells for
protection, whilst the anemone can eat scraps of food left from the crab and can be
transported to areas with fresh food sources.
Trophic Levels and Biomass
Biomass is the mass of a living organism - we

can represent the biomass of a food chain as a
biomass pyramid.
Trophic levels are the levels within the food
chain
● Producers are usually photosynthetic
plants
○ These plants absorb light energy from the Sun using chlorophyll
○ These are then stored in carbohydrates, fats and proteins - creating the plant’s
biomass
● Primary consumers are herbivores which eat the plants, e.g. caterpillar
● Secondary consumers are carnivores which eat the primary consumers, e.g. birds
● Tertiary consumers are often not present due to the loss of biomass through each
stage of the food chain
As you move up the trophic levels, the biomass decreases. Often, but not always, the numbers
of organisms as you move up each level decreases too.
Energy Transfer
There is also a loss of energy as you move up trophic levels. Energy is lost at different stages:
○ Energy lost during photosynthesis - photosynthetic plants use only about 1% of the
Sun’s light energy during photosynthesis, with the remainder lost by reflection or used for
transpiration.
○ Energy lost through respiration from conserving heat and movement.
○ Energy lost through waste - some of the biomass is inedible (e.g. bone) or indigestible
(e.g. cellulose in cell wall).
Exam Tip - Biomass pyramids don’t tend to exceed 4 or 5 trophic levels as so much
energy is lost at each stage. There is not enough energy available after 4 or 5 trophic
levels to sufficiently support organisms.
We can use food chains and food webs (multiple interlinking food chains) to show the energy
transfer between trophic levels. From this we can calculate the efficiency of the energy transfer.
37
Exam Tip - We can calculate the efficiency of the transfer of energy between trophic levels
using the following equation:
Efficiency = (energy available to next level)/(energy from previous level) x100
The Carbon Cycle

There are 4 main processes involved in the carbon cycle:
Photosynthesis
● As we know, photosynthesis is carried out by green plants (and some bacteria)
● Sugars are formed from the process, which are then converted to starch or cellulose, or
used to make fats and proteins.
● This is the only process which removes carbon dioxide from the environment
Respiration
● Animals and plants respire in order to release energy for metabolic processes
● This process releases carbon dioxide as a waste product into the environment
● Remember that the equations for respiration and photosynthesis are opposite, meaning
that theoretically they should balance but combustion of fossil fuels and deforestation
has created an imbalance
Decomposition
● When organisms die or produce waste, decomposers (such as fungi and bacteria) break
down the complex organic molecules and return the elements to the soil.
● These decomposers are also known as detritus feeders
Combustion
● When plant or animal matter (fossil fuels) are burnt this releases carbon dioxide into the
environment
● The equation for the complete combustion of carbon is C + O2 → CO2
● Mass deforestation and burning increases the amount of carbon dioxide returned to the
atmosphere, whilst reducing the amount removed through photosynthesis.
Exam Tip - Although the carbon cycle seems very complicated - it’s actually really simple! Think
about the life processes of both plants and animals (respiration, photosynthesis and
death/waste) and think about the transfer of carbon. The main thing to remember is that carbon
38
is always recycled back into the environment!
The Water Cycle

Water is lost to the environment through:
● Transpiration - the loss of water vapour from plants through the stomata to the
atmosphere
● Evaporation - from the surface of the sea, rivers and other bodies of water creating
water vapour in the atmosphere
● Condensation - the water vapour from evaporation condenses to form clouds
Water returns to the land through:

● Precipitation - water in the clouds falls to the land in the form of rain or snow
● Osmosis - plant roots absorb water
39

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BioMedical Admissions Test (BMAT)

B01 and B02 Cells and Movement Across Membranes Page 1

B03 Cell Division and Sex Determination Page 5

B04 Inheritance Page 7

B05 & B06 DNA and Gene Technologies Page 13

B07 Variation Page 18

B08 & B09a Enzymes and Organ Systems Page 20

B09b Hormones, Homeostasis and Diseases Page 29

B10 Ecosystems Page 35

Eukaryotic cell structure

Cell membrane ● Partially permeable​ layer

Cytoplasm ● The ​site of chemical reactions

Nucleus ● Contains DNA in the form of ​chromosomes

Mitochondria ● Controls production of energy from​ ​aerobic respiration

Vacuole ● Stores water-soluble chemicals

Cell wall ● Outer layer made of ​cellulose

Cell membrane ● As above

Chromosomal ● Circular coiled​ molecule of​ ​double-stranded DNA

Plasmid DNA ● Small molecule of​ ​double-stranded circular DNA

Cell wall ● Provides protection and structural support to bacteria

Egg cells Reproduction ● Large ​food​ ​store​ in order to build

Sperm cells Reproduction ● Long​ ​tail​ ​and streamlined head

Movement Across Membranes

Active transport​ allows molecules to be moved ​against a concentration gradient​, using

Function ● Growth, repair and replacement ● To create​ genetically diverse

Where it ● In damaged or worn out cells ● In human reproductive organs -

Stages ● Interphase​ - chromosome number ● Fertilisation​ - male and female

Daughter ● 2 identical​ daughter cells which ● 4 genetically diverse​ daughter cells

Gene Short sequences of DNA on chromosomes which code for a protein

Dominant Only one dominant allele is needed to determine the phenotype

Heterozygous If an individual has two different alleles of that gene, e.g. Tt

Genotype The combination of alleles e.g. Tt

Phenotype The visible characteristics as a result of the alleles

Genetic diagrams can help you determine:

Other genetic diagrams

Family Pedigree Diagrams

Genetically engineering bacterial cells:

Examples of proteins that can be produced through bacteria in this way:

Genetically engineering of plants:

Genetic engineering in medicine:

Pros/ ● Longer lasting ● Any therapeutic gene added into ● Provides

Bone marrow Embryonic stem cells Induced pluripotent stem

Examples ● Can be used ● Treat ​diabetes​ by ● Produced in the laboratory

Issues ● Risk of ● Risk of ​rejection

Disadvantages of selective breeding:

Natural selection and evolution

You need to be able to distinguish between 2 important concepts:

Structure of the Nervous System

Sensory Neurons Relay Neurons Motor Neurons

All neurons have the same general structure:

Drugs can affect the actions of a synapse:

Information, in the form of an electrical impulse, travels through a ​reflex arc​:

Exam Tip​ ​- The word equation for aerobic respiration is as follows:

Exam Tip​ ​- The word equation for anaerobic respiration is as follows:

Arteries Veins Capillaries

Wall Thickness Thick Thin One cell thick

Lumen Small Large Very small

Blood Pressure High Low High

Blood Group Antigens Antibodies Can donate Can receive

A A Anti-B A and AB A and O

Cell membrane ● Partially permeable layer

Cytoplasm ● The site of chemical reactions

Nucleus ● Contains DNA in the form of chromosomes

Mitochondria ● Controls production of energy from aerobic respiration

Cell wall ● Outer layer made of cellulose

Chromosomal ● Circular coiled molecule of double-stranded DNA

Plasmid DNA ● Small molecule of double-stranded circular DNA

Egg cells Reproduction ● Large food store in order to build

Sperm cells Reproduction ● Long tail and streamlined head

Active transport allows molecules to be moved against a concentration gradient, using

Function ● Growth, repair and replacement ● To create genetically diverse

Stages ● Interphase - chromosome number ● Fertilisation - male and female

Daughter ● 2 identical daughter cells which ● 4 genetically diverse daughter cells

Examples ● Can be used ● Treat diabetes by ● Produced in the laboratory

Issues ● Risk of ● Risk of rejection

Information, in the form of an electrical impulse, travels through a reflex arc:

Exam Tip - The word equation for aerobic respiration is as follows:

Exam Tip - The word equation for anaerobic respiration is as follows:

Exam Tip - If a response is rapid, it is likely caused by nerves; if a response is

Homeostasis is maintained using negative feedback - this is a process where a condition’s

➔ An individual is a single organism.

Biotic (living) factors:

Abiotic (non-living) factors:

Exam Tip - Intraspecific competition tends to be more important than interspecific

Biomass is the mass of a living organism - we