ELL 100 - Introduction to Electrical Engineering

LECTURE 34: TRANSFORMERS - III

1
OUTLINE
 Phasor diagram for a transformer on load
 Approximate equivalent circuit of a transformer
 Voltage regulation of a transformer
 Efficiency of a transformer
 Open-circuit and short-circuit tests
 Numerical problems

2
 TRANSFORMER

E1 E2

P: Primary winding, S: Secondary winding

E1: Primary EMF, E2: Secondary EMF
I1: Primary current, I2: Secondary current 3
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF TRANSFORMER

4
PHASOR DIAGRAM OF LOADED TRANSFORMER
• Recall, mutual flux Φ taken as reference phasor
• Recall, EMF E1 induced in primary leads flux
by 900, secondary EMF E2 drawn in opposite
direction for convenience
• Recall, I0 is the no-load primary current
• Neglecting coil resistances (R1,2 ~ 0) and leakage
reactances (X1,2 ~ 0), V1 = E1 & V2 = E2
• Load impedance on the secondary has a lagging
power factor cos(ϕ2) i.e. ZL = V2 / I2 = |ZL|∠ϕ2
• I2’ is the secondary current I2 reflected onto the
primary side (via the transformation ratio n)
• I1 = I0 + I2’ is the total primary current lagging
V1 by an angle ϕ1 (primary side p.f. = cos(ϕ1))
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PHASOR DIAGRAM OF LOADED TRANSFORMER
• If we now include the coil resistances R1,2 and
leakage reactances X1,2, then V1 ≠ E1 & V2 ≠ E2
V2 = E2 – I2Z2 = E2 – I2R2 – jI2X2
=> E2 = V2 + I2R2 + jI2X2
V1 = E1 + I1Z1 = E1 + I1R1 + jI1X1

• Again, load impedance on the secondary is

taken to have lagging p.f. cos(ϕ2) i.e.
ZL = V2 / I2 = |ZL|∠ϕ2

• Primary side p.f. = cos(ϕ1) i.e. total primary

current I1 lags supply voltage V1 by angle ϕ1
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 APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF TRANSFORMER
• No-load current I0 of a transformer is typically only about 3–5% of the
full-load primary current I1
• Thus, the parallel core impedances R0 and X0 can be omitted without
introducing an appreciable error when considering the behaviour of the
transformer near full-load

Transformer equivalent circuit

near full-load includes only
coil resistances (copper loss)
and leakage reactances

7
 APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF TRANSFORMER
The coil resistance R2 and leakage reactance X2 of the secondary winding
are transferred to the primary side as a resistance R2′ and a reactance X2′
via the transformation ratio (“reflected impedance”)

R2′ = R2/n2
X2′ = X2/n2

where n = N2/N1
(transformation ratio)

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 APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF TRANSFORMER
• Re = R1 + R2/n2 is a single
resistance in the primary
circuit equivalent to R1 and R2
of the actual transformer
• Xe = X1 + X2/n2 is a single
reactance in the primary
circuit equivalent to X1 and X2
of the actual transformer
• Ze = Re + jXe the equivalent
impedance of the primary and Ze  Re 2  X e 2
secondary windings referred
Re  Z e cos e , X e  Z e sin e
to the primary circuit 9
 (ϕe – ϕ2) PHASOR DIAGRAM OF LOADED
E1 = V2’
TRANSFORMER USING APPROXIMATE
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

Ze  Re 2  X e 2
E2 = V2 Re  Z e cos e , X e  Z e sin e 10
 VOLTAGE REGULATION OF A TRANSFORMER
Defined as the variation of the secondary voltage between no-load (V2,n-l)
and full-load (V2,f-l), expressed as either a per-unit or a percentage of the
no-load secondary voltage, the primary voltage being held constant
Voltage Regulation = [V2,n-l − V2,f-l] / V2,n-l at constant V1

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 VOLTAGE REGULATION OF A TRANSFORMER
V1 is applied primary voltage (held constant)

At no-load, I2 = 0 => I1 = 0 => E1 = V1

But E1 = V2’ = V2,nl / n, where n = N2/N1
is the transformation ratio
 V2,nl = V1.n
(no-load secondary voltage)

Let the full-load secondary terminal voltage be V2,fl = V2

 Voltage Regulation = (V2,nl - V2,fl) / V2,nl = (V1.n – V2) / (V1.n)

= (V1 – V2/n) / V1
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 (ϕe – ϕ2)
VOLTAGE REGULATION IN TERMS OF
E1 = V2’ TRANSFORMER CIRCUIT PARAMETERS
V12  (V2 '  V2 ' A) 2  (V1 A) 2
{V2 '  I1Z e cos(e  2 )}2  {I1Z e sin(e  2 )}2
I1Z e sin(e  2 ) << V2 ' (typically)
≈ V2 '  I1Z e cos(e  2 )
So,V1 
V1  V2' I1Z e cos(e  2 )
Per Unit voltage Regulation  
V1 V1
Z e cos(e  2 )  Z e (cos e . cos 2  sin e .sin 2 )
Load with  Re cos 2  X e sin 2
lagging I1 ( Re cos 2  X e sin 2 )
So, per unit voltage regulation 
E2 = V2 p.f. cos ϕ2 V1 13
 VOLTAGE REGULATION IN TERMS OF
TRANSFORMER CIRCUIT PARAMETERS

If the secondary is connected to

a load with leading p.f. cos ϕ2,
then
Z e cos(e  2 )  Z e (cos e . cos 2  sin e .sin 2 )
 Re cos 2  X e sin 2
I1 ( Re cos 2  X e sin 2 )
So, per unit voltage regulation 
V1 14
 EFFICIENCY OF A TRANSFORMER
Efficiency of a transformer
Output Power Output Power Input Power  losses
  
Input Power Output Power  losses Input Power
losses
 1
Input Power Types of losses incurred in a transformer:
• Copper losses (I2R losses)
 Copper losses in primary (I12R1)
 Copper losses in secondary (I22R2)
• Core losses (𝑃c )
 Hysteresis loss
 Eddy current loss 15
 EFFICIENCY OF A TRANSFORMER
CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY OF A TRANSFORMER
• Let R2e be the total equivalent resistance of the primary and secondary
windings referred to the secondary circuit, i.e.
N2 2
R2 e  R1 ( )  R2 (R1,2 is the coil resistance of primary,secondary)
N1

• => For a secondary load current I2, total copper loss = I22R2e
• Let the core loss (independent of load current I2) be = Pc
Output power
Total loss
• Load power factor is p.f. = cos ϕ
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CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY OF A TRANSFORMER
Divide numerator & denominator of Efficiency expression by I2 to get
V2 cos 
Efficiency 
V2 cos   ( Pc / I 2 )  I 2 R2 e

Only denominator above depends on I2 => differentiate w.r.t I2 & equate to zero

 I 2 R2e  P c
2

=> The efficiency of a transformer is maximum when the

variable copper (I2R) loss is equal to the constant core loss 17
 OPEN-CIRCUIT AND SHORT-CIRCUIT
TESTS ON A TRANSFORMER
These two tests enable the efficiency and the voltage regulation
to be calculated without actually loading the transformer

OPEN-CIRCUIT TEST: Carried out at rated voltage of transformer

V1,2: Voltmeter readings
(V2/V1 ≈ N2/N1 = n)
A: Ammeter (measures
no-load current I0 ~ 0)
W: Wattmeter (measures
core loss Pc) 18
 OPEN-CIRCUIT TEST OF TRANSFORMER

The primary current on no-load (I0) is < 5% of the full-load current,

so that the I2R copper loss on no-load < 0.25% of the I2R copper loss
on full load, and is therefore negligible compared with the core loss.
Hence the wattmeter reading Poc can be considered as the core loss Pc
of the transformer.
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 SHORT-CIRCUIT TEST OF TRANSFORMER
• The secondary is short-circuited through ammeter A2, as shown
below, and a low voltage Vsc is applied to the primary side
• The applied voltage Vsc is adjusted until the full-load current I2 (I1)
is measured in the secondary (primary) circuit

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 SHORT-CIRCUIT TEST OF TRANSFORMER
The core loss is negligibly small, since the applied voltage and
therefore the flux are only ~ 3 - 5% of the rated voltage and flux, and
the core loss is approximately proportional to the square of the flux.
Hence the power registered on wattmeter Psc can be taken as the I2R
copper loss in the windings at full-load.

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 EFFICIENCY OF TRANSFORMER FROM
OPEN-CIRCUIT AND SHORT-CIRCUIT TESTS
Poc = input power on the open-circuit test at rated voltage = core loss

Psc = input power on the short-circuit test with full-load currents

= total I2R copper loss on full load

Total loss on full-load = Poc + Psc

If S is the apparent rated power (in VA) and p.f. is the load power factor,

full-load S  p.f.
=> Efficiency on full load=
(full-load S  p.f.)  Poc  Psc
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 EFFICIENCY OF TRANSFORMER FROM
OPEN-CIRCUIT AND SHORT-CIRCUIT TESTS
• For any load equal to m × full-load (0 < m < 1),
corresponding total loss = Poc + m2Psc (core loss is independent of load
while copper loss ∝ I2)

mn  full-load S  p.f.
• The corresponding efficiency
Efficiency on =
full load=
(n  full-load S  p.f.)  Poc  nm22Pscsc
(m

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SOLVED NUMERICAL PROBLEMS

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Q1. A single-phase transformer has 1000 turns on the primary and
200 turns on the secondary. The no-load current drawn is 3 A at
a power factor 0.2 lagging. Calculate the total primary current
and power factor at primary when the secondary is loaded to a
current of 280 A at a power factor of 0.8 lagging. Assume the
voltage drop in the windings to be negligible.

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Solution: I2’ = I2.n = I2×(N2/N1)
I 2'  1000  280  200
 I 2'  56 A
cos 2  0.8,cos 0  0.2
I1  cos 1  I 2'  cos 2  I 0  cos 0
 56  0.8  3  0.2  45.4 A
I1  sin 1  I 2'  sin 2  I 0  sin 0
 56  0.6  3  0.98  36.54 A
So, I1  58.3 A
36.54
tan 1   0.805
45.4
1  38050'
The primary power factor  cos 1  0.78lagging 26
Q2. A 100 kVA transformer has 400 turns on the primary and 80 turns on
the secondary. The primary and secondary resistances are 0.3 Ω and
0.01 Ω respectively, and the corresponding leakage reactances are
1.1 Ω and 0.035 Ω respectively. The supply voltage is 2200 V.
Calculate:
(a) the equivalent impedance referred to the primary circuit
(b) the voltage regulation and the secondary terminal voltage at
full-load having a power factor of (i) 0.8 lagging and (ii) 0.8 leading.

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Soln: a) Equivalent resistance referred to primary is
400 2
R e =0.3+0.01( )  0.55  Re = R1 + R2/n2
80
Xe = X1 + X2/n2
Equivalent leakage reactance referred to primary is
400 2
Xee =1.1+0.035(
R )  1.975 
80
Equivalent impedance referred to primary is
Ze  0.552  1.9752  2.05 
b) i) Since cos 2  0.8,sin 2  0.6
100  1000
Fullload primary current   45.45A
2200
Voltage regulation for power factor 0.8 lagging is
45.45(0.55  0.8  1.975  0.6) Voltage Regulation =
=  3.36%
2200 I1(Recosϕ2 + Xesinϕ2)/V1
 Secondary terminal voltage on no load
80
= 2200   440 V
400
Therefore decrease of secondary terminal voltage between
no load and full load = 440  0.0336 =14.8V
Therefore secondary terminal voltage on
full load = 440-14.8 = 425 V
ii) Voltage regulation for power factor 0.8 leading is
45.45(0.55  0.8  1.975  0.6) Voltage Regulation =
  1.54% I1(Recosϕ2 − Xesinϕ2)/V1
2200
Increase of secondary terminal voltage between no load
and full load=440 × 0.0154 = 6.78 V
Therefore secondary terminal voltage on full load
=440 +6.78=447 V 29
Q3. Calculate the per-unit and percentage resistance and leakage reactance
drops of the transformer in the previous numerical (Q2).

Solution: Per-unit resistance drop of a transformer

full-load primary equivalent resistance
current  referred to primary

primary voltage
full-load secondary equivalent resistance
current  referred to secondary

secondary voltage on no load
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Full-load primary current =45.45 A
Equivalent resistance referred to primary circuit = 0.55 
45.45  0.55
Resistance drop   1.14%
2200
Full-load secondary current=45.45  400 / 80  227.2 A
Equivalent resistance referred to secondary circuit
80 2
=0.01+0.3( )  0.022 
400
Secondary Voltage on no load  440 V
227.2  0.022
Resistance Drop   1.14%
440 Leakage reactance drop of a transformer
full-load primary equivalent leakage resistance
current  referred to primary

primary voltage
45.45  1.975
  4.08%
2200 31
Q4. The primary and secondary windings of a 500 kVA transformer
have resistances of 0.42 Ω and 0.0019 Ω respectively. The primary
and secondary voltages are 11 kV and 400 V respectively, and the
core loss is 2.9 kW. Assuming the load to have a p.f. of 0.8,
calculate the efficiency at
(a) full load (b) half load.

500  1000
Solution: a) Full load secondary current =  1250 A
400
500  1000
Full load primary current   45.45A
11000
32
 Therefore secondary I 2 R loss on full load
=12502  0.0019  2969 W
Primary I 2 R loss on full load =45.52  0.42  870 W
Total I 2 R loss on full load = 3.84 kW
Total loss on full load = 3.84+2.9= 6.74 kW (total loss = copper loss + core loss)
Output power on full load = 500 × 0.8 = 400 kW
Input power on full load = 400 + 6.74 = 406.74 kW
6.74
Efficiency on full load =1-  0.983pu  98.3%
406.74
(b) Since the I 2 R loss varies as the square of the current,
Total I 2 R loss on half load = 3.84  (0.5) 2 = 0.96 kW
Total loss on half load = 0.96 + 2.9 = 3.86 kW
3.86
Efficiency on half load =1- = 98.1%
203.86 33
Q5. For the transformer in the previous numerical (Q4),
assuming the power factor of the load to be 0.8 again, find
the power output at which the efficiency of the transformer
is maximum and calculate its value.

34
Solution: With the full-load output of 500 kVA, the total I2R loss is 3.84 kW.
Let m = fraction of full-load apparent power (in kVA) at which the
efficiency is a maximum => corresponding total I2R loss = m2 × 3.84 kW
Also, given that core loss = 2.9 kW

For maximum efficiency, core loss = I2R (copper) loss

 m2 × 3.84 = 2.9 => m = 0.87

 kVA output at maximum efficiency = 0.87 × 500 = 433 kVA

 Output power = 433 × 0.8 = 346.4 kW (load p.f. = 0.8)
Total loss = 2 × 2.9 = 5.8 kW
5.8
=> Maximum efficiency = 1   0.984 pu  98.4%
346.4  5.8 35
Q6. Consider the transformer shown below. The secondary is connected to
a load impedance 5300. Calculate the primary side input impedance,
secondary terminal voltage, primary & secondary currents, and their
respective power factors and real powers.

36
Solution:

37
38
Q7. The following test results were obtained on a 50 kVA transformer:
Open-circuit test: primary voltage, 3300 V; secondary voltage, 400 V;
primary power, 430 W.
Short-circuit test: primary voltage, 124 V; primary current, 15.3 A;
primary power, 525 W; secondary current, full-load value.
Calculate:
(a) the efficiencies at full load and half load for 0.7 power factor;
(b) the voltage regulations for a load with power factor 0.7,
(i) lagging, (ii) leading;
(c) the secondary terminal voltages corresponding to (i) and (ii).

39
Solution:
(a) Core loss = 430 W (primary power reading in open-circuit test)
I2R loss on full-load = 525 W (primary power in short-circuit test)
∴ Total loss on full load = 955 W = 0.955 kW
50  0.7 0.955
Efficiency at full-load =  1  0.973pu  97.3%
(50  0.7)  0.955 35.95
Rated kVA p.f.

I2R loss on half load = 525 × (0.5)2 = 131 W

∴ Total loss on half load = 430 + 131 = 561 W = 0.561 kW
25  0.7 0.561
Efficiency at half-load =  1  0.969 pu= 96.9%
(25  0.7)  0.561 18.06 40
 525 Short-circuit test (V2 = 0): (ϕe – ϕ2)
(b) cos e   0.2765 p.f. on primary side only
124  15.3 due to equivalent E1 = V2’
So, e  73057 ' transformer impedance Ze)
cos 2  0.7 (load p.f.)
So, 2  45034'
For lagging p.f. load,
voltage regulation = I1Zecos(ϕe−ϕ2)/V1
Where I1 = full-load primary current
V1 = rated primary voltage
124cos (73057 ' 45034')
Voltage regulation =
3300
 0.033pu  3.3% E2 = V2 41
 For leading p.f. load,
voltage regulation = I1Zecos(ϕe+ϕ2)/V1
Where I1 = full-load primary current
V1 = rated primary voltage
124 cos (73 57 ' 45 34 ')
0 0

Voltage regulation =
3300
 0.0185 pu   1.85%

(c) Secondary voltage on open-circuit = 400 V.

=> secondary voltage on full-load, p.f. 0.7 lagging
= 400(1 − 0.033) = 387 V (since voltage regulation = 3.3%)
=> secondary voltage on full-load, p.f. 0.7 leading
= 400(1 + 0.0185) = 407 V (since voltage regulation = -1.85%) 42
Q8. The following data were obtained on a 20 kVA, 50 Hz, 2000/200 V
distribution transformer. Draw the equivalent circuits of the transformer
referred to the HV (high-voltage) and LV (low-voltage) sides respectively.

43
Solution:
: Gives core admittance Y0 (parallel combination of
core loss conductance Gi and magnetizing susceptance Bm)

: Gives coil/winding impedance Z (series combination of

coil resistance R and leakage reactance X)

44
=>
Note: Gi and Bm have
units of admittance
(inverse of impedance),
so transform as inverse
of transformation ratio

=>

45
Transformer equivalent circuits

46
Q9. The equivalent circuit parameters of a 150 kVA, 2400/240 V
transformer are:
R1 = 0.2 , R 2 = 2  10-3 
X1 = 0.45 , X 2 = 4.5  10 
-3

R i = 10 k ,X m = 1.6 k (as seen from 2400-V side)

Calculate:
(a) Open-circuit current, power and p.f. when the LV (low-voltage) side is
excited at rated voltage
(b) The voltage at which the HV (high-voltage) side should be excited to
conduct a short-circuit test (LV shorted) with full-load current flowing.
What is the input power and its p.f. under this condition?

47
Solution:

=> No-load current

48
 0.958

Full-load current on HV side:

=> Voltage drop on HV side:

=> Power drawn on HV side:
Power factor on HV side: 49
Q10. A 500 kVA transformer has an efficiency of 95% at full-load,
and the same efficiency also at 60% of full-load;
both loads at upf (unity power factor) .
(a) Compute the iron and copper losses of the transformer.
(b) Determine the efficiency of the transformer
at 3/4th of full-load.

50
Solution: Let Pi be the iron (core) loss and Pc be the copper (I2R) loss

At full-load:

At 0.6× full-load:

51
Q11. For a 150 kVA, 2400/240 V transformer, the equivalent circuit
parameters are given as
R1 = 0.2 , R 2 = 2  10-3 
X1 = 0.45 , X 2 = 4.5  10-3 
R i = 10 k ,X m = 1.6 k (as seen from 2400-V side)
(a) Draw the circuit model as seen from the HV side.
(b) Determine therefrom the voltage regulation and efficiency
when the transformer is supplying full-load at 0.8 lagging p.f.
on the secondary side at rated voltage.
(c) For the conditions specified in (b), calculate also the HV side
current and its p.f.
52
Solution: (a) N1/N2 = E1/E2 = 2400/240 = 10

=>

=> The circuit model as seen from HV side is drawn below

53
(b)

Voltage Regulation =
I2’(Rcosϕ2 + Xsinϕ2)/V2’
cosϕ2 = 0.8 => sinϕ2 = 0.6

54
(b)

Output power:

=> Total loss

=> Efficiency
120 + 2.16 55
(c)

I2’ = 62.5 ∠ −𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (0.8)

i.e. 62.5 A at 0.8 p.f. lagging

56
UNSOLVED PRACTICE PROBLEMS

57
Q1. The ratio of turns of a single-phase transformer is 8, the resistances
of the primary and secondary windings are 0.85 Ω and 0.012 Ω
respectively, and the leakage reactances of these windings are 4.8 Ω and
0.07 Ω respectively. Determine the voltage to be applied to the primary
to obtain a current of 150 A in the secondary when the secondary
terminals are short circuited. Ignore the magnetizing current.
Ans: 176.5 V

Q2. A single-phase transformer operates from a 230 V supply. It has an

equivalent resistance of 0.1 Ω and an equivalent leakage reactance of 0.5 Ω
referred to the primary. The secondary is connected to a coil having a
resistance of 200 Ω and a reactance of 100 Ω. Calculate the secondary
terminal voltage. The secondary winding has four times as many turns as
the primary. Ans: 928 V 58
Q3. A 230 V/400 V single-phase transformer absorbs 35 W when its
primary winding is connected to a 230 V, 50 Hz supply, the secondary being
on open circuit. When the primary is short-circuited and a 10 V, 50 Hz
supply is connected to the secondary winding, the power absorbed is 48 W
when the current has the full-load value of 15 A. Estimate the efficiency of
the transformer at half load, 0.8 power factor lagging.
Ans: 0.981 p.u.

Q4. Calculate the voltage regulation at 0.8 lagging power factor for a
transformer which has an equivalent resistance of 2 per cent and an
equivalent leakage reactance of 4%.
Ans: 4%
59
Q5. A 10 kVA single-phase transformer, for 2000 V/400 V at no load, has
resistances and leakage reactances as follows:
Primary winding: resistance, 5.5 Ω; reactance, 12 Ω.
Secondary winding: resistance, 0.2 Ω; reactance, 0.45 Ω.
Determine the approximate value of the secondary voltage at full load,
0.8 power factor (lagging), when the primary supply voltage is 2000 V.

Ans: 377.6 V

60
Q6. A 75 kVA transformer, rated at 11 kV/230 V on no load, requires 310 V
across the primary to circulate full-load currents on short circuit, the power
absorbed being 1.6 kW. Determine: (a) the percentage voltage regulation;
(b) the full-load secondary terminal voltage for power factors of (i) unity,
(ii) 0.8 lagging and (iii) 0.8 leading. If the input power to the transformer on
no load is 0.9 kW, calculate the per-unit efficiency at full load and at half
load for power factor 0.8 and find the load (in kV A) at which the efficiency
is maximum.
Ans: 2.13 per cent, 225.1 V; 0.41 per cent, 223.5 V;
2.81 per cent, 228.7 V; 0.960 p.u., 0.958 p.u.;
56.25 kVA

61
Q7. The primary and secondary windings of a 30 kVA, 11,000/230 V
transformer have resistances of 10 Ω and 0.016 Ω respectively. The total
reactance of the transformer referred to the primary is 23 Ω. Calculate the
percentage regulation of the transformer when supplying full-load current
at a power factor of 0.8 lagging. Ans: 3.08%

Q8. A 50 kVA, 6360 V/230 V transformer is tested on open and short-

circuit to obtain its efficiency, the results of the test being as follows.
Open circuit: primary voltage, 6360 V; primary current, 1 A; power input,
2 kW. Short-circuit: voltage across primary winding, 180 V; current in
secondary winding, 175 A; power input, 2 kW. Find the efficiency of the
transformer when supplying full load at a power factor of 0.8 lagging and
draw a phasor diagram (neglecting impedance drops) for this condition.
Ans: 0.887 p.u. 62
Q9. A single-phase transformer is rated at 10 kVA, 230 V/100 V. When the
secondary terminals are open-circuited and the primary winding is supplied
at normal voltage (230 V), the current input is 2.6 A at a power factor of 0.3.
When the secondary terminals are short-circuited, a voltage of 18 V applied
to the primary causes the full-load current (100 A) to flow in the secondary,
the power input to the primary being 240 W. Calculate:
(a) the efficiency of the transformer at full load, unity power factor;
(b) the load at which maximum efficiency occurs;
(c) the value of the maximum efficiency.
Ans: 0.96 p.u., 8.65 kVA, 0.96 p.u. at unity power factor

63
Q10. Each of two transformers, A and B, has an output of 40 kVA. The core
losses in A and B are 500 and 250 W respectively, and the full-load I2R
losses are 500 and 750 W respectively. Tabulate the losses and efficiencies
at quarter, half and full load for a power factor of 0.8. For each transformer,
find the load at which the efficiency is a maximum.
Ans: A, 93.77, 96.24, 96.97 per cent; B, 96.42, 97.34, 96.97 per cent;
A, 40 kVA; B, 23.1 kVA

Q11. A 40 kVA transformer has a core loss of 450 W and a full-load I2R loss
of 850 W. If the power factor of the load is 0.8, calculate: (a) the full-load
efficiency; (b) the maximum efficiency; (c) the load at which maximum
efficiency occurs.
Ans: 0.961 p.u., 0.9628 p.u., 23.3 kW
64
 REFERENCES
[1] Edward Hughes, John Hiley, Keith Brown, Ian McKenzie Smith:
Hughes Electrical & Electronic Technology, 10th Edition,
Pearson Education Limited, 2008
[2] D. P. Kothari, I. J. Nagrath: ELECTRIC MACHINES, 4th Edition,
McGraw Hill Education, 2010
[3] Sergey N. Makarov, Reinhold Ludwig, Stephen J. Bitar:
Practical Electrical Engineering, 2nd Edition,
Springer International Publishing, Switzerland, 2019
[4] Allan R. Hambley: Electrical Engineering Principles & Applications,
6th Edition, Prentice Hall, 2013
[5] Jacek F. Gieras: Electrical Machines-Fundamentals of Electromechanical
Energy Conversion, 1st Edition, CRC Press 65