R i v e r Tr a i n i n g w o r k s

Problems and solutions G e n e r a l b r o c h u r e

African
Gabions
Environmental Solutions
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Ou r r e l a ti o n sh i p with
w a t e r c o u rse s h a b itat
The relationship between man and watercourses can sometimes be described as one- O U R R E L AT I O N S H I P W I T H
sided, with human beings being accused of wanting to develop rivers and streams WATERCOURSES HAS FAVOURED
solely for their own ends. Often one forgets that a river has a tendency to continually THE DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN
evolve, together with the flora and fauna of the adjacent land. SETTLEMENTS.
Most of the towns and cities we know of today have developed in areas that have
provided availability of water and fertile land for farming. Meanders or islands in
rivers have always been a favourite site for human settlements.
THE ENVIRONMENTAL
As population increased and industry developed, the relationship between man and
EQUILIBRIUM AND THE
the river strengthened since communication routes were required for trade and social
NATURAL EVOLUTION OF
exchange.
WATERCOURSES SHOULD BE PROTECTED
Today it is becoming increasingly difficult to ignore the problems associated with AS WELL AS THE LAND AND THE SAFETY
flooding of low lying areas and the need to protect roads, railways or industrial OF THE POPULATION.
buildings. Whilst safeguarding our infrastructure on the one hand, we must remember
that a natural watercourse is a living entity in continual development that should be
protected, as far as possible.

1 2
1. Foro River, Miglianico, Chieti, Italy. 1994.
0
0.3

1.50
2. Foro River taken in 1989.
1.00
3. Cross section of a longitudinal gabion structure. 3
5.0
0

0.50
4. Foro River during construction.

1. Reno Mattresses 2.00

2. Gabions
3. AG 200 Geotextile 3

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 G en er a l e vo lu tio n o f

W A T E R C O U R S E The characteristics of watercourses vary significantly with climate, the type of soil and
CHARACTERISTICS VARY the particular location along the course of the river.
SIGNIFICANTLY IN EVERY PARTICULAR In defining a scheme involving the more common types of hydraulic improvements,
LOCATION ALONG THE RIVER. the most significant factors to consider are the variety of situations encountered along
the length of the watercourse.
Taking into account characteristics such as steep gradient, heavy bed loads and extreme
fluctuations in volumes, it is possible to recognise common patterns of development
along the courses of all rivers (Fig. 9, 10 and 11).

5. Typical general
schematisation of a river.

7A

6 7

6. Groynes. Calitzdorp, Cape, South 8

Africa.

7A. Channel lining using Reno Mattresses.

Booth Road, Cato Manor, KZN,
South Africa.
7. Shows the perfect regreening after
only a few months.

8. Stepped weir. Molodzwi Dam,

Maclands Estate, Sapekoe, Levubu,
N. Province, South Africa.

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wat e r c o u rse s

The mountain stream region or catchment basin

In the mountain stream region or catchment basin, rivers are characterised by steep
g r a d i e n t s, s e v e r e e r o s i o n a n d a b u n d a n t c o a r s e b e d l o a d s ( F i g . 9 ) .
The watercourse improvements in this region consist mostly of transverse structures
geared to reducing the water gradient, controlling erosion, fixing the level of the bed
and perhaps, reducing solid transportation. By implementing such measures a new
equilibrium of the watercourse may rapidly be achieved.
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Sometimes, in torrential watercourses, a sharply defined channel may develop,
characterised by a deep cut and fairly straight bed. Because the mechanism of erosion I N T H E M O U N TA I N S T R E A M
a n d d e p o s i t i o n a r e l i n ke d , s u c h a b e d c a n b e i n r e l a t i v e e q u i l i b r i u m . REGION IT IS NECESSARY TO REDUCE
THE WATER GRADIENT, TO CONTROL
EROSION, TO FIX THE LEVEL OF THE BED
A N D , P E R H A P S , TO R E D U C E T H E
TRANSPORTATION OF SOLIDS.

Foothill region
In the region where the river flows from the mountains and into the valley, a sharp
reduction in river gradients can occur which results in deposition of the larger material.
In this region the river beds are generally unstable. They are characterised by wide
sections and are not cut-in too deeply. In this low flow channel, wandering and
shifting within the wide river can give rise to poorly defined islets and small shifting
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rapids. (Fig. 10).
Improvements in this region consist mainly of longitudinal works aimed at reducing IN FOOTHILL REGIONS THE
the movement of the channel which can be harmful and dangerous during severe P R E S E N C E O F S O L I D M AT E R I A L S
floods. CONTRIBUTES TO THE STABILISATION OF
THE RIVER BED THAT CAN BE MAINTAINED
WITH LONGITUDINAL STRUCTURES AND
GROYNES.

Valley region
The gradient reduction necessary for flow equilibrium in the valley region is established
by lengthening of the watercourse. As the flow progresses, a shallower channel
develops to form a sinuous shape which can assume various patterns (Fig. 11):
• Straight and sinuous beds
• Meandering beds 11
• Multi-channel beds.
There are different objectives for river improvements in these flat reaches, namely IN VALLEY REGIONS THROUGH
water containment, course correction and bank protection. THE APPLICATION OF LONGITUDINAL
These objectives are achieved through the use of longitudinal structures or groynes. STRUCTURES OR GROYNES,
The extent of the training works and the choice of possible combinations requires CANALISATION AND PROTECTION CAN
careful planning and cannot be generalised. Each watercourse must be analysed BE ACHIEVED.
individually, in a way appropriate to that stretch of the river.

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 For a well-balanced

DESIGN METHODOLOGIES AND Habitat and Morphology

APPROPRIATE MATERIALS ARE
NECESSARY FOR A WELL-BALANCED When looking at the restoration or maintenance of a well-balanced river habitat, one
ENVIRONMENT AND ITS RESTORATION. should not only choose what materials are to be used, but also evaluate the proper
design methodologies.
A natural river course is characterised in plan, in elevation and dictated by the need
W E H AV E T O P R O T E C T T H E
to maintain environmental bio-diversity. This means we must allow the watercourse
MORPHOLOGICAL DIVERSITY OF
to retain a morphological diversity. This is characterised by non regular sections which
WATERCOURSES.
create small islets or oxbows.
A consequence of the morphological diversity is a variation in the depth of every single
SAFEGUARD AND CREATION OF transversal section (Fig. 14). There is also a deepening on the outside bend (where
DIFFERENT HABITATS FOR THE the highest tangential tension is present) and a shallower depth along the inside bend
VEGETATION AND FAUNA TYPICAL OF A as a result of sedimentation. This diversity is important because it involves the creation
RIVER PROVIDES A GOOD ENVIRONMENT. of habitats which are suitable for the distribution of vegetation and fauna.
The best conditions for the growth of “plankton” and “benthos” which are fundamental
for the survival of fish, are found in rivers having a gravel bed.
In shallower rivers or rivers that have silted up, one can find bankside vegetation
consisting of emergent plants, shrubs and trees. This habitat is ideal for birdlife,
macro-invertebrates and small mammals. The bankside vegetation also assists in
stemming erosion of the bunk and loss of valuable soil and habitats during flood
conditions.

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de s i g n o f ri v e r w o rk s

Evolution of conditions and restoration of equilibrium W E H A V E T O TA K E I N T O

C O N S I D E R AT I O N T H AT T H E
When making a complete evaluation of a project, the disruption caused by the G R E AT E S T I M PA C T I S D U R I N G
construction must be taken into account. It is during the construction phase that the CONSTRUCTION.
greatest impact is made on the local ecosystem with disturbance or destruction of
micro habitats. Existing water flow patterns may be altered and long barren stretches
of water can be created.
The construction programme and duration will determine the ecological impact. One
cannot assume that nature will completely repair and restore the natural conditions
that existed before. The degree of restoration will depend on how the hydraulics and
dynamics of the flow have been altered for the long term.
To accelerate the recovery of the natural ecosystem of the affected area, the designer
must include in the design, habitat opportunities for future colonisation by plants and
animals. The successful re-establishment of the ecosystem will be a reflection of the
management pressure being applied at any point in time.
If sufficient natural elements and shapes are incorporated into the engineered design,
then the ecological balance of the watercourse can be restored more efficiently and
effectively.
12 Pre-construction 13
phase Non-protected area
High

Advanced stage 12. Naturally revegetated water

of recovery course.

The system’s 13. Temporal environmental quality

quality variation.
Alterations of the ecosystem due to maintenance
works
Initial stage 14. Morphological differences
of natural between natural rivers and artificially
recovery
modified watercourses (Lachat,1991).
Low

Stage of destruction of the pre-existing ecosystem

Years

14
Natural course

Sinuous line Morphological diversity: Biological diversity: Morphological diversity: High biological diversity Presence of flood area
islands, mender scars, indigenous vegetation variable banks profile and
variable section diversifies the landscape river water depth
aspect and gives food and
shelter to fauna

Artificial course

Straight lines Morphological diversity: Biological monotony: Morphological monotony: Low biological diversity Lack of flood area
regular river bed and sparse and monotonous constant bank profile and
constant section vegetation river water depth

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 BIOENGINEERING IS A Bioengineering: a global approach
COMBINATION OF TECHNIQUES AND
GLOBAL APPROACH. B i o e n g i n e e r i n g i s n o t a s o l u t i o n , b u t a g l o b a l a p p r o a c h p h i l o s o p h y.
The approach should start from “zero option” which simply means leaving the river
to evolve naturally (provided this is practical and does not negatively effect the overall
“ZERO OPTION” AS THE MINIMUM situation).
CHOICE.
Where there is a real need to make changes, an alternative range of solutions should
be considered using living plants or their combination with inert materials such as
timber, geosynthetics and stone filled woven wire mesh gabion products.
MINIMUM LEVEL OF ENERGY:
CHOICE OF SOLUTION MADE WITH A The choice of which solution to adopt has to be made not only in relation to the acting
COMPARISON BETWEEN ACTING STRESSES stresses (hydraulic and/or geotechnical) and the structural limits of the materials used,
AND STRUCTURAL LIMIT OF THE but also in relation to the basic concept of “minimum level of energy”.
MATERIAL USED. This means that solutions should not be over or under designed, but should relate to
the problem at hand and all within a multi-disciplinary approach where engineers,
b i o l o g i s t s, b o t a n i s t s a n d a r c h i t e c t s d o n o t p r e v a r i c a t e e a c h o t h e r.
IMMEDIATE STABILISATION AND The solution must:
R E - N AT U R A L I S AT I O N O V E R T I M E . • supply the immediate required stabilisation;
• typically use materials that logically increase in performance from plants to inert
materials;
• promote a positive evolution (re-naturalisation) of the new ecosystem created from
the river training works.

15
16

1 2 4 3

1. Habitat 1 = roots of Salix sp. covered with tufts of Cladophora Sp.;

2. Habitat 2 = silt deposited on gabion protection;
3. Habitat 3 = neuston around the groynes;
4. Habitat 4 = stagnation point.

15. Microhabitat check schematisation. (Research on

the environmental effects of river banks using Gabions
and Reno mattresses). Italy 1993-1994.

16. Longitudinal gabion structure, based on sack

gabions, provided with small groynes along the
Sangro river. Za Menga (CH), Italy.

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 PR O B LEM

P OS S IBLE SOLUTIONS

HYDROSEEDING LIGHT REVETMENT REVETMENT WITH GRAVITY WALL WITH REINFORCED SOIL
WITH GEOMAT RENO MATTRESSES GABIONS STRUCTURE

A P P R OVED SOLUTIONS

CORRECT SOLUTION PROPOSED SOLUTION CORRECT SOLUTION PROPOSED SOLUTION

OVER DESIGNED UNDER DESIGNED 17

18

17. River bank protection techniques.

18. Actual situation characterised from a

spontaneous re-naturalisation.
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A future
built on the
past
1913 - Augusto Micheli, first Maccaferri
engineer during the river Ombrone
inspection.
MACRA™, MACRA 1™, MACRA 2™, MAQUA™:
a system of software for hydraulic and
environmental design.

The solutions recommended in the previous pages

are chosen on the basis of quantitative analysis.
Maccaferri has consistently promoted laboratory tests,
field research and literature reviews. All this now
forms a basis for a series of specific software where
the concept of minimum level of energy is addressed.
The technical solution of choice is a function of the
hydraulic action, as well as a quantitative assessment
of the variation of the environmental quality, induced
by river training works.
These tools have been compiled with the option to
update and improve on them on the basis of
experience.
These are facts, not only theory, which witness a
presence and a willingness which have characterised
Maccaferri as a solution and not only products
provider.
Maccaferri’s eagerness to provide technically sound
and environmentally engineered solutions has been
going on for almost 130 years and will continue into
the third millenium. This willingness and dedication
to improve, expand and lead have characterised
Maccaferri, not only as a product supplier, but more
importantly as a solution provider.

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 Macra™ MACRA™ – MACCAFERRI RIVER ANALYSIS

The MACRA™ (Maccaferri River Analysis) System is made up of 3 different software

packages (MACRA™, MACRA 1™ / Bank protections and MACRA 2™ / Weirs)
developed in order to evaluate the type of intervention needed to execute stable
river training works, in accordance with the latest bio-engineering techniques.
MACRA™ software, working in an AutoCad format, allows the engineer to design
the river training works in a stretch of river under the hypothesis of a steady
flow, taking into account the actual river geometry (bridges, groynes, wide
sections, constrictions etc.), roughness (different bank materials: vegetation,
gravel, gabions, etc.), altimetry (weirs, dams etc.), and flow normally present
in a natural watercourse. MACRA™ allows the user not only to calculate
the hydraulic characteristics of a watercourse (water velocity, water level at
different cross-sectìons), but also to evaluate the bank stability, by comparing
the allowable linear shear stress (depending on the material) with the active
stress from the water flow, thus indicating if the existing natural or proposed
designed situation is stable or not (Fig. 24). Besides these functions,
MACRA™ allows the engineer to locate, by means of an innovative
method based on the plano-altimetric analysis, the river stretches where
an intervention is required (bank or bed erosion), thus enabling the
designer to concentrate the training works only on the critical reaches,
respecting the basic principle of each hydraulic intervention: “to
intervene only where and when necessary”. Sometimes, once the
designer has evaluated the potential dangers and risks, the “zero
option”, that is to avoid any works and retain present condition,
may be selected.

23

25

24

26
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Macra 1™ MACRA 1™ – BANK PROTECTION

The MACRA 1™ software is a tool that allows the user, in the case of longitudinal
works, to verify watercourse planning with regard to:
• containment of the flood flow: the rating curve computed according to the geometry
and the materials which will avoid river overflows;
• erosion protection of the river banks: the allowable shear stress of the material or
technique used in a bank stabilisation shall be greater than the maximum active
shear stress caused by the water motion.
The MACRA 1™ / Bank Protection software, which uses a Windows™ type structure,
provides engineers with a rapid and efficient tool with which to conduct the stability
analysis of watercourses cross-sections with respect to both water flow and wave
motion. This program allows the user to check a large number of hydraulic conditions
of watercourse sections lined with African Gabions/Maccaferri products such as
Gabions, Reno mattresses and MacMat-R; as well as with the most widespread Bio-
Engineering techniques (Fig. 30 and 31).
The MACRA 1™ / Bank Protection software enables the user to verify, under the
27
hypothesis of uniform flow, a generic bank protection typology given the allowable
tractive force “t c ” and roughness coefficient “n”, comparing for each material the
maximum shear stress with the allowable tractive force.

GRASS MATS CUTTINGS BRUSH MATTRESS WITH WILLOW

WILLOW CUTTINGS
HYDROSEEDED
GRASS MATS
HYDROSEEDED
GRASS MATS LARCH OR CHESTNUT
BRANCHES
NATURAL
SOIL

LARCH OR CHESTNUT
28 ANCHORAGE STAKES

LIVE WILLOW BRANCHES

FILLED WITH SOIL

RIPARIAN WATTLE FENCE WILLOW PROTECTON VEGETATED ROCK WALL

WILLOW
LIVE WILLOW BRANCHES HEDGE LAYERS
WILLOW RODS AND FASCINES IN ALTERNATE LAYERS
WILLOW CUTTINGS

NATURAL MEAN WATER LEVEL

SOIL
RIVER BED LEVEL
MEAN WATER LEVEL BOULDERS FILLED WITH
LARCH OR ROCK FILL GRAVELLY SOIL
CHESTNUT STAKES

WOODEN OR
IRON STAKES DEAD BRANCHES (FASCINES) ROCK FOUNDATION
SECTION FRONT VIEW FILLED WITH CONCRETE

29 30

31 32

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 Macra 2™ MACRA 2™ - WEIRS

Gabion weirs are widely used in river training works for the formation of water control
structures, reservoirs, soil stabilisation and water supply schemes.
The main advantage of a gabìon structure is flexibility which allows its deformation
while remaining structurally sound. Another important aspect is the drainage capacity
of a gabion, allowing it to be used in all soil conditions.
The MACRA 2™ / Weirs software was developed to conduct hydraulic and static
analysis of gabion weirs. This program allows the user to check a large number of
different types of weirs: simple vertical drop, with counterweir, stepped weirs, sloped
weirs, including stilling pool design.
Included in the output of each run is a detailed longitudinal water profile over the
structure together with a summary of all hydraulic and static checks made.

33

35

34

37

14 36
Maqua™ MAQUA™ - MACCAFERRI ANALYSIS OF THE
ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY OF RIVER TRAINING WORKS

Any restoration work aimed at protecting watercourses has to adopt solutions which
should satisfy both hydraulic safety requirements and ecosystem preservation. An
eco-compatible design approach requires analytical tools which assesses the
environmental impact introduced by river training structures when providing the
required protection or support. In choosing between different design solutions the
one with the minimum environmental impact should eventually be selected.
For these reasons Maccaferri has created the MAQUA™ software, an instrument which
assists most designers to find highly eco-compatible design solutions which are able
Existing situation
to maintain and provide protection to existing ecosystems and preserve the biodiversity.
MAQUA™ is a software developed in a Windows™ format and supports the design
of river training works, environmental impact assessments (EIA) and allows for the
management of watercourses. It is based on the methodologies already used for EIA,
Alternative 1 such as the Habitat Evaluation System (USACE) and the MIVEC (ENEA-DISP).
MAQUA™'s purpose is to provide a model for the evaluation of the environmental
value of watercourses subjected to intervention. The program compares design
alternatives and selects the one shown to preserve the initial environmental value.
Alternative 2 Project P1 (Fig. 41) shows a drop in ecological value during the initial construction
phase, with an increase in the successive years (Fig. 42). Project P2 (Fig. 40) shows
a significant reduction in the initial ecological quality during the construction phase
which is carried through in the long term and hence the environment is unable to
38 recover.

P2

39 40

P1

41 42
ECTIO N Impacts
ICAL S Relative
UM ECOLOG
MAXIM 100
al Value
Ecologic
80
1.0
0.9
60
0.8
0.7
40
0.6
0.5
20
0.4
P2
0.3 43
0 P1 15
0.2
0.1 10
5
0.0
0 P2
P1
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