Oral Tradition, 16/2 (2001): 381-401

Mongolian-Turkic Epics:
Typological Formation and Development
Rinchindorji

The academic community has long noticed the resemblance between

Mongolian and Turkic epics. Some believe that the Mongols and the Turkic
people share a narrative tradition that accounts for their commonalities.
Such a tradition arises from the period of time when ancestors of these two
groups lived together in Central Asia and South Siberia (cf. Nekljudov
1981). One could also assert that Mongolian and Turkic heroic epics display
common features in theme, plot, structure, motif, character, and formula.1
This paper explores how the Mongol-Turkic epic typology formed and
developed.

Mongol-Turkic Epic Typological Classification

Mongol-Turkic epics are both ancient and lengthy, eliciting the

attention of epic specialists such as E. M. Meletinskij (1963), I. V. Pukhov
(1975), and others, who locate the most ancient models for the study of
Mongol-Turkic epics in Siberia. Scholars from different countries have
recorded a total of well over 1,000 epics among the Mongolian and Turkic
language families. In addition to the voluminous Mongolian epics Jangar
and Geser, more than 550 Mongolian epics and variants of small and
medium length have been recorded. These are mostly shorter performances
that consist of several hundreds of lines, each telling a complete story.
Medium-length epics number in the dozens, each with thousands of lines,
and some with more than ten thousand.
Based on regional distributions, the Mongolian epics discovered in
China amount to more than 60 with 110 variants. According to Narantuyaa
(1988), medium- and small-volume epics collected in Mongolia number 80
1
Cf. Rinchindorji 1987 and 1999.
382 RINCHINDORJI

with 241 variants. The Mongolian Buriat epics in Russia have at least 200
variants (Sharakshinova 1987). Excluding the Jangar recorded by the
Kalmyk in China, 200 volumes of relatively independent long poems,
totaling as much as 200,000 lines, have been noted in Mongolia and Russia.
There are more than ten handwritten and woodblock copies and librettos of
Mongolian Geser, in both prosaic and rhyming style. The rhyming style has
variants of more than 30,000 lines.
Similarly, the Siberian Turkic groups—the Altay, Tuva, Khakas,
Shurtz, and Yakut—also possess a rich repertoire of epics. For example, the
Siberian Institute of the Russian Academy of Science boasts an Olonho
collection (Olonho is the Yakut term for epics) numbering over 200
handwritten copies (Surazhakov 1958-80). Currently there are 396 Olonho
registered, among which The Rapid Niurgonbaatar contains as many as
36,600 lines (Pukhov 1962). The historian Surazhakov edited the ten-
volume epic series of 73 Altaic heroic epics (1958-80); he cited 222 epics in
his study of Altaic epic (1985). There remain hundreds of Siberian-Turkic
and Central-Asian-Turkic epics awaiting further study.
Mongol-Turkic epics that originated in an earlier clan society still
belong to a living tradition. Over 1,000 epics and epic variants are found
even now among Mongolian and Turkic language groups in various
countries. However, early epics have not been passed down to the present
without change, and in the course of more than a millennium they have
developed and varied. On the one hand their core sections gradually
developed, and new elements and whole epics evolved out of the old; on the
other hand, secondary or outmoded elements receded from the historical
stage. Some ancient epics were forgotten. Within the living exemplars,
differences in epoch, content, types, and patterns co-exist, constituting a
varied landscape. This overall process leads to the preservation of features
from various stages.
The typological formation and development of the plot structure of the
Mongol-Turkic epics merits further description. Heroic epic is special in
that there are many similar or shared elements in the plot structure of all
Mongolian epic works. The renowned Mongologists W. Heissig,2 Nikolaus
Poppe,3 and others have classified the plot structure of the Mongolian epics
on the basis of the motif-unit. Heissig has made detailed and comprehensive
analyses of the hundred or so Mongolian epics that have been collected in

2
Cf. Heissig 1979.
3
Cf. Poppe 1979.
 MONGOLIAN-TURKIC EPICS 383

China, Mongolia, and Russia and has identified 14 structural types and more
than 300 motifs and events. In addition to the motif-unit, I have adopted a
larger plot-unit—namely, the motif-series (the plot-frame of the early
epics)—as an increment for classifying plot structures of the Mongolian
epics.4
What is an epic motif-series? Lyric preludes and narrative stories
usually form the constituent parts of the Mongolian epics. The preludes are
not long and share common patterns and motifs. Basic narrative plots
structure the main body of the epics; these are supplemented by secondary
plots and episodes that were integrated into the epic as it developed5—as
with folktales, it is difficult to discern the logical connections. The basic
plots are the pillars of the epic, in which we can find the traditional
narratives of Mongolian epics and their periodicity and logic. I have
compared and analyzed more than 200 epics and their variants both at home
and abroad, and concluded that, in addition to motifs, a larger periodic plot
unit commonly exists. I call such units epic motif-series, and based on their
content, have separated them into two types: the marriage-motif and the
battle-motif. Each type has its own structural patterns with a set of basic
motifs that are organically linked and ordered. In a word, these two motif-
series originated from early epics. After comparing and analyzing various
Mongolian epics, I suggest that there are two types of early Mongolian
epics, one focusing on the hero’s quest for a wife and the other on the hero’s
struggles against a demonic figure. The plot-frame of the hero’s marriage
expedition is the marriage-motif-series, which consists of the following
basic motifs:

Time; place; the young hero and his relatives; his riding horse; home
country; palace and tent; information about his future wife; the young
hero’s desire for marriage and the relatives’ advice against it; catching the
riding horse; preparing harnesses; arming with bows and arrows and
swords and knives; events on the road (conquering a ferocious beast of the
natural world and enemies in the human world); arrival at the future wife’s
home; rejection of his proposal by the future wife’s family and the
particular conditions they set; conquering or persuading her family
through valorous struggles; and finally, holding wedding ceremonies and
bringing his beautiful wife home.

4
Cf. Rinchindorji 1989.
5
The author conceives of three stages in an epics’ development: a period of
origination, a period of development during which the epic reaches greater levels of
sophistication, and a period of decline.
384 RINCHINDORJI

The epic frame for the hero’s struggles against a demon belongs to the
battle-motif-series, which, although different from the marriage-motif-series,
also shares quite a few common motifs. The battle-motif-series consists of
the following basic constituents:

Time; place; hero and his relatives; his riding horse; home country; palace
and tent; the evil omen for the arrival of the mangus (demon); the riding
hero’s power; discovery of enemies; encounter with the m a n g u s;
declaration of names and intentions; fighting (using swords and daggers,
bows and arrows, and hand-to-hand combat); defeating the mangus;
begging for mercy; killing the enemy and burning its flesh and bones; and
returning with honor.

Of course, we cannot say that these two motif-series always contain all the
listed motifs, and there are of course cases with larger and smaller numbers.
However, there is an indispensable core; the units organically link to each
other to create the plot frames and plot patterns of the epics. To put it
another way, the marriage-motif-series and the battle-motif-series form the
basic plots of all Mongolian epics. Due to differences in content, number,
and combination, however, the Mongolian epics can be divided into three
plot types: single-plot epics, tandem-compound plot epics, and
juxtaposition-compound plot epics.

Single-Plot Epics

Epics whose basic plot consists of only one type of motif-series are
single-plot epics. This kind of epic itself falls into two types: the marriage
epic, consisting of the marriage-motif-series (represented by the letter A in
the figure below), and the battle epic, consisting of the battle-motif-series
(B). The single-plot epics are the earliest, simplest, and the most basic type.
Since the particularities of marriage and war differ at various stages of
development of each tribe and ethnic group, these subjects are differently
reflected in the epics. According to the content of the series, the marriage
epics can be divided into three types: marriage by abduction (A1), trial of
son-in-law (A2), and the arranged marriage (A3). The battle epics can be of
two types: clan revenge (B1) and struggle for property (B2).
 MONGOLIAN-TURKIC EPICS 385

A1 (Marriage by abduction)
A
Structural types of (Marriage) A2 (Trial of the son-in-law)
the Mongolian
single-plot epic A3 (Arranged marriage)

B B1 (Clan revenge)
(Battle)
B2 (Struggle for property)

Figure 1: The Mongolian Single-Plot Epic

Tandem-Compound Plot Epics

Epics whose basic plots have in tension two or more motif-series are
tandem-compound epics. They have two basic categories with combined
motif-series serving as the core of the epic: one joins a marriage-motif-series
and a battle-motif-series (typically A2+B2, or the trial of the son-in-law and
the struggle for property), while the other comprises the two types of battle-
motif-series (B1+B2, or clan revenge and the struggle for property).

Juxtaposition-Compound Plot Epic

The long epic Jangar is regarded as a juxtaposition-compound epic.

The plot structure of such a work differs from that of the Hellenic and Hindu
epics. There are two kinds of plot structure: the general structure and the
structure for each part (or canto). The general plot structure is of the
juxtaposition-compound type that consists of over 200 long poems with
independent plots. The basic plots of each of its constituent parts can be
classified into four large sections (A, B, A2+B2, B1+B2). These sections are
consistent with the types mentioned above, being the two types of the single-
part epic (A, B) plus the two types of tandem-compound epic (A2+B2,
B1+B2). The following figure presents a scheme for the various plot types of
Mongolian epic:
386 RINCHINDORJI

1) single-plot epic (1) A

(2) B

2) tandem-compound epic (1) A2 + B2

(2) B1 + B2

A
3) juxtaposition-compound epic B
(includes all of the above, ex. Jangar) A2 + B2
B 1 + B2

Figure 2: Structural Types of the Basic Plots of Mongolian Epic

The earliest basic plots in the medium- and small-volume epics among
the Turkic groups in Xinjiang are similar to those in the Mongolian single-
plot and tandem-compound epics. In comparison with Mongolian epics,
Turkic epics in Xinjiang and Central Asia are more historically and
realistically oriented, reflecting the complex ethnic and religious strife in
those areas—many depicting struggles against the Kalmyk rulers. However,
as early as seven to eight hundred years ago, the basic plots in the Ugus
Naman and the Book of the Kurkot Grandpa are similar to those in the early
Mongolian single-plot and the tandem-compound epics. The Book of the
Kurkot Grandpa is believed to be a work of the seventh or eighth century,
with the present written version appearing around the twelfth century in
twelve volumes. Many of its cantos depict the battles and marriage struggles
of the Ugus heroes. For example, Canto 6 presents a marriage epic (A2) in
which Kangle’s son, Kantulal, travels to the regions ruled by heathens.
Kantulal passes through three dangerous trials—killing with his bare hands a
ferocious wild bull, a lion, and a male camel—and obtains his beautiful
future wife, defeating the enemy that followed him. Canto 3 is similar to the
first type of tandem-compound epic (A2+B2, or the trial of the son-in-law
and the struggle for property). After facing three competitions—namely,
horse racing, archery, and wrestling—the hero Bamus, son of Baibor, wins
the love of his future wife. What occurs next is fairly intriguing: Bamus is
attacked and taken prisoner on his wedding night. After 16 years of
imprisonment, he returns home and finds his hometown plundered. Bamus
retaliates, killing the head of his enemies, who had wanted to possess his
wife, and defeating the host of offending enemies. This canto consists of
 MONGOLIAN-TURKIC EPICS 387

two parts, that of the hero’s marriage and that of his battles. Other cantos,
such as “On Beger’s son Aimole” and “On the Attack of Salarkazan Aur,”
focus solely on the hero’s one or two battles. In the first instance, Beger’s
enemy seizes the chance to launch an attack when he is badly wounded
hunting. Beger’s son Aimole goes to battle on his father’s behalf and
defeats the aggressors (B1). In the latter case, Salarkazan routs the enemy
with the help of a shepherd and rescues his mother, son, and the soldiers
who were abducted, thus winning back his property (B2).
In telling the life story of its named hero, the famous epic Ugus
simultaneously recounts several hundred years of oral history. Its plot
consists of four parts focusing on the life of Ugus: his childhood; his
marriage and children; his many battles; and the transmission of his power
as Khan to an heir. Ugus is a rare instance of Altaic epic that was passed
down in written form. Unlike other Altaic epics that adopt extended
descriptions, it uses a simplified language to summarize the hero’s marriage
and heroic exploits. Though its plot consists of the four parts described
above, the depiction of Ugus’ heroic deeds centers on his battles and
marriage. From this emphasis it could be surmised that battle and marriage
served as the traditional subjects and plot frames for Turkic epic as early as
five to six hundred years ago.
Another famous epic, Alpamis, recounts the story of its hero’s life and
the events before his birth with rich description and intriguing stories. Its
basic plot, however, can be classified into four parts. First, Alpamis’ parents
pray for a son, make a pilgrimage, and experience the miraculous pregnancy
of Alpamis’ mother. Alpamis is eventually born and grows up. Second,
Alpamis marries the beauty Gulibairsen after a heroic battle. Third, after
returning home with his wife, Alpamis fights his enemy Taishik Khan, who
has ransacked his herds and property; Alpamis kills him and recovers
everything that was lost. Fourth, after returning home again, Alpamis
conquers Urtan—a very destructive demon and son of the charwoman of
Alpamis’ family—who attempted to possess his wife Gulibairsen. This plot
is similar to those of the Mongolian epics, in that the second and third parts
most fundamentally reflect and highlight the heroism of Alpamis.
Epics among the Siberian Altay, Tuva, and Khakas are closer to those
of the Mongols. S. Surazhakov (1958-80 and 1985) has classified 222
Altaic epics according to their relationship to early feudalism and the age of
feudal patriarchies. He again subdivided the epics of clan society into works
of five subjects, but, generally speaking, these reflect the two great events of
marriage and battle. “The Story of the Hero’s Marriage” employs the
marriage motif. The hero’s struggles with monsters, the lower world, and
plunderers, and the relationship between the hero’s immediate family and
388 RINCHINDORJI

relatives all draw on the battle motif. The plot structure of the long epic
Manas is similar to that of Jangar. The first volume of Manas contains
many poetic cantos that detail the legendary origin of the hero Manas and his
ethnic group, his miraculous birth, his childhood, and the sacrificial rite held
in the name of Koktoy—all plots that are rare in the Mongolian epics.
However, according to Lang Ying’s study (1991), Manas’s primary plots
involve battles, as well as some stories about weddings and abduction. In
the first part of Manas, the Kirghiz wage many wars against surrounding
ethnic groups; each expedition is treated with a relatively independent long
poem. Some individual plots interrelate, but many of the expeditions are
relatively independent from each other, no single episode being more
important than the others. Rather, the various plots in Manas are juxtaposed,
each acting as an equally important facet of the epic. Thus, we can say that
Manas is also a tandem-compound epic. However, while “Saymaytaic,”
“Saytek,” “Qigetay,” and other tales belonging to the Manas epic series
reveal parallel plot-structures, they do not function as horizontal tandem-
compound types. Each epic part is connected with the Manas family tree,
resulting in a series of epics depicting the first generation of Manas’
genealogy down to the eighth generation. The plot of the first volume of
Manas, titled “Manas,” serves as a prototype for the seven subsequent
volumes. In all likelihood, the eight volumes of Manas were formed by
periodic repetition of the fundamental plot structure.

Mongolian jangarchis, L. Purbe, Kanara, Purbujab, and Arimpil with the author second
from right (1982). Photograph by the author.
 MONGOLIAN-TURKIC EPICS 389

An epic that takes shape via periodic recurrences of the plot structure
may be characterized as a chain-type epic. This kind of epic seems to be
relatively rare worldwide and a special type in Central Asia. In addition to
Manas, the Abai Geser among the Buriat is also a chain-type epic. It
consists of nine long poems, all interrelated in a fashion similar to the way
Manas vertically and genetically develops from volumes 1-8. The first
volume of Abai Geser, called “Abai Geser Khubogun,” is largely similar in
content to the Mongolian Geser, but the next eight volumes, created by the
Buriat as the continuation of Geser, derive from their own ancient epics.
The second volume, “Oshir Bokhdo Khubogun,” describes the life of Abai
Geser’s eldest son; the third, “Khulin Alai Khubogun,” tells the story of
Abai Geser’s second son; the fourth, “Wengshen Khar,” is about the son of
Oshir Bokhdo Khubogun, and so on. This overall process resembles many
streams converging into a vast river that widens and deepens as it flows; in
the same way, an influential epic can incorporate many other epics.
The Tibetan Gesar is a grand and voluminous epic belonging to the
juxtaposition-compound epic series. Like Jangar and the first volume of
Manas, it recounts the adventures of heroes, piecing together cantos with
independent plots in tandem. The plot structures of various ethnic epics in
Mongolia are extremely complicated, with each having its own local
features. In addition to the basic plots described above, there are also many
derived plots and scenarios with marriage (the ritual abduction of beautiful
women) and battle at their core.

The Origin of Early Epics

Mongol-Turkic epics could be described as living patterns that have

enjoyed a long and complicated process of formation and development.
They may have passed through a series of stages, developing from legends
to stories, from shorter genres of verbal art to linked narratives, from prose
to poetry. The epics then continuously consolidated and developed,
reflecting and incorporating societal changes in a manner that affected their
motifs, narratives, and characters. This process brought about a gradual
widening of plots, structure, and motifs, and an ever greater increase in
volume, number, and type. Over time, epics have grown more and more
artistically mature.
390 RINCHINDORJI

Epics Formed in the Context of Tribal Wars

The ethnic groups in Mongolia have emerged from primitive clan

societies where inter-clan blood feuds were common, sometimes resulting in
one clan exterminating another. With the emergence of private property and
class divisions, clan society has gradually dissolved; ransacking property,
the theft of animals, and the abduction of women and slaves were once
widespread. For example, among the Mongol-Turkic nomads in Northern
China divisions among grassland nobles, commoners, and family slaves
have appeared. During a period of over a thousand years, some tribes
established small and large khanate states, leading to the appearance of
famous khans and generals. However, as proved by Historical Collection6
and The Secret History of the Mongols,7 the “heroic epoch” of clans and
tribal warfare lasted into the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Even at this late
date, battles over horses, herds, slaves, and women still occurred and the
acquisition of trophies was for men the highest honor. With regard to
marriage customs, conjugal and exogamous marriage was the practice.
There were both paid marriages and free marriages, but the primitive custom
of marriage by abduction had not completely disappeared from the historical
stage.
Respected scholars worldwide have noted that the most ancient epic
subjects are of two types: the quest for a wife and children and battle against
a demon. The epics that focus on an expedition for a wife and children
appear to reflect the custom of exogamy in patriarchal clans. This kind of
epic praises the heroic deeds of the main character, who on his expeditions
overcomes the natural obstructions and the evil designs of those he meets en
route to a remote clan where he defeats his competitor, removes his future
parent-in-law’s obstacles to marriage, and wins his future wife. The German
scholar W. Heissig (1979) has pointed out that the Mongolian epics tell
typical courting stories in which the hero goes on a quest to win his future
wife. Typical courting scenes often appear in the Mongolian epics: the hero,
alone or with his brothers, sets forth, climbs over steep mountain peaks,

6
Rashidal-Din 1983. Historical Collection (or Jami’ al-Tawarikh ) is a
voluminous world history composed in Persian at the beginning of the fourteenth century.
It consists of three parts: a Mongolian history, a world history, and a world topography.
7
The Secret History of the Mongols was compiled in Uihur Mongolia during the
thirteenth century and describes how the Mongol kingdom formed, focusing primarily on
Chinggis Khan (1162-1227) and his family. The original text vanished; the work being
cited derives from an early Ming Dynasty translation (1368-1644).
 MONGOLIAN-TURKIC EPICS 391

crosses the wild sea, and defeats ferocious beasts and demons; the travelers
reach a remote clan, where with courage and power they overcome the
future father-in-law’s objections to the marriage of his daughter; and they
successfully return with the newlyweds. Such epics belong to the marriage-
by-abduction type (denoted A1 above).
Early marriage-by-abduction plots have long been popular among
commoners and have influenced later epics. For example, in the Dai epic Li
Feng, which came into being in late clan society, several wars are fought for
women. The hero, Feng Gai, has abducted the wives of Hai Han and King
Sang Luo. He also captures other women.8 The traditional marriage-by-
abduction plots have also influenced the later longer epics Jangar and
Geser. In the descriptions of the wedding of Jangar’s father, Uzon Aldar
Khan, and that of Manas with Kanikai, we can spot traces of this motif. In
fact, the same pattern is prevalent internationally. Stories that describe
obtaining beautiful women by means of abduction in the Greek and Indian
epics may have originated from the actual social custom of marriage by
abduction.
The second major theme, the hero’s struggle against a demon, derives
from heroic legends. There are many kinds of demons in various ethnic
epics, such as the snake-monster, the cyclops, and the many-headed demon.
Many-headed monsters, known as Mangus, Mangni, Delbegen, and Ker-
Diutpa, often appear in Mongolian epics and are full of symbolic meaning.
At first they seem to have represented the ferocious beasts found in nature;
later they become a symbol of the hero’s enemy clan, reflecting the practice
of blood feud in primitive society. With the emergence of private ownership
and class divisions, these demons become symbolic of bandits and
oppressors. In Mongolian-Turkic epics they are characterized by their many
heads, their acts of cannibalism, and a separate power source that may be
hidden in one or several animal bodies.9 They despise human beings and
often attack the hero’s home country. In early epics, the demon’s primary
motivation is to abduct the hero’s wife or sisters; in response, the hero kills
his adversary, exterminates the latter’s family (his wife, children, and
parents), and rescues his wife or sisters. In this case, the contest represents
the collective force of one clan against another, with the struggle resulting in
8
Cf. Qing Jiahua 1985.
9
In the epics both heroes and enemies can have a separate power source
(sometimes translated as “anima”) hidden in the body of an animal or object. For
example, while the hero Geser and his enemy fight, their power sources battle as well in
the forms of a white bull and a black bull. In order for Geser to conquer his enemy, he
has to destroy its power source first.
392 RINCHINDORJI

the symbolic extermination of one whole clan. For this reason we call them
clan-feud-type epics (denoted as B1 above).

The Influence of Varieties of Verbal Art on Epic Content

Epics depend not only on a culture’s social organization, but also on

its various forms of verbal art. Before the emergence of epics, there existed
prose-style versions of myth, legends, and other stories, along with the
rhythmic style of verbal art employed in sacrificial rites, shamanistic poems,
blessings, ballads, and folk sayings. Epics are an early style of narrative that
took shape by combining narrative traditions with lyric and rhythmic
features. Across the spectrum of folk oral creative works, epics are the
largest comprehensive form. The Mongolian epics furnish an example:
within their prelude and body, the elements of time, place, the hero and his
wife (or future wife), home country, tent, horse, and weapons are introduced
and praised. All varieties of lyric are employed, borrowing from the ancient
poetic forms of Mongolian shamanistic sacrificial poems, blessings, and
praise songs. Myths and shamanistic poems contributed demons, harmful
falcons, ferocious beasts, personified natural phenomena, various
mythological figures, fairies, and spirits. In comparison to these eastern
epics, those of the West appear to have an even stronger relationship with
myths and legends, being full of representations and metaphors and making
use of ancient totemic myths, heroic legends, and short narrative poems. For
example, the epic Moyi Dawang of the Zhuang people appears to draw on
the myth of a totemic ox and legends about the Bamboo King and the Flying
Head (Ya 1996). The War between Black and White among the Bai people
symbolically represents the struggles between two different belief systems.
Heroic tales bear a close relationship with epics. The content of the
former is similar to that of the latter, both representing the hero’s struggles
to obtain a wife and his campaigns against demons or other heroes. Of
course, some epics also become heroic tales during their dispersal. In a
word, however, the majority of heroic tales have roots in the ancient past. It
is most likely that heroic tales and epics are different branches with the same
origin, and they use the two artistic styles that evolved and took shape on the
basis of the earliest short heroic tales.

The Inseparability of Oral Poets and the Emergence of Epic

At present, there are epic ballads under various names among the
relevant ethnic groups in Mongolia and neighboring countries: tuulchi
 MONGOLIAN-TURKIC EPICS 393

(Mongols and Tuva), ülgerchi (Mongols and Buriat), chorchi (Eastern

Mongols), jangarchi (Oirad and Kalmyk), zhongken (Tibetans), zanha (the
Dai), jirshi (Kazak), aken (Kizghiz and Kazak), manaschi (Kirghiz), kayichi
(Altay), and olonkhosuti (Yakut). These epic ballads grew out of early
artistic traditions. In all likelihood, before the emergence of epics among
various ethnic groups and before the existence of priests and shamans, there
appeared many talented poets, who were not only eloquent enough to
fluently recite poems in praise of their gods and ancestors, but also created
many sacrificial poems, blessings, praises, and old ballads of various kinds.
They accomplished the creative task of transforming tales into epics,
weaving together bits and pieces to form a complete set and skillfully
reworking prose into verse. They connected their received heroic tales to the
social reality of their own times and revised them, giving divinity to the
heroes by endowing them with shamanistic or spiritual features. Abduction
and clan-feud epics were created in this way. Even the earliest epics were
understood as having a sacred function, and the ancestors appreciated and
revered them. As singers continued reciting them, the growing audiences
among various clans encouraged the spread of epic performances.

Mongolian epic singer Rinchin performing an epic in 1991. Photograph by the author.
394 RINCHINDORJI

Development of Types of Small- and Medium-size Epics

Abduction and clan-feud are no doubt the earliest epic themes. The
plot-frame or motif-series of abduction-type epics (A1) became the basis and
prototype for the development of the marriage-type epic (A). In the same
way, the plot-frame or motif-series of clan-feud epics (B1) is the basis for
battle-type epics (B). As mentioned above, these two kinds of epic motif-
series served as the frame, pattern, and unit for the further development of
epics.
First, on the basis of the plot-frame of the marriage-by-abduction type
(A1), the trial of the son-in-law type (A2) took shape. Due to changes in
ancient society, the primitive custom of marriage by abduction became
anachronistic, and a new social consciousness and revisionist views on
marriage emerged, resulting in all kinds of marriages based on bride-price
and other conditions. The “trial of the son-in-law” epics reflect this new
social practice. For example, the hero would destroy various
evils—including demons, monsters, and ferocious birds and beasts—for the
father-in-law as the price for his daughter. In the Mongolian epic Hairtu
Hara, the hero kills seven wild wolves and five mangus for his father-in-
law. In The Four-Year Old Hulugbatur, the hero kills nine mangus. The
warriors in the Daur people’s Chokaimergen capture the mangus,
Yeldengker, and a vicious lion in order to win their future wives. When the
hero saves a maiden from the monster who abducted her, he is rewarded
with her hand in marriage. The Buriat epic Altainai Hu on the Golden Horse
and the Mongolian epic Erdeni Habuhsoya, performed by the Ewenki, all
follow this pattern of loss and recovery. In the epics Ejin Tengeri and
Tugalchinhuu, the heroes rescue golden and silver foals; and in Chokai
Mergen, the hero recovers 70 white foals. In the Wedding of Hongor,
performed by Li Purbai and others, the hero captures and tames a murderous
wild camel, a dark blue bull, and a white-breasted black dog before he wins
the consent of his father-in-law to marry his daughter.
In many epics, dangerous trials are set three times in succession,
according to the future father-in-law’s requirements, which stem from the
father-in-law’s dual aim of a suitable price for marrying his daughter and
strengthening his own clan by recruiting a good son-in-law. Because he
imposes daunting conditions for the suitor without any concern for his life,
many young men die fighting ferocious beasts and only the most outstanding
hero can win the fight and secure a wife. The description of these
adventures and trials probably reveals vestiges of the practice of trading
marriage for service or of rites of passage into adulthood. In the history of
many ethnic groups in China, the phenomenon of service marriage has been
 MONGOLIAN-TURKIC EPICS 395

popular. According to this arrangement, a man had to work in a potential

bride’s clan to compensate for the loss of her contribution of labor. Under
such a system, the young woman’s family tests the suitor, in the hope of
securing a worthy son-in-law. This same desire could also explain the
behavior of the father-in-law in some epics after the daughter’s marriage,
since after the wedding the father causes more difficulty for his son-in-law,
using all kinds of strategies and excuses to prevent him from returning to his
own home country with his new wife. In other epics, when the hero returns
with his wife to his own clan, the father-in-law, together with his family,
herds, and property, follows him and settles down close by. These actions
can be explained by interpreting them as a test: in the interest of his own
clan, the father-in-law prevents the son-in-law’s return in order to use his
strength for the protection of the clan; later, he follows his son-in-law to
establish a confederacy of clans and strengthen the power of his own clan.
Of course, by this time, marriage has become a way to achieve clan and
tribal confederacy.
There is also another common way of testing the son-in-law in epics:
the father-in-law raises three conditions for marrying his daughter—namely,
mastery in horse racing, archery, and wrestling. The winner of these three
competitions is qualified to marry his daughter; should a suitor fail in even
one of the competitions, he is disqualified. In many cases, two suitors vie
for the daughter’s hand. The three competitions are the traditional folk
recreational activities among northern nomadic peoples. This “triathlon” has
traditionally served as a means to confirm and reward the most skillful men
and the swiftest horses, and, historically at least, has not been employed as a
procedure for selecting a son-in-law. Nonetheless, it is easy to see how the
social custom could have been transferred to epic to serve a new purpose,
with the result that a new type of pattern formed (A2).
According to its plot structure, the trial type of epic (A2) has taken
shape on the basis of the marriage-by-abduction type of epic (A1). With a
few exceptions, the basic motifs are similar in content and sequence:

time; place; the growth of the hero; information about the future wife; the
hero expresses his desire to marry; discouragement by his family;
determination to set out on an expedition; preparation of the riding horse,
armature, and weapons; setting out on the expedition and occurrences
along the way; encountering the future father-in-law; the father’s rejection
of the suitor’s proposal (marriage-by-abduction type); harsh conditions
prescribed by the father (trial type); defeating the future father-in-law
(marriage-by-abduction type); fulfillment of conditions (trial type); the
father forced to agree to the marriage; the wedding ceremony; and
returning home with a wife.
396 RINCHINDORJI

By comparing the two marriage types, one may see the line of development
from the marriage-by-abduction—unconditional and with no bride-price—to
the trial type that involved a bride-price and one or more conditions.
Similarly, by comparing the direct and heated struggle between the suitor
and the father-in-law to the indirect struggle among several gentle suitors,
one may glimpse evolving social models.
The plot frame of the clan-feud type (B1) is the basis for another battle
epic—the bandit type (B2). In late clan society, due to the greater prevalence
of private property and class divisions, competition for herds, property, and
domestic slaves intensified. This social reality was reflected in the epic and
developed into the bandit type on the basis of the framework of clan-feud
epics. In the bandit epic, the hero’s enemies include demons and warriors,
who not only abduct women but also ransack herds and other property and
force the hero’s parents and clan members into slavery. The difference
between these two types is not the matter of whether the enemy is a demon
or not. A demon who appears as an abductor in the clan-feud type will
possess the features of a plunderer and oppressor in the bandit type. In the
clan-feud type, herds and property are rarely ransacked and the hero’s
parents and clan members do not become slaves. Nonetheless, other
elements of these plots are similar. The basic motif-series of the clan-feud
and bandit types is as follows:

Time; place; hero; an attack by the enemy—either the feud is motivated or

a chance act of banditry occurs; preparation of horses, armature, and
weapons; expedition and occurrences along the way; encounter with the
enemy; informing each other of names and the desire to battle; fighting
(with swords and daggers, bows and arrows, and wrestling); the defeat of
the enemy; asking for pardon; extermination of the enemies and their clan;
rescuing the lost wife (and in the bandit type the lost herds, property, and
the captured family members); and returning with success.

In summation, the motif-series of the marriage-by-abduction type and

the trial of the son-in-law type share many of the same motifs, diverging
where marriage customs differ. Likewise, the motif-series of the clan-feud
type and the bandit type differ only in regard to the enemy’s object. In
addition, the motif-series of the two marriage types and those of the two
battle types as a whole share common motifs, suggesting the fundamental
unity of the epics and a traditional model behind their variety. The four
types of epics are similar in that they all describe one valorous deed by the
hero (the struggle for marriage or in battle), and their frames are all comprise
a single motif-series. Thus, they are single-plot (or single-canto) epics. The
 MONGOLIAN-TURKIC EPICS 397

single-plot type seems to be the primary genus of epic and serves as a

foundation for various other types. It is short and effective, usually
consisting of several hundred lines, but however short it may be, each one
describes a complete story. Some call this kind of epic an epic-fragment, but
actually they are early forms of epics that preserve the most basic features.
Besides the single-plot type there are also several kinds of compound-
structure epics. Due to differences in the way the motif-series compounded,
there are two large types—the tandem-compound epics and juxtaposition-
compound epics. Two or more epic motif-series form the compound-
structure type, while the tandem-compound developed according to social
and historical factors. With the emergence of a laboring class and an
increased focus on private property, class divisions appeared. Heads of
clans and tribes launched endless wars for property and slaves. In this
severe and complicated social struggle, a hero typically faced more than one
battle. For example, in the tandem-compound epic, other warriors, noticing
that the hero is away seeking a wife or was leaving home to go hunting or
fighting, will often devastate the hero’s home country, drive away his herds,
and force his parents and subjects into slavery. Even when the hero returns
successfully from a distant war, he has to go to battle again. Though epics
had a cultural responsibility to reflect these struggles, single-canto epics
could not include all of them. Bards made use of existent single-plot
structures and the original motif-series of marriage-type epics and of battle-
type epics, editing and linking them to create tandem-compound epics that
reflected the hero’s second set of struggles.
The common tandem-compound type combines the motif-series of the
trial of son-in law epics and the bandit epics (A2+B2). For example, the
Mongolian epic about Khan Tegus’ son Shiretu Mergen Khan,
Jugaimijidehu, and the Kazak epic Alepamis describe the hero’s weddings
(trial of son-in-law type) and his battles; Alepamis adds to these basic plots
the narrative of the hero’s growth and his struggles within the family. Ugus
is similarly composed of battle and marriage motifs. However, this is not
the sole combination of motif-series possible—for example, a tandem-
compound epic may employ two different battle motif-series (B1+B2). Both
of the Mongolian epics Altan Galu and Gunagan Ulanbataar describe a hero
who conquers two different bandits. According to the plot-structure of the
Mongolian epics, the latter parts of these two tandem-compound epics are
basically similar, both relying on the single-plot bandit pattern (B2). Thus,
as has been shown, there are many small- to medium-size epics among the
Mongolian ethnic groups with rich content and various forms, bearing marks
of different stages of social development.
398 RINCHINDORJI

Evolution of Long Epics

The law of development of long epics throughout the world is similar.

The process of formation of Jangar and Manas is similar to that of the
world-famous Greek and Indian epics, which may have first taken shape as
great and voluminous works on the basis of many smaller narratives and
poems in the oral tradition.
Before Jangar and Manas became long epics, the Mongolian and
Turkic peoples already shared hundreds of small- and medium-size epics,
most limited to several hundred lines. Later, however, epics of between
several thousand and three hundred thousand lines appeared. Current
versions of Jangar and Manas, which each have over 200,000 lines, were
formed on the basis of the subjects, styles, structures, characters, and artistic
treatment of the original small- and medium-length epics, and especially on
their plot frames.
The plot structures of the three great epics of Mongolia—Geser,
Jangar, and Manas—differ from those of the Iliad and Mahabharata, which
focus on the roles of many heroic characters in the unraveling of one major
heroic event. The Iliad describes the war between two great military
powers, with its plot centering on the struggle between the Greeks and the
Trojans in their fight for the city of Troy. The Mahabharata is all-inclusive,
focusing, however, on the struggle for kingship between two military camps,
namely Bandu and Julu within the Harata; this war has become the core plot
of the epic. The three great Mongolian epics do not follow a single war
between two huge military camps; they concentrate instead on the heroes
Geser, Jangar, and Manas, charting their lives and describing their
campaigns against various enemies in different volumes and cantos. Take
Jangar, for example, which contains more than 200 relatively independent
cantos, most of them battles and marriage struggles. All these cantos are
based on short- and medium-length epics and employ their motif-series. As
mentioned above, there are four types of short- and medium-length epics,
among which Jangar appears to be the fourth type. The first volume of
Manas sounds similar to Jangar since it has many independent cantos, most
of which describe battles. Although the heroic expeditions in Manas are
more complicated than those in Jangar, its core has also formed on the basis
of the motif-series of short- and medium-length epics about the historical
warrior Manas.10

10
As Lang Ying has pointed out (1991:263-69), the long historical poem Manas
has a relationship to the epic Alap Manash of the Altay, an ethnic group among the
Siberian Turkic peoples, in terms of hero’s name, representation of characters, and plot
 MONGOLIAN-TURKIC EPICS 399

In addition to drawing upon the form and content of short- and

medium-length historical poems, the long historical poems absorbed features
of myths, legends, folktales, sacrificial prayers, shamanistic poems,
incantations, blessings, praises, narrative poems, and folk sayings from the
larger oral tradition. For example, when performing the epic Jangar, singers
will represent the orphaned heroes Jangar and Satar by drawing upon
legends in which orphans kill monsters, such as the “Legendary Origin of
Cholos Tribe,” “The Extermination of the Mangus by the Orphan,” “Lonely
Nutai,” “Lonely Yirgai of the North,” and “Hangel Kuk Batur.” The
representation of Jangar has also made use of such legends as “The Sharp
Arrow Shooter,” “The Giant,” “The Fast Runner,” “The Mighty Mountain
Lifter,” “The Three Heavenly Maidens,” “The Swan Girl,” “The Beauty
Turned Spirit,” “The Copper-Mouthed and Gazette-Legged Witch,”
“Descent to the Underworld in Search of Someone,” “The Underground
Kuk-Darhan (Blue Blacksmith),” “The Cultural Hero who Raises Wild
Life,” and others. The influence of the Altaic legend Alap Manash upon the
epic Manas is also apparent: not only did the central figure inherit his name
from Manash, but these two heroes also share similar characteristics of
gigantic appearance, magic power, resistance to spears and swords, and the
ability to sleep soundly.
What is more, Manas has absorbed myths and legends from the Kirgiz
and ancient Turkic peoples. For example, “The Forty Maidens,” which is
popular among the Kirgiz, Karakalpak, and others, was woven into the first
part of Manas, providing Manas with noble origins by depicting him as the
son of a princess. Kaypushan myth may be heard in the narration of the
lives of several generations of the Manas family. In addition, Manas draws
upon the legends of “The Giant” and “The Crippled Blacksmith,” (Lang
1991:163). In brief, small- and medium-size epics and folk oral traditions
were the artistic basis and cultural precondition for the formation of longer
epics. The transition from shorter historical poems to voluminous epics
required a major shift in the process of development.
The process of epic evolution is extremely complicated. After a long
epic has achieved its most basic shape, it builds upon this, developing and
changing continually during its oral dissemination. In addition, other long
sister epics may evolve from one long epic, just as seven long sister poems,
“Saymaytay” and others, have evolved on the basis of the pattern and plot

structures. She has observed that “regarding Manash’s life history, Alap Manash consists
of large sections depicting the miraculous birth of the hero, his marriage, his heroic quest,
the threat to his life, and the hero’s death and resurrection. It is basically similar to the
narrative frames of the epic Manas and ancient Turkic epics” (ibid.:266-67).
400 RINCHINDORJI

frame of the first volume of Manas, and as the eight long epics of Oshir
Bogod Hübegun and others appeared as a continuation of Abai Geser
Hübegun. These epics followed a new type of pattern with a chain plot
structure, narrating the life of a hero and his descendants.

Institute of Ethnic Literature

Chinese Academy of Social Sciences
Trans. by Naran Bilik

References

Heissig 1979 W. Heissig. “Gedanken zu einer Strukturellen Motiv-

Typologie des Mongolischen Epos.” Asiatische
Forschungen, 68.

Lang 1991 Lang Ying. Manas: Comments and Analysis. Hohhot:

Inner Mongolia University Press.

Meletinskij 1963 E. M. Meletinskij. Proiskhozhdenie Geroicheskogo Eiposa.

Moscow: Izdatel’stvo Voctochkoj Literatura.

Narantuyaa 1988 R. Narantuyaa. “Mongol Tuulijn Burtgel.” Aman Zokhiol

Sudlal, 18.

Nekljudov 1981 S. Iu. Nekljudov. “Epos mongolskykh narodov i problema

folklornkh vzatsmosvyazei.” In Literaturnye Svyazi
Mongolii. Moscow: Nauka.

Poppe 1979 Nikolaus Poppe. “Zur Erforschung der Mongolischen

Epenmotive.” Asiatische Forschungen, 68.

Pukhov 1962 I. V. Pukhov. Iakutskij Geroicheskij Eipos Olonkho.

Moscow: Izdatel’stvo AN USSSR.

Pukhov 1975 . “Geroicheskij Eipos Tiurko-Mongol’skikh

narodov Sibiri.” Tipologiia Narodnogo Eiposa. Moscow:
Nauka.

Qing 1985 Qing Jiahua. “A Brief Review of Dai Epics.” Sixiang

zhanxian, 5.

Rashidal-Din 1983 Rashidal-Din. Historical Collection (Shi Ji or Jami’ al-

Tawarikh), vol. 1. Trans. into Chinese by Yu Dajun and
 MONGOLIAN-TURKIC EPICS 401

Zhou Jiangi. Beijing: Commerce Press.

Rinchindorji 1987 Rinchindorji. “Die Entwicklung des Sujetaufbaus des

Mongolischen Epos.” Asiatische Forschungen, 101.

Rinchindorji 1989 . “The Development of the Plot Structures of the

Mongolian Epics.” (In Chinese). Studies of Ethnic
Literature (Minzu Wenxue Yanjiu), 5:11-19.

Rinchindorji 1999 . On the Epic Jangar. (In Chinese). Hohhot:

Inner Mongolian University Press.

Sharakshinova 1987 N. O. Sharakshinova. “Geroiko.” Eipicheskaia Poeiziia

Buriat. Irkutsk: Izdatel’stvo Irkutskogo Universiteta.

Surazhakhov 1958-80 Sazon Sajmobich Surazhakhov, ed. Altajskij

Bogatyiri—Altajskij Geroicheskij Eipos. vols. 1-10.
Sostavtel’: Gorono-Altajuskoe Knizhnoe Izdatel’stvo.

Surazhakhov 1985 . Altajskij geroicheskij eipos. Moscow: Nauka.

Xie 1956 Xie Zaishan, trans. Meng Gu Mi Shi (Secret History of the
Mongols). Beijing: Zhong Hua Shu Ju.

Ya Hu 1996 Ya Hu. “The Wonderful and Beautiful Southern Epics.”

(In Chinese). Studies of Ethnic Literature (Minzu Wenxue
Yanjiu), 3.