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Production, Processing and Utilization of Aromatic Plants

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 Production, Processing
i and
Utilization
j of
Aromatic Plents

Beemnet Mengesha
Omarsherif Mohammed
Tsion Tesema
Solomon Abate
 Production, Processing
and
Utilization

Aromatic Plants

©EIAR. 2009

2002
Website: http://www.eiar.oov.et
Tel:+251-11-6462633
Fax: +251-11-6461294
P.O.Box: 2003 ./
Addis Ababa. Ethiopia

ISBN 978-99944-53-24-5

Copyediting: Abebe Kirub

Page Design: Abebe Kirub
Printing: Abesolom Kassa
Binding and collation: Abesolom kassa and Miftah Argeta
Distribution: Solomon Tsega and Tigist Beshir
Bibliographic input to WAICENT {FAO):Tigisl Beshir
 Contents
Introduction I
A r o m a tic P la n ts 1
Essential oils 2
Producing Essential Oils from Aromatic P l a n t s 3
Importance of Essential Oils 4
Producing Essential Oils from Aromatic Plants 5
C apital R equirem ent 5
R ural D evelopm ent 6
H igh V alue Low V olum e 6
H igher E xport Potential 7
E nvironm ental and E cological Benefits 7
Utilization of Aromatic Plants 8
C hoice o f C rop 8
Site Selection 8
Establishment and Management 10
E stablishm ent 10
M an ag em en t • 10
H arv estin g and Y ield 11
Processing 12
D istillation/E xtraction 12
Post Extraction Treatment ]5
Aromatic Plants and Essential Oil Production 16
Production 16
D em and and Supply 16
Prioritized Aromatic Plants for Research 17
Aromatic Plants at Wondo GenetResearch Center 29
 Production processing and utilization of arom atic plants

Introduction
Humankind has been using plant secondary metabolites for over thousands of
years as dyes flavors, fragrances (rose oil, lavender oil), stimulants,
hallucinogens, insecticides, and for animal and human poisons.

In recent years, there has been a tremendous growth of interest in plant-based

perfumery products, cosmetics and aroma compounds used in food flavors and
fragrances, drugs, pharmaceuticals and natural colors.

Arom atic plants

Aromatic plants are plants posses odoriferous oil in either o f their organs or
sometimes even in the whole plant. This kind o f plant can be found from
simple form o f the plant kingdom such as fungi and algae to the higher plants
like angiosperm and gymnosperms. The most commonly known and utilized
aromatic pants are grasses (Cymbopogon martini, C. winterianus, C. citratus),
herbs (M entha piperata, M. arvensis, M. spicata, M. longifolia), shrubs
(Aloysia triphylla, Rosmarinus officinalis) or trees (Eucalyptus citrodora) with
annual (Artemisia spp., Trachispermum ammi, Coriandrum sativum ,
Matricaria chamamole) or perennial (Cymbopogon spp., Mentha spp.,
Eucalyptus spp.) growth habits.

Usually aromatic plants are multipurpose plants. For this reason, they are
important to produce valuable aromatic substances, which can be used as food,
fodder, construction material, ethno botanical, source o f fuel, social and
cultural values, environmental protection and services, etc.

The commonly used terms associated with aromatic plants are herbs, spices,
and essential oils. Herbs are aromatic plants from temperate regions that
contain phytonutrients and used for flavoring foods and beverages. Culinary
herbs refer to these herbs used in minor quantities to flavor food and
beverages. The term ‘spice’, is also used an aromatic plant from tropical
regions. In most instances, spices are dried seeds, leaves, stems, roots or other
plant parts from which none o f the flavoring or bioactive components has been

[t]
 B eem net et. al

extracted. Aromatic plants that have a strong aroma may or may not be used
for commercial production o f essential oils.

Essential oils
Essential oil is a generic name for plant constitutes which are volatile, oily
liquids sometimes semi-liquid or solid substances with aromatic or odoriferous
scent. Sometimes they are called volatile oil or ethereal oil. The term essential,
represent the very essence o f odor and flavor. Essential oils often classified as
secondary plant products or metabolites; as a result, many may be led to
believe that they are o f only secondary importance. Secondary metabolites
found in a smaller range o f plants as opposed to the primary metabolites, such
as sugars and fats, which are found in all plants. Some useful essential are
found only in a particular genus or species.

Mostly, essential oils are aromatic substances produced from aromatic plants
with original aroma and flavor o f the odoriferous plants. They are colorless or
slightly yellow complex mixtures o f odorous and volatile compounds. They
occur in various site o f plant anatomy, in some cases they are found through
out the plant organ and they could be restricted to specific organ or product of
the plant. Either o f the different part such as flowers, seeds, leaves, twigs,
herbs, woods, barks, resinoids, sap, fruits, seeds and, root or the whole part of
the single plant species could be sources o f essential oil.

Essential oils can be produced through different method o f extraction. Steam

and hydro distillation, effleurage, maceration, solvent extraction, or
mechanical pressing are listed as techniques used for the extraction of
essential oils from different raw materials o f aromatic plants.

Chemically, essential oils are mostly tropanes, multiple isoprenoid units,

aromatics, heterocyclics, and terpenes. The most aboundant types o f chemical
compounds in essential oils are terpinoids and phenyl propanoids.
T erpino id s in essen tial oils c o n sists o f m o n o terpenoids (Cio
com pounds) and se sq u iterp en o id s w h ich are ( C 15 com pounds) w ith their

[2]
 Production processing and utilization of arom atic plants

oxy g en ated d eriv ativ es such as alcholes, esters, aldehydes, ketones,

ethers and acids.

Mostly, essential oils bear the name o f the plant species from which it is
derived, for example, rose oil and, peppermint oil etc. Similarly, each type of
essential oil o f a given plant species or plant part is different from the others.
As result, oil to exhibits a peculiar fragrance and physicochemical
characteristics. The type and extent o f the active constitute present in a given
oil usually determine the physicochemical property of that oil, which
ultimately determines its use or application.

Producing Essential Oils from Aromatic

Plants

Several structures have been described as essential oil sources by microscopic

studies. The most commons are cavities, ducts, glands or hairs. Cluster of cells
(cavities or ducts) just below the epidermis in skins o f citrus fruit or leaves of
eucalyptus; and glands o f lavender florets or the modified leaf hairs of mint.
The secretory cells o f plants that produce the volatile oils trap the photo-
electromagnetic energy o f the sun and with the help of glucose convert it in to
biochemical energy in the form o f aromatic molecules.

The genetics and biochemistry o f the biosynthesis o f essential oils are well
known. For example, limonene is synthesized from geranyl pyrophosphate in
the oil glands o f Mentha spp. Oxygenated derivatives o f limonene that make
up the remainder o f mentha oil are synthesized from limonene by microsomal
preparations from oil glands, which show cytochrome p-450-type mixed
function oxygenase activity.

The role o f essential oils, in plants is certainly several apparently "useful"

effects have been described. They are the regenerating and oxygenating
defense properties o f plants. Their oxygenating molecules effectively transport
nutrients and a myriad o f other powerful chemical constituents to the cells,
giving life to the plants, destroying infections, staving off infections, aiding in
[3]
 Beem net et. al

growth, and stimulating healing. Moreover, they have an important role in

plants as an attraction o f pollinating insects by their volatile aromas; reduction
o f competition from other plant species (allelopathy) by chemical inhibition o f
seed germination and establishment, protection against insects by an anesthetic
effect, protection against infectious micro flora by fungicidal and bactcricidal
properties, and against browsing animals by adverse taste and effects on the
nervous system. This indicates that, they are not directly produced for
performing normal physiological processes like growth, reproduction, and
other processes carried out in response to primary the synthesis o f plant
metabolites.

Importance of Essential Oils

The role o f essential oils in heavy industries like petroleum, mining, paint,
varnish paper and printing like carbon papers, drinking cups, writing paper,
paper bags and food wrappings, printing and writing inks, industrial tapes,
inking pads, , and textile processing products such as artificial leather and
fabric coatings, dyes, linoleum, textile oils and eater proofing materials are
crucial.

Food processing and fla vo ring industries

Essential oils have a great role in the food industries, sweet meals factories
like biscuits, cakes, icings, mincemeat, pies and sandwich fillings. Canning
factories use them for flavoring and processing o f fish, meat, sauces and soup.
Chewing gum, condiment, factories and confectionery factories also use them.

Beverage industries
Essential oils are also used in the alcoholic beverage and soft drink industries
as a primary inputs, flavoring or additives.

Pharm aceutical application

the anti-oxidant, antiseptic, antiviral, parasitiside, secretomotory, rubefacient,
stimulant, vulnerary, germicidal and other characters o f most essential oils
 Production processing and utilization of arom atic plants

have caused them to be important sources o f active and crude raw material for
preparation o f drugs and other pharmaceutical products

Perfum ery and cosm etics industries

Aromatic plants are the predominate sources o f the fragrance in perfumery and
cosmetic products like creams, lipsticks, lotions, other beauty products.

Toiletries and dental products

Essential oils are a key raw material for toiletry products such as baby
preparations, bath preparations, laundry soaps, room sprays, deodorants and
antiseptics. Similarly, they are important in dental preparations such as tooth a
paste and mouth washes.

Bio pesticides and pesticides

Essential oils can be used directly as pesticides and as a source o f active
ingredient for preparation o f pesticides or as additive to improve or to make
already prepared pesticides ready to use. Aromatic plant material is also used
as ethno botanicals or traditional/herbal medicine Cultural application and
household food and drink sweetening and flavoring.

Producing Essential Oils from Aromatic

Plants
The most common benefits o f aromatic plants utilization for essential oil
production can be valued in terms o f capital requirement, rural development,
their high value and low volume properties, export potentials, economical and
environmental benefits.

Capital Requirement
The production essential oil is simple and relatively cheaper than other agro
based industries. Large or medium-scale distillation units can be run by farmer
groups, cooperatives, or other local institutions and involve a number o f small-
scale farmers as a supplier o f raw material.
[5]
 Beem net et. al

Rural Development
As it requires low capital and technology and agricultural based investment,
many countries have involved in production from the cultivation o f selected
(market oriented) aromatic plant species, as an alternative approaches of
integrated rural development projects.

High Value Low Volume

High Value Low Volume (HVLV) products are held to be desirable products
for developing countries including Ethiopia. One, the high value ensures high
income, always a desirable objective in these countries. Two, the low volume
requirement is held to be an equally desirable attribute because developing
countries rarely produce products o f high volume to achieve economies of
scale throughout the entire supply chain to compete internationally. Low
volume encapsulates the small scale nature o f most production in developing
countries whereas the high value allows the product to absorb financially what
would otherwise be crippling supply chain costs.

Essential oils are the epitome o f HVLV. That means the proportion of price to
volume is very high. Therefore, high value can be obtained through the sale of
low volume o f essential oil. Despite the allure o f essential oils being an ideal
HVLV, by no means all essential oils are HVLV. To achieve additional higher
end prices, a huge effort on value addition o f the product is required. The
following processing could be used as methods. Increase product quality
without further change. This can be achieved by minimizing adulteration and
impurity, using special packaging system which improves the appearance and
easy handling and helps the oil to keep its quality for a longer time.

Further processing o f the oil, to win different compounds, which make up the
crude oil helps to recover at least one o f the major components o f the oil with
higher market value. Chemically, this can be achieved using different
methods. Among those methods o f separating active constitutes o f crude
material, fractional distillation can be mentioned as appropriate technology for
volatile essential oil.

[6]

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 Production processing and utilization of aromatic plants

Higher Export Potential

The growing awareness o f environment, organic product and extended side
effects o f synthetic products have resulted in shift of demand from synthetic to
natural product even to organic production. These types of products have very
low or no-side effects to human being and their production process have
minimized impact on the environment as well. For these reasons, the global
demand for essential oils is significantly increasing over the years.

The growth in trade is an indicator o f wide opportunity in the sector.

Therefore, countries interested to participate in this sector can generate hard
currency. As the global market shows increment, the competition is so low, so
that joining this market is easy for developing countries like Ethiopia.

Environmental and Ecological Benefits

As most o f aromatic crops are perennial and have diversified morphological
and
physiological charters, they have enormous environmental and ecological
benefits. Among these benefits o f aromatic plant based essential oil
production, the following can be considered as main examples.

Suitable soil and w ate r conservation

As most o f them are perennial and need not intensive tillage; they maintain the
vegetation cover o f the land and improve the physical and biological condition
o f the soil

Enrich the soil

As the oil is the main product o f such project, the biomass that is used to
obtain the oil, will be left after the oil is extracted from it. This by product can
be used as mulch to the cultivated land, by doing this, one can achieve either
economical utilization o f the soil moisture, weed suppression, improvement of
soil, biological, physical and chemical condition, reduced soil erosion or all.
 B eem net et. al

Environm entally friendly

If it is properly p lanned, m anaged and m onitored.

Utilization of Aromatic Plants

Sketching the overall production process aromatic plants and essential oil is
important. This helps to describe factors that affect the successful utilization of
aromatic plants for essential oil production. In this manual, brief information
on production requirements from site selection to financial analysis were
discussed. Each o f these posses a number o f activities which determine for the
overall out put o f the production cycle. By adjusting such production
requirements, one can manage the effects o f these factors on overall successes
of the project on utilization o f aromatic plant. Detailed information about these
determining factors is presented below.

Choice of Crop
Factors such as location, climate, soils, grower experience and preferences,
finance, markets trends, and specialization such as organically produced crops
could influence the choice. The crop must meet the specifications o f the
destined market like International Standard Specifications or Private Company
‘in-house’ Specifications. These specifications are generally determined by
chemical analysis and physical assessment, olfactory evaluation and
appearance. It is important to understand that the chemical composition o f a
crop can be affected by such things as plant cultivar, environment, crop
management, time o f harvest, processing and post-harvest handling.

Site Selection

D uring site selectio n it is im portant to co n sid er the follow ing im portant

a sp e cts.
 Production processing and utilization of arom atic plants

Size o f land area

Sm all scale or large scale production

Location
D istance T o m arket, or p ro cessin g facilities.
Climate
S uitab ility for a p articular crop.

Topography
S uitab le lan dscape for m a ch in ery .

Soils and drainage

G ood q u ality h o rticu ltu ral or arable cro p p in g soils w ith good drainage.

Shelter
Exposure to hot, dry winds over the harvest period can severely reduce
essential oils yield. Tall crops such as citrodora, lominat, and valerian can
suffer extensive damage o f wind sufficient shelter is not provided.

Weeds
Identificatio n o f w eeds and assessm en t o f possible control strategies
should to be m ade.

W ater availability
Irrigation is necessary for all crops in most environments, particularly during
crop establishment. Therefore, irrigation system should be installed primarily.

Crop stru ctu re s

During site selection suitability o f building for drying plant, pack house or
distillation unit should be considered.

[9]
 Beem net et. al

E stab lish m en t and M a n a g e m e n t

Establishment
The starting activity o f crop establishment is availing vigorous, healthy and
sufficient planting materials which are important for completion activities
economically in accordance with the plan and enable the activity timely.
Hence, it is important to consider the following aspects during crop
establishment.

Planting m aterial
Source o f seed for some species is limited, Vegetative propagation will be
required for some species. Such as mint species, grasses, lominat, rosemary
and, geranium.

Pre-plant requirem ents

Soil test should be taken to determine soil acidity (pH) and nutrient levels.
Appropriate applications o f fertilizer and lime can then be recommended. The
site should be free o f weeds and well cultivated to give an even seed bed for
direct seeding or transplanting o f crops.

Planting
The method o f establishment used depends on the crop, labor availability, area
size, speed and cost.

Weed co ntrol
Perennial weeds should be eliminated before planting the crop. Annual weeds
can be controlled using appropriate selective herbicides or mechanical
methods. Effective weed control should be made achieve acceptable crop
yields and avoid contamination o f the end product.

Management

T here are so m e m an ag em en t activ ities before and after establishm ent.

[io]
 Production processing and utilization of arom atic plants

Spacing
D ecid in g on op tim u m plant den sity per unit area is one o f p re­
cu ltiv atio n activ ities.

Irrigation
Application rates and timing may require specialist advice. Otherwise,
recommendations from research results should be considered for efficient
utilization o f the available resources or economical production o f the desired
product.

Fertilization
Mostly, fertilization improves the yield. However, reaching on the proper type
and amount o f fertilizer is costly which should be known before or after the
crop establishment.

Pest and disease control

T he problem and solution sh o u ld be know n early. S pecialist advice is
im portant to identify pests and diseases.

Harvesting and Yield

Time o f harvest
O ften req u ires ex tractio n s and ch em ical analysis to define the best tim e
to h arv est.

H arvest method
To be cost effective, mechanical harvesting is usually preferable, particularly
as the area increases. Purpose-built or modern machinery may be needed for
some crops. Manual harvesting is also advisable for small scale production in
areas where cheap labor is available.

Pi]
 Beem net et. al

Yields
Crop yield varies considerably depending on grower experience, the cultivar
grown, environmental conditions and processing methods, and will, to a large
extent, determine the economic viability o f a crop production venture.

Processing
Processing o f aromatic plants contributes a considerable effect on quality and
quantity o f essential oil to be produced. Proper processing enables to acquire a
highly demanded product. Distillation equipment and process, drying or
wilting period and condition, packaging and storage and other related
activities are important.

D is tilla tio n /E x tr a c tio n

Production methods o f essential oils are different, such as steam distillation,

hydro distillation, cold pressing, enfleurage, solvent extraction, turbo
distillation extraction, hydro diffusion extraction and carbon dioxide
extraction. Commonly, the essence is extracted from the plant using
distillation. One type o f distillation places the plants or flowers on a screen.
Steam is passed through the area and becomes "charged" with the essence. The
steam then passes through an area where it cools and condenses. This mixture
of water and essential oil is separated and bottled. Since plants contain a small
amount o f this precious oil, several pounds may be needed to produce a single
ounce.

Steam D istillation
Steam distillation is the most common method o f extracting essential oils.
Many old distillers use this method for most oils, and say that none o f the
newer methods produces better quality oils. Steam distillation is done in a still.
Fresh or sometimes dried botanical material is placed in the plant chamber of
the still, and pressurized steam is generated in a separate chamber and
circulated through the plant material.
 Production processing and utilization of arom atic plants

The steam forces the tiny intercellular pockets that hold the essential oils to
open and release them. The temperature o f the steam must be high enough to
open the pouches, yet not so high that it destroys the plants or burns the
essential oils. As they are released, tiny droplets of essential oil evaporate
together with the steam molecules and travel through a tube into the still's
condensation chamber. As the steam cools, it condenses into water. The
essential oil forms a film on the surface o f the water.

To separate the essential oil from the water, the film should be decanted or
skimmed o ff the top. The remaining water, a byproduct of distillation, is called
floral water, distillate, or hydrosol. It retains many o f the therapeutic
properties o f the plant, making it valuable in skin care for facial mists and
toners. Some times, floral water is preferable to pure essential oil, such as
when treating a sensitive individual or a child, or when a more diluted
treatment is required.

Hydro Distillation
Hydro distillation is a method in which the plant material to be distilled with
the boiling water. Heat is important. The emerging vapor containing the
volatile essential oil was led to a condenser and collected in the oil separate
unit. This method differs from stem distillation so that; the material to be
distilled comes with the boiling water in case o f hydro distillation as opposed
to the stem in stem distillation.

Cold Pressing
Cold-pressed expression, or scarification is another method. It is used to
obtain citrus fruit oils such as bergamot, grapefruit, lemon, lime, mandarin,
orange, and tangerine oils. In this process, fruit rolls over with sharp
projections that penetrate the peel. This pierces the tiny pouches containing the
essential oil. Then the whole fruit is pressed to squeeze the juice from the pulp
and to release the essential oil from the pouches. The essential oil rises to the
surface o f the juice and is separated from the juice by centrifugation.

[13]
 B eem net et. al

Enfleurage
Some flowers, such as jasm ine or tuberose, have such low contents o f essential
oil or are so delicate that heating them would destroy the blossoms before
releasing the essential oils. In such cases, an expensive and long process called
effleurage is used to remove the essential oils. Flower petals are placed on
trays o f odorless vegetable or animal fat, which will absorb the flowers'
essential oils. Everyday, for every few hours, after the vegetable or fat has
absorbed as much o f the essential oil as possible, the depleted petals are
removed and replaced with fresh ones. This procedure continues until the fat
or oil becomes saturated with the essential oil. Adding alcohol to this
effleurage mixture separates the essential oil from the fatty substance, then the
alcohol evaporates and the essential oil remains.

Solvent E xtraction
Products used in flavor and fragrance industries can be extracted from plants
using a solvent extraction system. This system requires technical expertise and
significant capital. This method is used to get higher yield at a lower cost. In
this process, a chemical solvent such as hexane is used to saturate the plant
material and pull out the aromatic compounds. This renders a substance called
a concrete. The concrete can then be dissolved in alcohol to remove the
solvent. When the alcohol evaporates, the rem ainder is an absolute.

Solvent extraction has also disadvantages. Residues o f the solvent may remain
in the absolute and side effects. While absolutes or concretes may be fine for
fragrances or perfumes, they are not especially desirable for skin care
applications. Some trees, such as benzoin, frankincense and myrrh exude
aromatic 'tears', or sap that is too thick to use easily in aromatherapy. In these
cases, a resin or essential oil can be extracted from the tears with alcohol or-a
solvent such as hexane. This renders a resin or an essential oil that is easier to
use. However, only those oils or resin extracted with alcohol should be used
for aromatherapy.

Turbo D istillation E xtraction

Turbo distillation is suitable for or coarse plant material, such as bark, roots,
and seeds. In this process, the plants soak in water and steam is circulated
through this plant and water mixture. Throughout the entire process, the same
[14]
 Production processing and utilization of arom atic plants

water is continually recycled through the plant material. This method allows
faster extraction o f essential oils from hard-to-extract plant materials.

H ydro Diffusion Extraction

In the hydro diffusion process, steam at atmospheric pressure is dispersed
through the plant material from the top o f the plant chamber. In this way the
steam can saturate the plants more evenly and in less time than steam
distillation. This method is also less harsh than steam distillation and the
resulting essential oils smell much more than the original plant.

Carbon Dioxide Extraction

Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction uses carbon dioxide under extremely
high pressure to extract essential oils. Plants are placed in a stainless steel tank
and pressure inside the tank builds as carbon dioxide is injected into the tank.
Under high pressure, the carbon dioxide turns into a liquid and acts as a
solvent to extract the essential oils from the plants. When the pressure is
decreased, the carbon dioxide returns to a gaseous state, leaving no residues
behind. Many carbon dioxide extractions have fresher, cleaner, and crisper
aromas than steam-distilled essential oils, and they smell more similar to the
living plants. Scientific studies show that carbon dioxide extraction produces
essential oils that are very potent and have great therapeutic benefits. This
extraction method uses lower temperatures than steam distillation, making it
gentler on the plants. It produces higher yields and makes some materials,
especially gums and resins, easier to handle. Many essential oils that cannot be
extracted by steam distillation are obtainable with this process.

Post Extraction Treatment

To effectively dry large quantities o f aromatic plant materials, a drying shed
equipped with a forced-air drier or a freeze drier will be necessary to store
plant material before processing. Volumes, drying temperature, length of
drying and its technique play an important role in the quality of the product.
At Wondo Genet, it was found that chopping size and wilting duration had an
impact on the over all distillation process for lemon grass, palmarosa and
nardus grasses.

[15]
 B eem net et. al

Market specifications require excellent communication. Generally, essential

oils should be stored in a cool, dry place away from sunlight and insect
infestation. In addition, essential oils should be bottled in glass or non reactive
metal containers. Specialists’ advice is important for appropriate equipment
and methods to optimize drying efficiency and minimize loss o f critical plant
components.

Aromatic Plants and Essential Oil Production

Production
Ethiopia is endowed with different bioclimatic zones that allowed for the
cultivation and utilization o f aromatic plants and their products. The start of
production and development activities on aromatic plants was started around
50 years back. These activities started at Wondo Genet by French investors. At
that time, geranium, citronella grass, lemon grass and citrodora are the major
crops cultivated and processed. Essential oils used to be exported to European
countries until the owners left the country. After this, production, processing
and export were discontinued for ten years until the government realized its
importance. After, the production o f the commodities was reinitiated and
started to distil essential oils for local consumptions for soap factories.

Demand and Supply

In Ethiopia, a considerable amount o f plant-derived chemicals and their
derivatives are imported by an alcohol, soft drink, soap, detergent, cosmetic,
pharmaceutical, food, textile, paint, pulp and leather industry. An average o f
1736.5 t o f essential oils and related products are imported per year with' an
average o f about 37 million Birr. Because o f private alcohol and beverage
factories, the amount o f alcohol and soft drink essences imported to the
country has increased. For instance, the government-owned National Alcohol
and Liquor Factory alone imported 14,500 kg o f flavors of different alcoholic
drinks, by 4.2 million Birr. Although there is no data about the amount of
essence imported by private liquor factories, based on the pure alcohol amount
they buy from National Alcohol and Liquor Factory, it is estimated that they
import half o f the amount. This makes the total amount o f imported essence
 Production processing and utilization of arom atic plants

21,750 kg and the total money spent by liquor factory is estimated at about 6
million bin-.

Essential oils imported from 2001 to 2004 are presented in table 1. It indicates
that Ethiopia spend more than 50 million birr by importing more than 200,000
kg o f essential oils during four years. This huge amount of money is an
indicator that the demand oil is very high in the country. Despite the sector is
lucrative, the number o f participants in production and processing o f essential
oils in the country to fill up this demand good. This might be due to lack of
information and technologies about the production and processing of essential
oils or awareness about this sector. Therefore, much is expected from
technology generating bodies and government officials in such a way that
local and international producers and processors o f aromatic plants to be
involved in the sector and save huge amount o f money.

So far. local production o f essential oils and other related plant extracts has
hardly established. Few years ago, the pilot scale production of essential oils
by the Essential Oils Factory with a capacity o f 1 t/year, which had changed
itself to the only research center engaged on aromatic and other oil bearing
plants. Recently, new investors on such sector are involving. Tabor herbs
Private Company, Ariti Essential Oil Company, Bishoftu Medicinal Aromatic
Agricultural Project (BIMAAP), and Abyssinia Essential Oils pic are some of
them.

Prioritized Aromatic Plants for Research

From the existing species, (lemmon grass, palmarosa, citriodora, lemmon
verbena, japanese mint, spear mint, piper mint, citronella grass) are prioritized
research commodities.

Cymbopogon spp
The genus Cymbopogon comprises about 140 species. Some o f the species
yield essential oils and among them, the following are considered as
economically important.

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Cym bopogon w interianus

It is commonly known as Java citronella. It is from Poaceae family, which
yields essential oil known as Citronella Java oil. It has fibrous root; culms
stout, over 2m, smooth and shining, leafy glabrous at the nods. The leaves are
linear blades, gradually tapering to a long membranous acuminate tip, up to
lm length and 1.5 cm width. Inflorescence is 30m long decompound panicle.

Java Citronella flower can not produce viable seeds; therefore, the appropriate
way to perptuate java is vegetative propagation. There fore planting is done by
splitting the clumps into slips. Each slip contains 1-3 tillers, to be used as a
propagule.

Mostly, it is planted in 60 cm plant and row spacing. But in case o f fertile and
conducive soils, planting to a plant and row spacing o f 90 cm is also
recommended. Planting can be done at any time with the abundant of
moisture. But the plant is sensitive to water logging, so that care should be
taken not to plant in areas where there is vulnerable to water-logging (even for
short period). Hence, it is better to plant on ridges in areas where there is a
problem o f water logging.

It grows well under various soil conditions, but optimum growth and yield is
obtained in sandy loam. In addition, it flourishes well under tropical and sub
tropical environment where abundant moisture and long sunshine hours is
available.

Fertilization may be required for improving the growth and yield o f the crop.
Fertilization o f 80-120 kg N ha ' 1 and 40 kg ha ' 1 each for P and K is
recommended for infertile site; however, the rate might be reduced for fertile
area. Nitrogen is applied four times in splits. The first at one month after
transplanting and the remaining three will be applied after each harvest in
three months interval.

The plant requires adequate moisture for growth and yield o f leaves. In the
area, where annual rainfall varies between 2000 and 2500mm, well distributed
throughout the year, irrigation is not necessary However, in water deficit area,
additional irrigation is crucial. Oil o f citronella, is found in all parts o f the
 Production processing and utilization of aromatic plants

plant though the maximum amount and the best quality is found in the leaves.
According to Indian experience, harvesting starts six months after planting and
succeeding harvest can be done with three months interval. Both early and late
harvesting o f the leaves has an adverse effect on the quality o f the oil. The
plantation will remain productive for 5-6 years though maximum yield is
obtained during the second and third years. By considering the extremes of
growing conditions, Java Citronella is expected to yield a fresh biomass of
15-20 tones/ha in first harvest, 20-25 t ha ' 1 at second and third harvests. Out of
which, 1.0 - 1.2 % is accounted for citronella oil. Under optimum conditions,
essential oil yield between 200 and 250 kg ha '1 per year can be obtained.

The oil is used extensively as a source o f important perfumery chemicals like

citronellal, citronellol and geraniol, which have extensive use in soap,
perfumery, cosmetics and flavoring industries for the production of soap, soap
flakes, detergents, household cleansers, technical products, insecticides, insect
repellent, etc.

Cymbopogon citra tu s
It is one o f the prioritized aromatic grasses in research and development
direction o f Wondo Genet Research Center. It is locally known as lemon grass
and o f course is among the major aromatic plants that has been imported and
being cultivated for essential oil production since the establishment o f the
center. It is described as a tall perennial aromatic grass belonging to the
family o f Poaceae. There is another aromatic grass spices (C. flexuosus),
which is known with a common name o f lemon grass. The two can be
differentiated as East Indian lemon grass (C. flexuosus) and West Indian
lemon grass (C. citratus).

C. citratus is a grass with rhizomes from which leaves are produced. The leaf
blade is linear, long-attenuated toward the base and tapering upward, with a
dimension o f 90 X 18 cm, and glabrous. Regarding the inflorescence, it has
spatheate panicle, decompound to sub decompound, losses, 30-60cm long and
linear lanceolate to almost subulate when enrolled.

Like any other tropical plant specious, the grass requires between 2000 and
2500 mm annual rainfall and average temperature of 23 and 27°C. It is

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resistant to drought. It grows best on well drained sandy loam soil. Planting is
done in a row spacing o f 90 cm and 60 cm using slips. During lemon grass
cultivation, some specific requirements, such as adequate sunshine,
occasionally heavy rain, warm temperature and sufficient humidity.

The production o f essential oil is to earn higher revenue by adding the value.
The value adding can be achieved by maximizing the crude essential oil per ha
and the proportion o f specific active constituent are the most economical
ways.

Application o f ammonium nitrate, urea and Indole acetic acid enhance the
vegetative growth and essential oil yield and quality. Indole acetic acid
produce maximum increase o f 0.17% volatile oil and 5.9% increase in the
content o f the major active compound, i.e. citral. 30 kg \o f P 20 5, K20 and N at
time o f planting and 60 kg N/ha as top dressing in 3-4 splits is recommended.

First harvest possibly riches 6 months after planting. Subsequent harvests can
be done 40-50 days. Under normal conditions, three harvestings are possible
during the first year and 4 in the subsequent years. Oil content and herbage
yield is lowest in the first year and highest in the third and fourth years.
Essential oil yield between 75 and 100kg ha ' 1 can be obtained. The essential
oil content varies between 0.2 and 0.4%.

Oil of lemon grass is one o f the most important essential oils. The name lemon
grass has been given because o f the typical strong lemon-like odor o f the
plant. Due to high citral content o f the essential oil in the leaves, it is used as a
basic row material for synthesis o f B-ionones. B-ionones are important row
materials used for the synthesis o f a number o f useful aromatic compounds
and Vitamin-A. Citral is also used as a perfumery for various grades o f soaps
and cosmetics. The oil is also suitable as a fumigant against flies and
mosquitoes

For essential oil production, lemon grass is largely cultivated in west India,
Guatemala and Brazil, for the supply o f either in domestic and export market
or both. It has been cultivated and used as a dry spice for flavoring foods and
tea in India. Moreover, the spent lemongrass which is left over after
 Production processing and utilization of arom atic plants

distillation has been reported to be suitable for making paper, as clean burning
fuel for distillation o f aromatic biomass and as an excellent source of green
manure to enrich soil when applied directly as mulch or after transforming the
herbage as compost or ash.

Cymbopogon m a rtin i
It is commonly known as Palmarosa and locally ‘Tej Sar’. It is a perennial
grass that can grow up to 3 m. It is susceptible to frost so that mostly, the
aerial part dies in winter. Leaves are linear lanceolate to lanceolate, cordate or
amplexixaul, 8-50 cm long and 1-3 cm wide.

It is a tropical plant that grows in warm and humid area. Areas which are
affected with severe frost are not suitable, because o f the frost kill the grass
and reduce the oil yield. A well-drained loamy soil having irrigation facility
with an annual rainfall of 1500 mm are good conditions for cultivation of
palmarosa. Although the grass grows best in soil with neutral pH, it can
survive and gives economical yield in the alkaline soil of pH 9.

As the grass is perennial the soil needs replenishment and fertilization in

different stage o f development depending on the fertility. Fertile soils don't
need any replenishment at least for the First two years. In deficient soils, a
mixture o f 20 kg o f N, 50 kg P 20 5 and 40 kg K20 / ha is used as a basal dose
at the time o f planting. About 60 kg N /ha ' 1 is applied in three split doses
during the season. The mixture o f NPK should be repeated at the time of
appearance o f fresh leaves each year.

Palmarosa is propagated with seeds or through slips. Vegetative propagation is

not suitable for commercial planting, Healthy and vigorous slips are used for
planting commonly with 60 cm plant and row spacing.

It can be harvested when it produces flowers. Usually harvest is once obtained

in the first year. In subsequent years, 2-3 harvest can be obtained depending
on climatic condition o f the area. It could stay productive for about 8 years
under proper management.

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Despite essential oils found in all parts o f the grass; the major portion is
accumulated in flower heads. So, harvesting is recommended when the crop is
at full flowering. Palmarosa oil, which is rich in geraniol content, can be
obtained by both hydro-distillation and steam distillation, though, the later
gives better yield and quality.

The oil is used in perfumery, particularly in flavorings of tobacco and for

blending o f soaps. This is primarily due to the lasting rose-notes it imparts to
the blend. In soap and perfumes, it has a special importance by virtue of
geraniol being stable with alkali. It also serves as a source o f a very high grade
geraniol. Geraniol has high value as a perfume and as a starting material for a
large number o f synthetic aroma chemicals like geranyl esters, which impart
permanent rose-like odors.

Mentha spp
Mints are perennial herbs that belongs to the family Lamiaceae; Labiatae.
They have quadrangular steam. The herb yields essential oil up on distillation.
Among the various species o f mint Japanese mint (Mentha arvensis
Linn.subsp. haplocalyx Briqet var.piperascens Holmes), Peppermint (Mentha
piperita), Spearmint (Mentha spicata L.) and Bergamot mint (Mentha citrata)
have a considerable economic importance. Except Bergamot mint, the first
three are found in Ethiopia.

Mentha arvensis
It is known as Japanese mint. It has root-stock creeping along or just under the
ground. Its branches are rigged, pubescent, 60 - 90 cm. The leaves a re '
lanceolate to oblong, 3.7-10 cm, sharply toothed, sessile or shortly petiolated
and hairy. Flowers are arranged in cyme, which are usually sessile or rarely
peduncilate purplish and minute.

It grows in different climatic conditions o f all tropical and subtropical regions;

with adequate irrigation facilities. For better yield, adequate and regular rain
fall during growth period and good sunshine during harvesting are required.
Low altitude tropical or semi tropical areas are not considered as favorable.

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 Production processing and utilization of arom atic plants

Soils having good water holding capacity, free o f water logging and a pH
range between 6 and 7.5 are recommended. As it grows and spread through
numerous underground runners (suckers or rhizomes), it requires a deep moist
soil which is week ventilated and lose enough in texture so that the growth of
roots will not be impeded.

Proper use o f fertilizers stimulates plant growth, affects maturity o f the plants,
increase biomass and oil yield. The fresh herbage and essential oil yield
increases up to 160 kg N/ha. In addition, supplementary irrigation is required
in moisture streets area to keep the soil moist.

It is propagated by underground vegetative parts named as stolens. End o f dry

season the right time for planting. The stolens are cut into small pieces about
10cm long and planted in shallow furrows of 7-10 cm deep at a distance of 45-
60cm apart. First harvest will be 100-120 days.

Under proper management, it can give more than 48 t o f fresh herb per ha and
on an average 20-25 t o f green herbs per ha can be obtained in three cutting of
a given year. Out o f which 0.4-0. 6% is accounted for its essential oil. The
essential oil is obtained by distilling fresh or dry herb. It is considered as a
primary source o f menthol, which varies between 65-80% depending on
climatic conditions. Compared to temperate climate, menthol content is high
in tropical climates. Menthol is used as a flavorings agent in tooth-pastes,
candies, chewing gums and mouth washes, etc. This is also used as an
ingredient in medicinal preparations like ointments, pain balms, cough syrups,
cough lozenges and tablets. It is also used as a flavoring agent in a number of
beverages and other items like tobacco, cigarettes, confectionery, betel nut
flavoring, etc. In addition, essential oil and menthol are also used in flavoring
mouth fresheners, aerosols, polishes, lipsticks and hair lotions.

Mentha p ip e rita
It is commonly known as pepper mint. It is a perennial, glabrous herb with a
height up to 90cm. Its stem is erected, branched, quadrangular, and naked or
rarely covered by trichomes. Leaves are opposite, petiolated, ovate to oblong,
lanceolate, 2.5-7.5 cm long and serrate.

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The natural habitat o f the crop is temperate climate, but under conditions of
assuring irrigation. It also grows in higher altitudes o f tropical and subtropical
areas. Though, the crop can be raised under a fairly wide range o f soil texture.
However, waterlogged and clayey soil with pH greater than 8.5 is not
recommended for commercial cultivation. Neutral to slightly acidic, well
drained soils are considered as best growing media.

It was also found that the proper use o f fertilizers stimulates plant growth,
affects maturity o f the plants, increase biomass and oil yield. The fresh
herbage and essential oil yield increases up to application o f 160 kg N ha'1. In
addition, supplementary irrigation is required in moisture streets area to keep
the soil moist for enhancing the development o f the plant effectively.

It is propagated by underground vegetative parts called stolen. Best time for

planting is on the commencement o f main rainy season. The stolen is cut into
small pieces about 10cm long and planted in shallow furrows of about 7-10
cm deep at a distance o f 45-60cm apart.

It will be ready for harvesting after 100-120 days o f planting. Second harvest
will be ready 80 days after first harvest and third harvest will be ready after 80
days from second harvest. Average herbage yield o f the crop is 41.8, 30.8 and
23.5 tones/ha on first, second and third harvests, respectively.

Peppermint oil is recovered by stem distillation o f the dry foliage and it is

characterized w ith strong pepper-like pungent odor. Because o f its low mentol
content (35-50%), it is not used as a source o f mentol. However, the oil has a
sweeter aroma and taste due to the presence o f some minor constituents.
Therefore, the oil is used as a flavorings agent and is constituent o f medicinal
preparations, such as cough syrups and certain brands o f tooth-pastes and
mouth-washes. Likewise, the oil is mainly used for flavoring o f chewing gum,
candy, confectionery, cigarettes, tobacco, cosmetics and high grade liquors
(alcoholic beverage).

Mentha spicata
It is commonly known as spear mint. It is perennial herb that is cultivated as
commercial crop for its volatile oil. It has erect 30-60 cm branches. Leaves are
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 Production processing and utilization of arom atic plants

sessile, smooth, and lanceolate to ovate lanceolate, sharply senate and 6.5 cm
long. Flowers are sharply pointed, long and narrow from which the name
spearmint is attributed. This plant has similar biophysical requirement with
peppermint for its commercial cultivation.

It is propagated by runners and underground vegetative parts called stolens.

Best time for planting is the end o f dry season. The stolens are cut into small
pieces 1Ocm long and planted in shallow furrows of 7-10 cm deep at a distance
o f 45-60cm apart. After transplanting, it will be ready for harvesting with in
100-120 days. Biomass and essential oil content of spear mint is similar to
piper mint.

The oil is extracted through stem distillation and is used mostly as a flavor in
tooth-pastes and as a food flavor in pickles and spices, chewing gums and
confectionery, sups and sauces.

Eucalyptus spp
It is from Myrtaceae family. The genus eucalyptus comprises more than 700
species, which are native to Australian mainland, Tasmania and Papua New
Guinea. Many o f them are found in various tropical and sub tropical countries.
It is one o f the most important exotic tree species grown in Ethiopia. The
planting rate o f Eucalyptus spp is increasing due to the high demand for its
wood especially for fuel, poles, construction material and other domestic
consumption. However, countries like Thailand, Morocco, India, Spain,
Portugal and Brazil use E. citrodora and E. globules for their essential oil to
be used in various perfumery, pharmaceutical and industrial applications.
Similarly, these two eucalyptus species are among the priority crops o f Wondo
Genet Research Center in its research directions.

Eucalyptus citro d ora

It is named as a 'Citron Scented Gum locally, 'Shito Bahir Zaf. It is a tall tree
growing a height ranging between 25 to 40m with a crown of leaves and
branches at the top. It is fast growing species with a good adaptable nature. It
prefers tropical and sub tropical climate. It also grows in poor and gravel soil

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 Beem net et. ai

an altitude o f 600m in rain fed areas. A spacing o f 1to 1.5m between rows and
75cm to 1m between plants is best.

The available information about the fertilizer requirement o f eucalyptus in

general and £. citrodora in particular is very little. Nitrogen fertilizer
contributes positively to the production o f leaves which increase oil
production per unit area. The fertilizer has not found to bear with the
percentage o f oil in leaves yet. In irrigated areas, about 20 kg N, 30 kg P and
30 kg K /ha are suggested to be applied at the time o f planting as basal dose.
Application o f three top dressing each o f 20 kg N / ha is recommended after
every harvest.

The first harvest can be taken from six up to eight months. At this stage,
herbage as well as essential oil yield is miner. But coppicing the plants is very
necessary, since it promotes vigorous sprouting o f side branching. Fresh
shoots sprout in four weeks after coppicing, which are again ready for
coppicing after 4-5 months. This processes results in regular increase in yield
o f herbs which almost stabilized after plants are 3 years old. The first
coppicing is at 30-45 cm and the subsequent once are done at 75 cm up to 90
cm above ground. Usually three harvests can be taken annually from the
irrigated plantations corresponding with the maximum oil contents o f leaves.

The yield o f green herb per ha is the first year is about 7 t, during the second
year about 30 t and about 40 t during third year in irrigated areas. This yield is
almost stabilized after this age and a plantation is expected to remain
economical for about ten years. From non irrigated areas, only two harvests
with nearly 37 t o f green herb per ha per year is possible. The 0.5 to 4.8 % oil
can be obtained depending on climatic conditions and other necessary
production and processing technologies. The leaf oil is rich in citronellal (65-
89%).

Eucalyptus globulus
It is commonly known as Tasmanians 'Blue Gum' and locally 'Nech Bahir Zaf
'. Highland exotic spices in Ethiopia, It is highland tree species and is growing
rarely in altitude less than 1300m. It is big tree to 55m with blue gray bark. Its
young leaves are opposite while the adult leaves are alternate. It grows well in

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 Production processing and utilization of arom atic plants

loam soil with adequate moisture. It has straight boles which can be used for
construction material, pole and fuel wood.

A 6-8 years old tree yield 30 to 60 kg leaves per year. The leaves are used for
the essential oil production. The oil yield o f Eucalyptus globulus in summer is
0.8 %, where as 0.7 % in winter. In Ethiopia, it varies between 1.1-1.5% on
fresh weight basis. The top leaves o f the trees have highest yield. This oil has
better solubility in alcohol and higher cineole content than the oil from the
lower leaves

Essential oil from E. globulus is categorized as medicinal Eucalyptus oil,

commonly known as eucalyptol. The major constituent o f the essential oil is 1,
8 cineol or Eucalyptol, from 60%-73%. It s a clear thin with a cooling, fresh,
medicinal, woody and earthly aroma, which can be used as antiseptic,
antiviral, expectorant, antispasmodic. anti-catiteral, anti rheumatic, balsamic,
depurative, divertive, parasiticide, germicide, secretomotory, rubefacient,
stimulant, vulnerary, deodorant and vermifuge. Even though the above
applications are facts, it is commonly applied for respiratory disorders and
rheumatism.

Other Shrubs

R osem ary (Rosmarinus officinalis)

It is from Lamiaceae family and locally known as"Yesga Metbesha”. It is
dense evergreen shrub, which grows up to 1 m height with aromatic smell.
With lavender-like leaves, the plant has an erect stem divided into numerous
long and slender branches bearing many sessile opposite leaves. The leaves
are smooth, green, woolly, whitish and glandular beneath, 2 to 4cm long,
almost cylindrical and folded inward. The flowers are situated in little cluster
towards the ends o f the branches.

It grows wild on the shores o f the Mediterranean and Spain, Portugal,

Morocco and Algeria. It requires light and dry soil. It is susceptible to frost. It
is best propagated by cuttings. The cuttings should be 15 cm long and from
half o f the length, leaves should be removed. The cutting is put in the nursery

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 Beem net et. al

beds of sandy soil to a depth o f 10 cm. The plant is also propagated through
seed. In the field, plants are spaced 45 cm in rows, 120 cm apart.

Frequent cutting o f the bushes after two or three years help them to be free
from being leggy and promotes numerous shoots from which the oil is
obtained. Information on biomass yield o f rosemary is scanty. But, the plant
has an oil content range between 1.5 and 2.5 % on dry weight basis. All parts
o f the plant contain an essential oil for aroma and flavor. The oil is recovered
by steam distillation is used for flavoring o f food product. The oil obtained
from the flowering top has good quality, truly representing the odor of the
leaves, but the yield is too small for commercial production. The oil is
composed o f borneol, cinole, camphor, bomyl acetate and tx-pinene,
camphene, terpinol and verbenone.

L e m m o n V e rb e n a (A lo y s ia trip h y lla )
It is a perennial shrub from verbenaceae family and it is locally known as
Lominat. There is shortage o f information about the crop. It has got its name
from its whorls o f three (tri) leaves (phyla) at each node. It is believed that,
the plant is most probably originated from Argentina and Chile.

It is a rapidly growing plant up to 4.6m elegant shrub under tropical

conditions. Flowers are small, white, single and inconspicuous. It can be
exploited in flavorings, tea, fragrances, and ornamental and folk medicine
preparations. The leaves are the most important part o f the plant, which can be
used to add lemony taste. Leaves make tea tasty either by it or with other
herbs. It can be steeped in milk and added to puddings, ice creams or any
baked goods calling for milk, lemon flavoring for drinks, salads and jellies..
Likewise, essential oil is used in fragrance industries. The fragrant flowers are
also used in tea and culinary concoctions.

It can be grown from seeds or stem cuttings. If cutting is the option for its
propagation, it is advisable to use semi hardwood cuttings in summer,
softwood cuttings in spring and division in late fall to early spring. Main field
planting requires a spacing o f 0.3 to 0.6m between plants and rows. It is
adapted to wide range o f soil types and performs best in warm moist
conditions with adequate sunlight. In frost free areas, it is an evergreen

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 Production processing and utilization of aromatic plants

perennial. When exposed to frost, it becomes deciduous. Mature plants well

mulched in the field can survive brief temperatures lower than 6 degrees, at
which point it becomes herbaceous (dies back to the ground).In cold areas,
planting should be done early in such away that it can becomes well
established deep in the soil and develop the largest caliper trunk that helps to
with stand the frost.

Pruning will induce the formation o f more lateral branches bearing more
leaves. Cultivation is recommended when weeds are small. Proper cultivation,
field selection and rotations can reduce or eliminate the need for chemical
weed control. Field selection, proper rotations, field selection, sanitation,
spacing, fertilizer and irrigation practices can reduce the risk of many diseases.
Fields can be tested for presence o f harmful nematodes. Using seed from
reputable sources reduces risk from seed-borne diseases.

Harvest timing and equipment are also important for obtaining quality
product. At Wondo Genet, harvesting is done when the lower leaves start to
turn to yellow. Often, considerable hand labor is required in production and
harvest, particularly when the marketable leafy portions need separation from
stem and other unnecessary substances, or when only the floral parts are
required. Portable or stationary still distillation units are required when
essential oil is the desirable product. The harvested product often requires
immediate special handling such as drying, separation o f leaves, and
temporary packaging storage to best preserve its color, aroma, flavor, the
integrity, o f its appearance and sanitary condition. Results at Wondo Genet
Research Center indicated that leaves o f Lemon verbena have 0.37% essential
oil content on dry weight basis.

Aromatic Plants at Wondo Genet Research

Center
From the existing plants in the center, aromatic plants share the largest
proportion (37.5%). The existing aromatic plants have international quality
standards. (Table 1)

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 Beemnet et. al
Table 1. Aromatic plants present in Wondo Genet I Research Center

Botanical name Common name Local name Family Parts used Purpose
Aframomum korrerima False cardamom Korerima Zingebraceae Fruit Spice, food flavor, essential oil
Aloysia triphlla Lemon Verbena Lominat Verbenaceae Leaves, flowers Spice, essential oil
Anethum graveolens Dill - Apiaceae Seeds, leaves Spice, Food flavoring Essential oil
Artemisia abyssinica - Chigugn Asteracea Leaves Medicinal, flavor
Artimisia anua Chinese worm wood - Asteracea Leaves Essential oil, medicinal
Artemisia rehan worm-wood Ariti Asteracea Leaves Flavor, medicinal
Cinnamomum zeylanicum cinnamon Kerefa Lauraceae Bark, leaves Spice, food flavor, essential oil
Coriandrum sativum Coriander Dimblal Apiaceae Seed, leaves Spice, essential oil, medicinal
Cymbopogon cilratus Lemon grass Lomi-sar Gramineae Aerial Flavor, essential oil, medicinal
Cymbopogon martini Palmarosa Tej-sar Gramineae Aerial Essential oil, flavor, medicinal
Cymbopogon nardus Citronella grass Yenardos-sar Gramineae Aerial Essential oil, medicinal
Cymbopogon sp.l - • Gramineae Aerial Essential oil
Cymbopogon sp.ll - - Gramineae Aerial Essential oil
Eucalyptus camaldulensis • key-bahir-zaf Myrtaceae Leaves Essential oil
Eucalyptus citrodora Lemon-scented gum Ye'shito-bahir-zaf Myrtaceae Leaves Essential oil
Eucalyptus globulus White eucalypt Nech-bahir-zaf Myrtaceae Leaves Essential oil, medicinal
Eucalyptus grandis - Myrtaceae Leaves Essential oil
Eucalyptus robusta - key-bahir-zaf Myrtaceae Leaves Essential oil
Feoniculum vulgare Fennel Inslal Apiaceae Leaves, seeds Flavor, medicinal, essential oil
Jasamunum chandifloram Jasmine Tembelel Oleaceae Flower Essential oil
Lantana camara - Yewef kollo Verbenacea Leaves Medicinal, essential oil
Lavandula officinalis Lavander - Labiatae Leaves, flowers Essential oil, medicinal
Marjorana horiensis Majoram - Labiatae Aerial Essential oil, food flavor,
Matricaria comomella Comomella Astraceae; Compositae Flower Essential oil, flavor, medicinal
Mentha arvensis Japanese mint - Lamiaceae; Labiatae Aerial Essential oil, food flavor, Medicinal
Mentha logifolia - Semahal Labiatae Aerial Essential oil, medicinal
Mentha piperita Pepper mint Nana Lamiaceae; Labiatae Aerial Essential oil, food flavor, medicinal
Mentha sp.l - - Labiatae Aerial Essential oil, medicinal

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 Production processing and utilization of aromatic plants
Mentha sp.ll - - Labiatae Aerial Essential oil, medicinal
Mentha spicata Spearmint Menta Lamiaceae; Labiatae Aerial Essential oil, food flavor, medicinal
Nigella saliva Black cumin Tikur Azmud Ranunculaceae Seed Spice, food flavoring, medicinal
essential oil
Ocimum basilicum Basil Besobila Labaitae Leaves, flowers Spice, food flavoring, medicinal
essential oil
Ocimum basilicum var. Basil Ajuban Labiatae Flower, leaves Spice, food flavoring, medicinal
Thgrstifolium Essential oil
Pelargonium graviolence Geranium - Geraniaceae Flowers, leaves Essential oil
Rosmarinus offcinalis Rosemary Ye'siga Labiatae Leaves, flowers Spice, food flavoring, medicinal
metebesha
Ruta calpenesis Rue Tenadam Rutaceae Aerial Medicinal, spice, food flavor
Salvia officinalis Sadge - Labiatae Leaves Medicinal, essential oil
Schinus molle Pepper tree Qundoberbere Anacardiaceae Seed, leaves Medicinal, essential oil
Taqitus minuta - Gimme Astraceae Aerial Essential oil
Thymus vulgaries Thylum Tosgn Labiatae Aerial Essential oil Medicinal
Trachyspemum amini Bishop's weed Nech Azmud Apiaceae Seed Spice Essential oil
Vetivaria zezanoid Vetivar Vetivar Cyperaceae Root Essential oil

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