Essential Oil: Its Economic Aspect,

Extraction, Importance, Uses, 15

Hazards and Quality

M. Preema Devi, S. Chakrabarty, S.K. Ghosh,

and N. Bhowmick

Abstract
Essential oils are not the same as fragrance oils or perfume where essential
oils are derived from true plants. Out of the total world production, India
produces 4 %, while in terms of value its share is much better with
21–22 %. But considering the total share in world export of essential oils
and perfumery material, it is only 0.4 %. In India, the states having the
highest production of rose and tuberose oil are UP and Andhra Pradesh
(Hyderabad), respectively, while jasmine oil production is highest at TN,
Karnataka and Kerala. Essential oils are produced by steam distillation
(simple, saturated, hydro-diffusion and microwaves), solvent extraction,
methods using oils and fats (enfleurage and pneumatic) and extraction by
supercritical gasses. There is a huge opportunity existing in the aroma-
therapy sector. But one should bear in mind that not all essential oil is safe
to be used in aromatherapy. Some of the oil can be hazardous as they can
cause severe dermal irritation and even damage the mucous membranes
and delicate stomach lining in undiluted form. The quality of an essential
oil can be analysed by various methods, i.e. specific gravity, optical rota-
tion, refractive index and gas chromatography. Since most essential oils
exhibit deterioration through oxidation and polymerization upon pro-
longed exposure to air and light, so, in order to prevent browning, essential
oils should be stored in cool dry cellars in a hermetically sealed amber
glass container. This paper will review the economic aspect, extraction,
importance, uses, hazards and quality of essential oil extracted from dif-
ferent plant parts.

M.P. Devi (*) • S.K. Ghosh • N. Bhowmick S. Chakrabarty

Department of Pomology and Post Harvest Department of Post Harvest Technology of
Technology, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Horticultural Crops, Bidhan Chandra Krishi
Pundibari, Cooch Behar, West Bengal, India Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia,
e-mail: preema.horti@gmail.com West Bengal 736165, India

A.B. Sharangi and S. Datta (eds.), Value Addition of Horticultural Crops: Recent Trends 269
and Future Directions, DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-2262-0_15, © Springer India 2015
270 M.P. Devi et al.

pure essential oils. Synthetic essential oils are

15.1 Introduction produced by blending aromatic chemicals mostly
derived from coal tar. These oils may duplicate
Essential oils are liquid that are generally dis- the smell of the pure essential oils, but the com-
tilled from various parts of plant that have strong plex chemical components of each essential oil
aromatic components such as from the leaves, created in nature determine its true aromatic
stems, flowers and roots. For example, in roses, it benefits. While synthetic essential oils are not
is found in the flowers; in basil, it is in the leaves; suitable for aromatherapy, they add an approxi-
in sandalwood, in the wood; and so on. Using the mation of the natural scent to crafts, potpourri,
different technologies available, essential oils are soap and perfume at a fraction of the cost. The
sourced from over 3,000 plants of which approxi- reason of these synthetic products is mainly to
mately 300 are of commercial importance. These reduce the cost of production.
aromatic substances are made up of different
chemical compounds that can be found naturally
in the plant. For instance, alcohol, hydrocarbons, 15.2 The Parts of Plants Yielding
phenol, aldehydes, esters and ketones are some of Essential Oils
the major components. Besides that, it may also
contain hundreds of organic constituents, includ- The oil of the essential oils bears the name of the
ing hormones, vitamins and other natural ele- plant from which it was derived, for example,
ments. They are 75–100 times more concentrated rose oil and bergamot oil. Such oils were called
than the oils in dried herbs. Furthermore, these essential because they were thought to represent
aromatic characteristics of essential oils may pro- the very essence of odours and flavour. The
vide various functions for the plant itself includ- odours and flavour of these oils are usually
ing attracting or repelling insects (odours of the dependent upon their oxygenated compound.
flowers); while in plant metabolism, a few essen- Many oils are terpenoids; few are benzene deriv-
tial oils might be involved in this process. Leaf atives. Table 15.1 shows the important constitu-
oils, wood oils and root oils may serve to protect ents of some common essential oils.
against plant parasites or depredations by ani-
mals as well as antibacterial agent which is utiliz-
ing the hormone in the oil. Essential oils are not 15.3 Economic Aspects
the same as fragrance oils or perfume where of Essential Oil
essential oils are derived from true plants.
Perfume oils are unnaturally created fragrances According to estimates by Dr. Brian Lawrence,
since they contain artificial substances and they editor of the Journal of Essential Oil Research,
may also not offer the therapeutic benefit that global production of the 20 leading essential oils
essential oils do. Pure essential oils are very amounts to approximately 104,000 tonnes. This
expensive, but fortunately, they are also highly figure should be used solely as an indication,
effective since only a few drops at a time are nec- since the figure addresses not only the cosmetics
essary to achieve the desired effects. Moreover, it industry but also other industries such as foods,
is widely used in three primary ways: as odorants pharmaceuticals and households. Moreover, next
(in cosmetics, perfumes, detergents, soap), as fla- to these 20, there is a huge range of smaller oils,
vours (in bakery goods, candies, meat, soft drinks such as cumin oil, caraway oil, valerian oil, etc.
and also as food additives) and as pharmaceuti- The food industry includes the drink and bever-
cals (in dental products and group of medicines). ages sector. In terms of fragrance and cosmetic
Today, we could also easily find synthetic industry, Western Europe represents a massive
essential oils in the market where the price would share of over 31 % of the global cosmetics and
be cheaper than the pure ones. There are a few toiletries market followed by North America and
differences between synthetic essential oils and the Asia Pacific. In pharmaceutical industry, it is
15 Essential Oil: Its Economic Aspect, Extraction, Importance, Uses, Hazards and Quality 271

Table 15.1 Essential oils from some natural plants

Part of the plant Important
Name used Botanical name constituents Uses
Lemongrass and Leaf Cymbopogon spp. Citral Perfumery
citronella Citronella Disinfectant
Terpenes
Eucalyptus Leaf Eucalyptus globulus Cineale Pharmaceutical (decongestant)
Eucalyptus citriodora Citronella
Eucalyptus dives Terpenes
Turpentine Not mention Pinus spp. Terpenes Paints
Lavender Flower Lavandula intermedia Linalool Perfumery
Sandalwood Wood Santalum album Sanatols Perfumery
Vetiver (khus grass) Roots Vetiveria zizanioides Vetiverols Cosmetics and aromatherapy
Ginger Rhizome Zingiber officinale Zingiberene Treatment of fractures,
rheumatism, arthritis, bruising,
carbuncles, nausea, hangovers,
travel and sea sickness
Source: Rusli and Wahid (1990)

also dominated by huge multinational companies, The US is followed by France, India, the UK
and North America, EU and Japan are the three and Brazil.
biggest markets. The demand for essential oils in Out of the total world production, India pro-
this industry appears stable (www.eoai.in/). duces 4 %, while in terms of value, its share is
The major producers of essential oils are the much better with 21–22 %. But considering the
USA (24 %), China (20 %), Brazil (8 %), Mexico total share in world export of essential oils and
(5 %), Morocco (5 %), Indonesia (5 %), India perfumery material, it is only 0.4 %; thus, the
(4 %) and Egypt (2 %). It is estimated that about future holds a great promise for India in the fast
65 % of the world production emanates from charging global economy as far as the production
developing countries. The major consumers are and trade of natural raw material is concerned.
the USA (40 %), Western Europe (30 %) and India is the largest producer of Japanese mint oil
Japan (7 %). On a global scale, the 18 most and Indian basil oil in the world. It is a major
important essential oils represent nearly 75 % of exporter of many essential oils; it also imports
the total production value. The concentration in from several countries. In India, the states giving
terms of tonnes is even higher, as there is a trade the highest production of rose and tuberose oil
in small volumes of products with high unit val- are UP and Andhra Pradesh (Hyderabad), respec-
ues (e.g. rose, jasmine, vetiver). Quite a few tively, while jasmine oil production is highest at
countries (the United State of America, France, TN, Karnataka and Kerala (Kapoor 1991). The
the United Kingdom, Japan and Germany) domi- prices of essential oil are enlisted as follows
nate the world’s import market in essential oils. (Table 15.2).
The United State of America is the leading
importer with a 14 % share or US$390.9 m worth
of imports in 2005. The United State of America, 15.4 Extraction of Essential Oils
France, India, the United Kingdom and Brazil are
the leading five exporters of essential oils in the Although some of the chemical components of
world. Together, they exported US$936.3 m essential oils are similar to “oils”, essential oils
worth of essential oil products representing are not greasy themselves, and they are light in
about 40 % of world exports. Again, the US is weight. However, the high alcohol components in
the major exporter with US$351.7 m worth essential oils give higher volatility and faster
of exports or 17 % share of world total exports. evaporation rate. The selection of appropriate
272 M.P. Devi et al.

Table 15.2 Prices of essential oil which then forms a liquid from which the water
Essential oils Price (Rs./kg) and the essential oils are then separated. The
Rose 207,690–289,800 steam is produced at a higher pressure (3 pounds
Jasmine 82,167 psi) than the atmosphere, and therefore it boils at
Tuberose 1.93,200–198,030 above 100 °C which facilitates the removal of the
Basil 600–675 essential oil at a faster rate, and by doing so, it
Ginger 3,800–4,200 could prevent damage to the oil as well. Some
Lemongrass 550–650 oils like lavender are heat sensitive, and with this
Pine 80–100 method, it could prevent it from damage, and
Turmeric 700–800
ingredients like linalyl acetate will not decom-
Sandalwood 60,000–65,000
pose to linalool and acetic acid. Apart from sim-
Vetiver 27,000–32,000
ple steam distillation method, there are other
Eucalyptus 400–600
methods, i.e. saturated, hydro-diffusion steam
Source: www.eoai.in
distillation method and steam distillation by
microwaves under vacuum employed for distil-
extraction method will determine the quality and lating essential oils from plant parts. In saturated
quantity of essential oils. Other factors such as steam distillation method, the plant does not
types of plant, chemical makeup of oils and loca- come into contact with water; steam is injected
tion of oils within the plant (root, bark, wood, through the plant material placed on perforated
branch, leaf, flower, fruit and seed) are also trays. It is possible to operate under moderate
needed to be considered prior to the extraction. pressure. The advantages are it limits the altera-
Some plants like rose and jasmine contain very tion of the constituents of the oil, shortens the
little essential oil. Their important aromatic prop- duration of the treatment, conserves energy and
erties are extracted using a chemical solvent. The can also be conducted on online in automated set-
end product, known as an absolute, contains ups. In steam distillation method, pulses of steam
essential oil along with other plant constituents. are sent through the plant material at very low
Though not a true essential oil, the absolute is pressure from top to bottom. The advantages are
commonly used for fragrance cosmetic products it normally produces a product of high quality
like fine perfumes. Some extraction methods are and saves time and energy.
described herein. In steam distillation by microwaves under
vacuum, the plant is heated selectively by micro-
wave radiation in a chamber inside which the
15.4.1 Methods pressure is reduced sequentially where fresh
plants require no added water. This method is
15.4.1.1 Steam Distillation fast, consumes little energy and yields a product
In this process, the botanical material is placed in which is most often of a higher quality than the
a still, and steam is forced over the material. The traditional steam distillation product.
hot steam helps to release the aromatic molecules
from the plant material. The molecules of these 15.4.1.2 Solvent Extraction
volatile oils are then escaped from the plant mate- A hydrocarbon solvent is added to the plant mate-
rial and evaporate into the steam. The tempera- rial to help dissolve the essential oil. When the
ture of the steam therefore needs to be carefully solutions are filtered and concentrated by distilla-
controlled. The temperature should be just tion, a substance containing resin or a combina-
enough to force the plant material to release the tion of wax and essential oil (concrete) remains.
essential oils, yet not too hot as it can burn the From the concentrate, pure alcohol is used to
plant material or the essential oils. The steam extract the oil, and when the alcohol evaporates,
which then contains the essential oil is passed the oils are left behind. This is not considered the
through a cooling system to condense the steam, best method for extraction as the solvents can
15 Essential Oil: Its Economic Aspect, Extraction, Importance, Uses, Hazards and Quality 273

leave small amount of residue behind which increasing attention in a variety of fields due to
could cause allergies and affect the immune the following factors: (a) supercritical fluids pro-
system. vide satisfactorily solubility and improved mass
transfer rates and (b) operation can be manipu-
15.4.1.3 Enfleurage lated by changing the pressure or temperature
When essential oil content of fresh plant parts (Roy et al. 2007). In practice, more than 90 % of
such as flower petals is so small that oil removal all analytical supercritical fluid extraction (SFE)
is not commercially feasible by the aforemen- is performed with carbon dioxide for several
tioned methods, enfleurage method is used practical reasons. Apart from having relatively
(Robbers et al. 1996). Some flowers, such as jas- low critical pressure of 73.8 bar and temperature
mine or tuberose, have such low contents of of 31 °C, CO2 is relatively non-toxic, non-
essential oil or too delicate that heating them flammable, available in high purity at relatively
would destroy the blossoms before releasing the low cost and is easily removed from the extract.
essential oils. In such cases, this method of The main drawback of CO2 is its lack of polarity
extraction is sometimes used to extract the essen- for the extraction of polar analytes (Pourmortazavi
tial oils. Flower petals are placed on trays of and Hajimirsadeghi 2007).
odourless vegetable or animal fat, which will
absorb the essential oils. Every day or every few
hours, after the fat has absorbed the essential oils 15.5 Some Important Flowers
as much as possible, the depleted petals are Yielding High-Quality
removed and replaced with fresh ones. This pro- Essential Oil
cedure continues until the fat or oil becomes satu-
rated with the essential oil. Adding alcohol to this A few flowers which yield high value essential
mixture separates the essential oil from the fatty oils are described hereunder:
substance. Afterwards, the alcohol evaporates,
and only the essential oils remain. And yet this
process is a very labour-intensive way of extrac- 15.5.1 Rose
tion and needless to say a very costly way to
obtain essential oil and nowadays, only some- 15.5.1.1 Essential Oil of Rosa
times used to extract essential oils from tuberose bourboniana
and jasmine. The fresh rose petals yield oil of 0.013–0.015 %
Another similar method of extracting essential and concrete 0.18 %. The oil is considered as
oil using oils and fat is pneumatic method which inferior in content and odour. It is not used for the
is similar in principle to the enfleurage process. It production of rose otto or attar, but largely used
involves the passage of a current of hot air for rose water production. There are several vari-
through the flowers. The air, laden with sus- eties like Boule de Neige, Souvenir de la
pended (extracted) volatile oil, is then passed Malmaison, Zephirine, Edward, Louise Odier,
through a spray of melted fat in which the volatile etc. which are deliciously fragrant.
oil is absorbed.
15.5.1.2 Essential Oil of Rosa
15.4.1.4 Supercritical Carbon Dioxide damascena
Extraction Flowers are collected by hand-picking during
Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction is an early hours of the morning and should be plucked
alternative process to avoid the degradation of when they start opening. Collected flowers
heat-sensitive compounds and partial hydrolysis should be distilled as early as possible at the site
of water-sensitive compounds brought about by of the plantation itself. If the distillation is
steam distillation or solvent extraction (Roy et al. delayed, then the flowers may be sprinkled
2007). Supercritical fluid extraction has received with 5 % salt solution to check the fermentation
274 M.P. Devi et al.

evaporation of oil. Flowers lose their aroma after Morocco, Iran and Turkey. Recently, China has
24 h after their opening. The average recovery of begun producing rose oil as well.
rose oil through steam distillation ranges between
0.04 and 0.05 % in temperate climates, and in the
subtropical climate, it is 0.02–0.03 % on fresh 15.5.2 Tuberose (Polianthes
weight basis of flowers. Rose concretes are tuberosa)
extracted by volatile solvents (petroleum ether,
hexane and benzene) which yield 0.25 % flower 15.5.2.1 Essential Oil
concrete. The absolute is obtained by further The yield of fresh, loose flowers per hectare for
extraction of concrete with alcohol. Rose oil is the production of concrete in single tuberose var-
transparent, pale yellow and mobile liquid. The ies from 10,000 to 14,000 Kg. In the first 2 years,
principal constituents of the oil are geraniol flower yield is high and declines considerably in
and citronellol. Other chemical compounds the third year. The 3 years total yield of 30,000 Kg
identified are ethanol, rose oxide, linalool, nerol, of loose flowers gives 27.5 Kg of concrete per
eugenol, carvone and phenyl ethyl alcohol hectare. This concrete, in turn, yields 5.50 Kg of
(Leffingwell 2000). absolute. The extraction of essential oils from the
flower is carried out by enfleurage or by use of
15.5.1.2.1 Uses volatile solvents, but the former process is almost
Rose oil has a wide role in the perfumery indus- abundant for tuberose in India. However, enfleu-
try and is a highly valued perfume material. rage yields about 15 times more volatile oils than
Several other products are produced from dam- extraction with petroleum ether. The concrete is
ask rose. Rose water is produced by hydro- extracted from tuberose flower with petroleum
distillation of rose flower. More than 80 % of rose ether, which yields 0.08–0.14 % concrete.
flowers are used for the production of rose water Generally, from 1,150 Kg of tuberose flowers,
in India. It has been valued from ancient times for 1 Kg of concrete is obtained. Tuberose concrete
use in making syrups, medicinal preparation and is light to dark brown in colour, a waxy hard mass
also for sprinkling at social function. It is also and partly soluble in high proof alcohol. The con-
used in eye lotions and eye drops for its soothing crete yields 18–23 % of alcohol-soluble absolute.
qualities. The absolute is very viscous or a semi-liquid
Rose jam or Gulkand is prepared from rose petals brown mass. It possesses a delightful and lasting
by mixing one part of rose petals with two odour resembling that of living flowers.
parts of sugar and kept in the sun for about a Tuberose flower oil consists of geraniol, nerol,
month for maturation. It is used in Unani med- farnesol, benzyl alcohol, methyl benzoate, ben-
icine as a good tonic and mild laxative. zyl benzoate, methyl salicylate, methyl anthrani-
Rose attar is made by distillation of rose petals, late, eugenol and butyric acid. Methyl vanillin
and the distillation is collected over oil of san- and piperonal have also been identified.
dalwood. It is used as flavouring tobacco and Tuberose oil is used only for the highest grade
as a perfume in agarbattis. It is also used in of perfumes since it is more expensive. It is used
perfumes. in the heavier types of scent, floral as well as ori-
Gul roghan is a type of hair oil made by modified ental. Specifically for Gardenia perfume, tube-
enfleurage method, that is, by maceration of rose oil is an important base. The oil forms an
rose petals by sesame seed oil. important adjunct in the formation of high grade
Pankhuri is shade-dried rose petals and is used perfumes. The oil is used in items like non-
for the preparation of cool summer drinks. alcoholic beverages (0.25 ppm), ice cream, ices,
Bulgaria produces about 70 % of all rose oil in etc. (0.45 ppm), candy (1.5 ppm) and baked
the world. Other significant producers are goods (1.7 ppm).
15 Essential Oil: Its Economic Aspect, Extraction, Importance, Uses, Hazards and Quality 275

15.5.3 Gardenia (Gardenia point, long round, median point and short round.
grandiflora) In Jasminum auriculatum, flower yield and con-
crete recovery percentage of different clones are
15.5.3.1 Essential Oil Pari Mullai: 7,800 Kg/ha and 0.29 %, Co-1
The essential oil is extracted from the flowers by Mullai 8,800 kg/ha and 0.34 %; and Co-2 Mullai:
petroleum ether. Flower concrete of 1 Kg can be 11,200 Kg/ha and 0.29 %, respectively.
obtained from 2,500 kg of flowers, which yields Other Jasminum species like Jasminum offici-
0.5 Kg of absolute. The oil is yellowish in colour nale and Jasminum pubescens yields concrete
and contains benzyl acetate, styrallyl acetate, lin- ranges from 0.4 to 0.5 % by solvent extraction
alool, linalyl acetate, terpineol and methyl method, while Jasminum arborescens, Jasminum
anthranilate. japonicum, Jasminum niloticum and Jasminum
Gardenia oil is not commercially used in per- odorata yield oil from 0.25 to 0.35 % depending
fumery industry. The oil resembles the perfume on species.
of the living flowers, which possesses a very deli-
cate fragrance. The Chinese use the flower for
perfuming tea. 15.6 Why Are Essential Oils
So Essential

15.5.4 Lavender (Lavandula latifolia) The importance of essential oils is provided in

the list below:
15.5.4.1 Essential Oil 1. They are antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal
Lavender oil is an essential oil obtained by distil- and antimicrobial.
lation from the flower spikes of certain species of 2. Essential oils bypass the digestive system so
lavender. Two forms are distinguished: lavender they are beneficial for people with poor diges-
flower oil, a colourless oil, insoluble in water, tion/assimilation.
having a density of 0.885 g/mL, and lavender 3. They require no refrigeration and require very
spike oil, a distillate from the herb Lavandula little storage space.
latifolia, having a density of 0.905 g/mL. Like all 4. They have the longest shelf life of any plant
essential oils, it is not a pure compound; it is a known to man.
complex mixture of naturally occurring phyto- 5. Essential oils are highly oxygenating. It is
chemicals, including linalool and linalyl acetate. said that oxygen and disease cannot exist in
Kashmir lavender oil is famous for being pro- the same environment.
duced from lavender at the foothills of the 6. They are very cost-effective because they are
Himalayas. As of 2011, the biggest lavender oil one of the few substances that “the more you
producer in the world is Bulgaria. use them, the less you need them”.
Lavender oil, which has long been used in the 7. They are suitable for babies since they cannot
production of perfume, can also be used in aro- swallow tablets and capsules thus essential
matherapy. The scent has a calming effect which oils provide a solution as they only come in
may aid in relaxation (Shiina et al. 2008) and the liquid form.
reduction of anxiety (Hongratanaworakit 2011)
and stress (Hwang 2006).
15.7 Uses of Essential Oils

15.5.5 Jasmine (Jasminum According to Johnston and Parsons (1999), in

auriculatum) therapeutic aromatherapy, essential oils treat
medical conditions. For example, they can fight
15.5.5.1 Essential Oil infections, promote wound healing (Singh et al.
The high yielding varieties are Co-1 Mullai, Co-2 2002), heat the skin in a liniment, promote blood
Mullai and Pari Mullai. Other strains are long circulation and digestion and lessen sinus or
276 M.P. Devi et al.

lung congestion (Watt et al. 1962). Specifically, 15.8.2 Phototoxicity

essential oils were used to prevent respiratory
infections, promote mucus clearing, fight Some oils can cause skin pigmentation if the
depression and promote sleep. In psycho- applied area is exposed to direct sunlight. So
aromatherapy, they are used as a relaxant or these oils should not be used either neat or on
stimulant to the brain. Some oils can have calm- dilution on the skin, if the area will be exposed to
ing and tranquilizing effects; others are ener- direct sunlight.
gizing and can help relieve depression (Bakkali
et al. 2008). Essential oils can be administered
as inhalations like eucalyptus oil, orally like 15.8.3 Pregnancy
peppermint oil, gargles and mouthwashes like
thymol oil and like lavender oil and rosemary Essential oils should be used in half the usual stated
oil which are used in the practice of aromather- amount during pregnancy, because of the sensitiv-
apy (Dutta et al. 2007). Oils with high phenol ity of the growing child (Nordin et al. 2004). Oils
content like clover and thyme have antiseptic of basil, cedarwood (all types), citronella, clary
properties (Pratt and Youngken 1951; Sapeika sage, juniper, Spanish sage and thyme (white)
1963). Some volatile oils also show antispasmodic should be totally avoided during pregnancy.
activity like Melissa officinalis, Rosmarinus
officinalis and Carum carvi (Evans 2002).
Volatile oils possess a carminative action, but 15.8.4 High Blood Pressure
others like eucalyptus and wintergreen have
additional therapeutic properties (Seenivasan Oils of rosemary, sage (Spanish and common)
et al. 2006). But volatile oils are commonly and thyme are to be avoided in case of high
used as flavourant (Robbers et al. 1996). Each hypertension.
essential oil has its own properties and uses
which can be classified and identified accord-
ingly to the type of plant it was derived. 15.8.5 Dermal/Skin Irritation

Oils of basil (sweet), cedarwood (Virginian),

15.8 Potential Hazards eucalyptus, pine needle (scotch and longleaf),
of Essential Oils and thyme (white) especially if used in
high concentration may cause irritation to
15.8.1 Toxicity the skin.

One should bear in mind that not all essential oil

are safe to be used in aromatherapy even with or 15.9 Quality of Essential Oils
without the express administration by a qualified
aromatherapy practitioner. This is due to the high To ensure that each of the oils is in highest
toxicity levels that the essential oils might have. quality as well as completely unadulterated,
Some of the oil can be hazardous as they can some scientific analyses are required on every
cause severe dermal irritation and even damage essential oil. There are four major analyses that
the mucous membranes and delicate stomach lin- can be carried out.
ing in undiluted form. Hence, dermal application
should be avoided as a general practice; it is
advisable to use essential oils only for external 15.9.1 Specific Gravity
remedies. Oils that fall under this category are
cassia, pine (dwarf), sage (common), thyme (red) The weight of essential oils is measured at
and wintergreen. 25 °C. Every oil is made up of unique
15 Essential Oil: Its Economic Aspect, Extraction, Importance, Uses, Hazards and Quality 277

constituents. At a given temperature, these materials should be opaque and should be glass
constituents have a predictable weight. If bottles, aluminium bottles and drums (used for
the oil has been contaminated, the weight may expensive essential oils), lacquered and lined
be thrown off. steel drums and plastic drums in high density
polyethylenes, which are less expensive than
lined steel drums. Before they are stored for
15.9.2 Optical Rotation shipment, oils should be dried by filtration or the
use of anhydrous calcium sulphate. Headspace
This technique measures the direction, left or should be filled with nitrogen gas although car-
right, and the degree to which light rays bend or bon dioxide is cheaper and easier to source in
rotate as they pass through the essential oil. If the developing countries. The danger with using car-
oil has been contaminated, the speed and degree bon dioxide, though, is that it might react with
of refraction may be thrown off. residual moisture to form carbonic acid, which
may in turn react with essential oil constituents.
Before buyers of essential oils and essential oil
15.9.3 Refractive Index products make a full order, it is a normal proce-
dure that a sample is first shipped to them for
This technique measures the speed at which light assessment and quality testing. The sample
passing through the oil is refracted. If the oil has shipment should show the producer name, date,
been contaminated, the speed and degree of sample contents, batch number and quantity
refraction may be thrown off. represented. Plastic bottles are not suitable.
Individual bottles of each sample should be sent
in plastic bags to avoid or isolate leakages.
15.9.4 Gas Chromatography

This technique separates the individual constitu- 15.11 Organizations Offering

ents of an essential oil and measures the amount Information Sources or
of each constituent present. It would positively Which Can Be Contacted
confirm oil botanical identity by comparing the to Obtain Information Are
presence and amount of each constituent. This
evaluator can screen for non-natural or missing 1. Personal Care Products Council: http://www.
constituents or constituents occurring in unnatu- personalcarecouncil.org
rally high ratios, signifying adulteration. 2. FOSFA – Federation of Oils, Seeds and Fats
Associations: http://www.fosfa.org
3. IFEAT – International Federation of Essential
15.10 Storage of Essential Oils Oils and Aroma Trades: http://www.ifeat.org
4. IFRA, International Fragrance Association:
Most essential oils exhibit deterioration through http://www.ifraorg.org/
oxidation and polymerization upon prolonged 5. Colipa – The European Cosmetic Toiletry and
exposure to air and light; so, in order to prevent Perfumery Association http://www.colipa.com
browning, the essential oils are stored in cool dry 6. Aromatherapy Trade Council: http://www.a-t-
cellars in a hermetically sealed amber glass con- c.org.uk
tainer. Without such precautions, an essence 7. Marketing of Organic Wild Products: http://
becomes less intense, grows darker and more vis- www.intracen.org
cose, develops a bleaching effect and eventually 8. FSC: http://www.fsc.org
changes into brown, odourless resin. Storage 9. USDA-FAS: http://www.fas.usda.gov/
278 M.P. Devi et al.

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