Republic of the Philippines

CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE

F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines

College of Education

GEC 8 – CONTEMPORARY WORLD Period: 2nd Semester AY 2020-2021

Course, Yr. & Block:
Instructor: Angelica D. Sanchez Reference: Nephtaly Botor et. al. The Contemporary
World 2020 REX Bookstore Inc.

Global Demography

Lesson Objectives: After this lesson, you should be able to:

1. describe the concept of demography and its effects to global population
2. describe the demographic transition theory and its criticisms
Definition of Terms

Demography - scientific study of the determinants and consequences of human population trends.

Demographic transition - refers to the transition from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates as a
country develops from a pre-industrial to an industrialized economic system.

The Malthusian Theory

Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) was the first person to draw widespread attention to the two components of
natural increase-births and deaths (fertility and mortality). Malthus formulated an essay titled "Essay on the Principle
of Population," initially published in 1789, wherein he postulated that population tended to grow geometrically, while
the means of subsistence grew only arithmetically. Thomas Malthus also argued that the difference between geometric
and arithmetic growth created a tension between the team between the growth of population and that of means of
subsistence - this gap could not persist indefinitely.

Also, in the said essay, it was mentioned that population was held in equilibrium with the slowly growing
economy. Faster population growth would depress wages, causing mortality to rise due to famine, war or disease-in
short, misery. Depressed wages would also cause postponement of marriage, resulting in prostitution and other vices
including contraception; this he called the "preventive" check. Since population could potentially grow more rapidly
than the economy, it was always held in check by misery and vice, which were therefore the inevitable human lot.
Economic progress could help only temporarily because population could soon grow to its new equilibrium level,
where misery and vice would again hold it in check. Only through moral restraint - that is, the chaste postponement of
marriage - did Malthus believe that humanity might avoid this fate, and he thought this an unlikely outcome.

Population Explosion

Contrary to what Malthus predicted, mortality has not risen to curb world population growth. As mentioned,
the world population boomed up to near a billion in 1800 and reached 6 billion by the end of the 20th century.
Apparently, Malthus did not recognize the force of the Industrial Revolution, which produced exponential
growth in the means of subsistence.
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 Republic of the Philippines
CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE
F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines

College of Education

The Demographic Transition

During the first half of the 20th century, demographers conceived the notion of the demographic transition.
The Demographic Transition Framework states population growth in terms of discrepancies and changes in two
crude vital rates - mortality and fertility.

Stripped off the essentials, demographic transition refers to the transition for high birth and death rates to
low birth and death rates as a country develops from a pre-industrial to an industrialized economic system.

Stage 1: Preindustrial Society - high and unstable birth and death rates, population growth rate slow, importance of
children, low life expectancy

Reasons for the changes in birth rate

1. Children are needed for farming.

2. They die at an early age due to illnesses.

3. No family planning and conception/giving birth is encouraged by religion and society.

Reasons for the changes in death rate

1. Disease

2. Famine

3. Poor medical knowledge

Stage 2: Early Industrial Society - high birth rates, falling death rate, hi population growth

Reasons for the changes in birth rate

1. Children are needed for farming.

2. They die at an early age due to illnesses.

3. No family planning and conception/giving birth is encouraged by religion and society.

Reasons for the changes in death rate

1. Improvements in medical care 3. Supply and sanitation

2. Water 4. Fewer children die

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CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE
F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines

College of Education

Stage 3: Late Industrial Society - low death rate, falling birth rate, high population growth

Reasons for the changes in birth rate

1. Improved medical care and diet

2. Fewer children are needed for work

Reasons for the changes in the death rate

1. Improvements in medical care

2. Water

3. Supply and sanitation

4. Fewer children die

Stage 4: Post Industrial Society - low birth and death rates, low population growth

Reasons for the changes in birth rate

1. Family planning

2. Good health

3. Later marriages

4. Improving status of women

Reasons for the changes in death rate

1. Good health care

2. Reliable food supply

3. People are living much longer

Criticisms of the Demographic Transition Theory

The demographic transition theory is only based on Western societies (Europe, America, Japan). It is not
inevitable that there will be a fall in fertility rates in less developed countries. The length of time that the countries will
traverse the stages, if they do, is unpredictable. Times have changed since the developed world went through
demographic transition.

Fertility Transition Theory

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CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE
F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines

College of Education

This theory states that fertility is declining in the less developed countries at a rate which exceeds the rate of
decline that was experienced in developed countries. It seems to be related directly to the extent to which modern
contraceptives are employed. In modern times, information about contraceptives is widespread due to mass media.

Stripped off the major points, the fertility transition theory asserts that while economic development can
create a climate conducive to reductions in fertility, it is a change in cultural attitude about large families and a
willingness to use contraception that matters, aside from the presence and availability of contraception itself.

Summary

Demography is a study of determinants and consequences of popular trends. One important phase in world
history is demographic transition where the Malthusian theory had been modified to cater several development stages
of various countries. This demographic transition theory is not free from a criticism at all as the same does not apply
to all countries and due to the theories debunking it.

Questions to Answer:

1. What is the concept of demography and its effects to global population?

2. What can you say about the demographic transition theory?

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 Republic of the Philippines
CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE
F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines

College of Education

GEC 8 – CONTEMPORARY WORLD Period: 2nd Semester AY 2020-2021

Course, Yr. & Block:
Instructor: Angelica D. Sanchez Reference: Nephtaly Botor et. al. The Contemporary
World 2020 REX Bookstore Inc.

Global Migration

Lesson Objectives: After this lesson, you should be able to:

1. identify the main drivers of migration

2. determine the common risks/costs involved in overseas Filipino employment.

Definition of Terms

Migration

 is the crossing of the boundary of a political or administrative unit for a certain minimum period of time. It
includes the movement of refugees, displaced persons, uprooted people, as well as economic migrants.
 is the most complex component of population change by providing an important network for the diffusion of
ideas and information, indicates symptoms of social and economic change, and regarded as a human
adjustment to economic, environmental, and social problems
Migrant

 any person who is moving or has moved across an international border or within a state away from his/her

habitual place of residence, regardless of (1) the person's legal status; (2) whether the movement is voluntary

or involuntary: (3) what the causes for the movement are; or (4) what the length of the stay is.

Global Migration

Global migration is a complex phenomenon that tackles on a multiplicity of economic, social, security, and
several aspects affecting our daily lives in a rapidly interconnecting world. On the other hand, migration encompasses
a large variety of movements and situations involving people. Migration is embroiled with geopolitics, trade and
cultural exchange and provides opportunities for several countries, business, communities, and cultures to benefit in a
grand manner.

Since the earliest times, humanity has been on the move. Some people move in search of labor or economic
opportunities, to join family or to study. However, not all migration happens in positive circumstances. Others move

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CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE
F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines

College of Education

to escape conflict, persecution, terrorism, or human rights violations. Similarly, others move in response to the adverse
effects of climate change, natural disasters, or other environmental factors.

Today, more people than ever before live in a country other than the one in which they were born. In 2017,
the number of migrants reached 258 million, compared to about 173 million in 2000. However, the proportion of
international migrants in the world population is only slightly higher than that recorded over the past decades,
equaling 3.4 percent in 2017, compared to 2.8 percent in 2000 and 2.3 percent in 1980. While many individuals
migrate out of choice, many others migrate out of necessity. There are approximately 68 million forcibly displaced
persons, including over 25 million refugees, 3 million asylum seekers and over 40 million internally displaced persons
(United Nations, 2017).

Migration and the Sustainable Development Goals

Migration is one of the defining features of the 21st century. It contributes significantly to all aspects of
economic and social development everywhere, and as such, will be key to achieving the Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGS).

The 2030 Agenda is well placed to reflect and exploit the links between migration and development for three
reasons. First, the 2030 Agenda is the first International development framework to include and recognize migration
as a dimension of development. The Agenda includes migration related targets and recognizes its important
contribution to sustainable development while acknowledging the specific vulnerabilities migrants may face (UN
2015).

Second, migration interacts with all dimensions of development. The multidisciplinary and cross-sectoral
nature of the 2030 Agenda is a useful platform to assess the impact of migration and human mobility on a range of
development issues.

Migrants

According to the International Organization for Migration (IOM), a migrant is:

“any person who is moving or has moved across an international border or within a State away from his/her habitual
place of residence, regardless of (1) the person's legal status: (2) whether the movement is voluntary or involuntary
(3) what the causes for the movement are: or (4) what the length of the stay is”

From this definition, two categories of migrants can be identified:

1. Labor (or economic) migrants (and family reunification)

2. Forced migrants (asylum seekers and refugees)

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CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE
F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines

College of Education

Forced migrants are those who are compelled to migrate due to adverse circumstances beyond their control
(i.e., war, persecution, etc.).

An asylum seeker is a person who seeks safety from persecution or serious harm in a country other than his
or her own and awaits a decision on the application for refugee status under relevant international and national
instruments. In case of o negative decision, the person must leave the country and may be expelled, unless permission
to stay is provided on humanitarian grounds. A refugee is person who, owing to a well-founded fear of persecution for
reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinions, is outside the
country of his/her nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself/herself of the
protection of that country (Geneva Convention, 1951, Art. 1A).

Drivers of Migration

Drivers of migration are forces which lead to the inception of migration and to the perpetuation of movement
(Massey et al., 1998).

People may migrate to access better economic employment and educational opportunities for themselves and
their families. Some migrate due to lack of access to fundamental human rights such as health, food, or basic
education, and due to discrimination, poverty, or separation from family. They may move in response to crisis - both
natural and human-made and, increasingly, in response to environmental change. How drivers interact in different
dimensions (scale, location, distance, and duration) affects how governments and the international community can
respond in order to effectively protect migrants, govern migration, and harness its benefits (Geddes et al., 2012).

Some of the drivers of migration are as follows:

1. Economic and demographic drivers

Economic opportunities, demographics, and poverty/food insecurity are prime influencers in the migration
decision-making process and interact to greater or lesser degrees, depending on the specific context, to drive
migration.

In developing countries, lack of job opportunities, wage differentials, and aspirations propel young people
away from home in search of employment and income opportunities. The informal economy accounts for 33-90
percent of total employment, which often means low pay, hazardous working conditions, and limited access to legal
and social protection and resources, driving people toward opportunities abroad.

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CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE
F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines

College of Education

2. Environmental drivers

A great number of countries identified as “climate vulnerable” tend to experience high rates of emigration, so
it is critical to consider existing environment and climate-related evidence when analyzing current migration patterns
and estimating future flows (Wilkinson et al., 2016).

Environmental factors, including those related to climate change and natural disasters, directly and indirectly
impact the resilience and vulnerability of individuals, households, and communities, and may lead to migration. How
climate change drives migration depends heavily on its interaction with other factors, including the perception of risk
by affected communities, and varies among and within communities (Atlas of Environmental Migration, 2016).

3. Human-made crises

Human-made crises are among the primary root causes of migration and have an important impact on
population movements more generally.

The lack of respect for international human rights and humanitarian law has compounded growing
displacement of many as a consequence of their deteriorating living conditions.

Countries where there is a high perception of corruption tend to be “net-emigration” countries, while countries
where there are lower perceptions of corruption tend to be “net-immigration countries”. While corruption does not
necessarily ‘cause’ migration; it is more accurately seen as a contributing factor (Carling, 2015).

Overseas employment - employment of a worker outside the Philippines (Article 13h, Labor Code of the Philippines)

Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) - a person who is to be engaged, is engaged, or has been engaged in a
remunerated activity in a state of which he or she is not a citizen or on board a vessel navigating the foreign seas other
than a government ship used for military or non- commercial purposes or on an installation located offshore or on the
high seas; to be used interchangeably with migrant worker (RA 8042).

Common Reasons Why Filipinos Work Abroad

1. Poverty

Poverty is an issue for a country like the Philippines. Its effects drive many Filipinos to find opportunities for
employment abroad. Ordinarily, if someone could not find a suitable source of employment in his/her own country,
then there will be no other choice but to seek "greener pastures" abroad.

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CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE
F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines

College of Education

Because of these ill conditions, Filipinos were left with no choice but to go abroad, leaving their families the
hopes of having better situations. It can also be observed by this reality that Filipinos see hope in other countries,
which kind of hope is absent in their own country.

2. Unemployment and Low Wages

Unemployment and low wages are prevalent in the Philippines. This predicament is being carried even by a
college graduate in the country, more so, by those who failed to finish their education. As a result, the Filipino worker
will be compelled to search for income opportunities abroad.

In-demand jobs that normally should have a fair compensation, such as nurses, engineers, accountants, and
other professionals, are inadequately paid, as compared with the compensation that are waiting for these professionals
abroad. Even non-skilled workers, such as housemaids and other laborers, are well compensated abroad than the
professionals in the Philippines.

New graduates face the problems of high unemployment rate and less job opportunities as well as low average
salary and benefits offered by local employers in the country. This is not to mention that job competition increases in
the country. Given these, Filipino applicants became desperate to have jobs for lower salaries and not enjoy benefits as
long as there is security of tenure in effect, most of the employers and businessmen exploit such situation that keeps
their businesses earn more profit at the lowest possible costs.

3. Enhancement of Professional Skills

Filipinos also go abroad for their professional development. This is due to the reality that having a global
experience gives them a career edge among any other Filipino professionals left working in the country,

Abroad, Filipinos deal with different people from different religions, races, and cultures, and this gives them a
unique advantage. Plus, the kind of opportunities for professional growth abroad are aplenty as compared to the
Philippines.

This reinforces the findings of Natividad (2012) that Filipinos go abroad because of the enhancement of career
and professional marketability globally wherein it is stated that nowadays, the world is very competitive that having
international experience gives Filipinos bigger career advantage among other professionals.

4. Curiosity

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 Republic of the Philippines
CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE
F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines

College of Education

According to Natividad (2012), one of the reasons why Filipinos work abroad is to have the experience to
travel and experience abroad. Working abroad gives the perfect opportunity for the working Filipino to travel and
experience life overseas.

Filipino personal ambitions or goals since childhood can be also drawn out as a reason why did they chose to
work abroad. It gives them the opportunity and the confidence to pursue and realize their own ambitions. It may not
seem to be a valid reason but the same should be counted as in reality, working abroad gives Filipinos the edge to earn
more and afford them more possibilities of advancement than what they can find in the Philippines.

Common Risks/Costs of Overseas Filipino Employment

Abuse and Violence

Both male and female OFWs are at risk of the possibility of violence, abuse, trafficking, and false accusations.
Further, the possibility for OFWs to be terminated because of failure to meet the standard for proper work set by their
employers is more likely to occur.

The tendency of foreigners to treat Filipinos as lowly contribute to the set of fears of the OFWs. When OFWs
suffer discrimination, the lack of motivation to complete their tasks occurs. The loss of morale and the loss of
productivity also take place. Also, the lack of protection for OFWs contribute to the said lingering fear.

The most common work fears Overseas Filipino Workers are the possibilities of abuse and violence that can
lead to severe physical injuries and even death.

Weakened Family Ties

Children who are left behind are usually not guided properly. Oftentimes, both parents are working abroad
and the children would only be left under the guidance of their grandparents and relatives. Long separation creates a
huge gap between the parents and children. The effect of parents' departures on toddlers and pre-teens are worse.

In addition, the marital relationship between the parents are put at risk. Abroad, several extra-marital relations
can result due to the distance brought about by overseas employment. As a result, the marital bond breaks leading to
the destruction of the family, again leading to the detriment of the children.

Questions to Answer:

1. Aside from those mentioned in the lesson, what are the other drivers of migration?

2. List down the other risks/costs involved in overseas Filipino employment.

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 Republic of the Philippines
CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE
F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines

College of Education

GEC 8 – CONTEMPORARY WORLD

Course, Yr. & Block:
Instructor: Angelica D. Sanchez Reference: Nephtaly Botor et. al. The Contemporary
Period: 2nd Semester AY 2020-2021 World 2020 REX Bookstore Inc.
Sustainable Development

Lesson Objectives: After this lesson, you should be able to:

1. describe the concept of sustainable development
2. identify the challenges to sustainable development
3. differentiate the four aspects of food security

Definitions, Principles, and Approaches to Sustainable Development

In 1987, the term sustainable development was first coined during the World Commission on Environment
and Development (WCED). It was defined as the development that can meet the needs of the present generation
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (WCED 1987). It was borne out of the
recognition that the economic and social needs should be balanced with the capacity of the environment to provide. To
achieve this, global actors and governments must make appropriate policies and actions that take into account the
entwined aspects of social, cultural, economic development, and environmental protection and enhancement.

Being a multidimensional approach to development, different organizations have interpreted the sustainable
development concept in various ways. For instance:

 World Bank (1992) wrote, "Sustainable development means considering the costs and benefits of
developmental and environmental policies. It also signifies focusing on meticulous economic analysis in order
to reinforce environmental protection."
 On the other hand, IUCN, WWF, ENEP (1987) expressed that, "Sustainable development is about the
conservation of ecological processes, the safeguarding of genetic diversity, and the balanced utilization of
species and ecosystems."
 Finally, Edward Barbier (1987) also said that, "Sustainable economic development is about improving the
poor people's standard of living, in terms of enhanced food source, increased real income, education, health
services, water supply, and sanitation. It is only indirectly concerned with cumulative economic growth."
World Bank's definition talks about balancing costs and benefits of policies and actions based on economic
analysis. It is not clear, however, how economic analysis can guide actors in enacting activities that protect the
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 Republic of the Philippines
CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE
F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines

College of Education

environment and promote people's welfare. Also, in World Bank's definition, the view of costs and benefits is
somehow incomplete, neglecting their distributive aspect. Benefits may outweigh the costs but do not necessarily
mean redistributing the benefits to the most impoverished. While World Bank's definition puts emphasis on the
economic aspect, UNEP talks more about the sustainability and health of ecosystems and processes, Barbier's
definition, on the other hand, argues that aggregate economic growth indicators are not as important as human welfare
indicators especially of the poor.

Alongside the different definitions of the concept are the diverse suggestions on the approach and practice to
achieve sustainable development. For instance, the UK government establishes the five-principle approach to
sustainable development.

Living Within Environmental Limits

 Respecting the limits of the planet’s environment, resources and biodiversity - to improve our environment
and ensure that the natural resources needed for life are unimpaired and remain so for future generations.
Ensuring a Strong, Healthy and Just Society
 Meeting the diverse needs of all people in existing and future communities, and promoting personal
wellbeing, social cohesion and inclusion, and creating equal opportunity for all.

Achieving a Sustainable Economy

 Building a strong, stable and sustainable economy which provides prosperities and opportunities for all, and in
which environmental and social costs fall on those who impose them (polluter pays) and efficient resource use
is incentivized.
Promoting Good Governance
 Actively promoting effective, participative systems of governance in all levels of society – engaging people’s
creativity, energy and diversity.
Using Sound Science Responsibly
 Ensuring policy is developed and implemented on the basis of a strong scientific evidence, while taking into
account uncertainty (precautionary principle) as well as public attitudes and values.

The UK government puts explicit emphasis on the respect of the carrying capacity of the natural environment
and biodiversity as well as the achievement of a healthy and just society. The government hopes to pursue this through
the sustainable economy that distributes opportunities to all and an economy that imposes accountability for
environmental and social violations, participatory and good governance, and precautionary principle to account for
uncertainties.

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CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE
F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines

College of Education

In addition to that, the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs argues that global
sustainable development requires "significant price corrections, a strong commitment to conserve natural abilities, a
decrease in inequalities, an addition of environmental accounting, a reinforcement of public spheres of life, a rerouting
of the financial sector to the felt economy. and sharing of income and employment. These will increase the well-being
of people, especially the poorest" (United Nations, 2013).

United Nations (2013) maintains that social and environmental goals must be strongly promoted and that the well-
being of poorest is prioritized. This entails making important transformations in the economy such as the eradication
of inequalities through benefit sharing and accountability for environmental costs as well as changes in politics such
as enhancement of democratic spaces.

In 2000, the global leaders from the UN member states reached a consensus and adopted the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) to pursue poverty reduction and human development. It is composed of eight goals that
are targeted to be achieved by the year 2015. The MDGs are:

1. to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger;

2. to achieve universal primary education:
3. to promote gender equality and empower women;
4. to reduce child mortality:
5. to improve maternal health;
6. to combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases:
7. to ensure environmental sustainability; and
8. to develop a global partnership for development.

Although significant improvements were attained in some goals such as the decrease in the proportion of
people living less than $1.25 a day, extreme poverty is still persistent. "Business as usual" or the continuation of
existing global and national development strategies present barriers to the full achievement of the MDGS.

In 2015, UN member states adopted the 17 Sustainable Development Goals to address poverty, inequalities,
and climate change by the year 2030, The 17 goals are the following:

GOAL 1: No Poverty
GOAL 2: Zero Hunger
GOAL 3: Good Health and Well-being
GOAL 4: Quality Education.
GOAL 5: Gender Equality
GOAL 6: Clean Water and Sanitation
GOAL 7: Affordable and Clean Energy
GOAL 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth
GOAL 9: Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure
GOAL 10: Reduced Inequality
GOAL 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities
GOAL 12: Responsible Consumption and Production
GOAL 13: Climate Action
GOAL 14: Life Below Water
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GOAL 15: Life on Land

GOAL 16: Peace and Justice Strong Institutions
GOAL 17: Partnerships to Achieve the Goal (United Nations)

These goals are the embodiment of pursuing development that encompass economic prosperity, social well-
being, and environmental integrity.

Challenges to Sustainable Development

Poverty - is usually referred to as the lack and deprivation of important basic needs of people. It is also
usually identified and measured through per capita income. In the Philippines, poverty incidence was recorded at 21.0
percent in 2018 (Philippine Statistics Authority, 2018). Poverty incidence is the proportion of the poor population to
the total population. This means that in the Philippines, one in five persons is poor.

Income Inequality. There is clear evidence of fast economic growth since the 20th century as measured
through the global per capita GDP. However, despite the booming economy, the gap between the rich and the poor
also increased. As mentioned, the per capita GDP of the richest 25 percent of the global population increased almost
six times, leaving the poorest population behind (IMF 2000). This persistent inequality is seen to be an enormous
challenge to sustainable development (UN 2013).

Average annual family income in the Philippines in 2015 was Php86,000 for the poorest 10 percent of Filipino
families, while the richest 10 percent had up to Php786,000 average annual family income (Family Income and
Expenditure Survey PSA 2015). This, however, is not the extent of income inequality in the country. IBON
Foundation collected data on the monthly incomes of top businesses in the country and reported that the Chief
Executive Officers of Metro Pacific Investments Corporation and Manila Electric Company (MERALCO) have
Php7.8 million monthly income compared to the poorest 16 percent of Filipino families with only Php5.455 monthly
income (IBON Foundation, 2018).

Moreover, poverty is not only about income but is also about insecure income, lack of decent work, lack of
education, insufficient nutrition, poor housing lack of clean water and utilities, lack of other assets, vulnerability,
exploitation, and violence (IBON Foundation, 2018)

Unsustainable Patterns of Production and Consumption

Maintaining sustainable consumption and production patterns in society are important aspirations included in
the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Consumption of natural resources has been tremendously increasing in
the last decades. WWF discussed that in the years 2010-2013, the world population has been consuming one and one-
half 'Earths' in terms of resources and ecological service we access. This is referred to as an ecological footprint,
which refers to the goods and services consumed by a person including the use of fossil fuels to provide these services
and products.
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College of Education

Because of too much ecological footprint that exceeds the capacity of the planet to provide, biodiversity is
threatened. Some threats include habitat destruction, overfishing, pollution, infrastructure development, water over
extraction, and poaching (Living Planet Report 2014).

However, some of the richer countries have the highest footprint and highest consumption compared to poorer
countries. USA and China are responsible for 32 percent of global ecological footprint (Living Planet Report 2014).

The consumer culture or the obsession with material goods puts pressure on the environment. However, the
consumerist behavior that drives people to acquire an enormous amount of material goods is embedded in a broader
system in crisis. The Story of Stuff argues that the fundamental problem is the maintenance of a linear system of over-
extraction, over-production, distribution, consumption, and disposal on a finite environment. This system does not
only jeopardize the environment, but it is also a system that compromises people's health, human rights, and well-
being.

Environmental Destruction

The present system of production and consumption creates tremendous impact on the environment.The
present-day extraction and production processes often involve over harvesting from ecosystems beyond the
regeneration capacity of the environment, massive carbon dioxide emissions, and the exploitation of common water
and land resources.

Deforestation is due to over-extraction of forest-based products by commercial logging and massive export of
forest-based products. Exploitation of mineral wealth is exacerbated by the Philippine policy that allows 100 percent
foreign ownership of mining companies. Urban dwellers in Manila experienced worst water shortages in March 2019.
Mineral resources of the Philippines are being over-extracted by foreign mining companies at the expense of local
communities and indigenous peoples. These environmentally destructive practices exacerbate poverty and
vulnerability of already poor and marginalized sectors (Center for Environmental Concerns, 2019).

Economic Globalization and Sustainable Development

The current trend of economic globalization, adhering to neoliberal paradigm poses threats to the attainment
of sustainable development.

Economic globalization means enhancement of trading among countries. One of the most important goals is
the pursuit of economic growth or enhancement of production of goods and services. Increasing trading is also about
encouraging competition (Cavanagh & Mander, 2004).

Some of the critiques of neoliberal economic globalization include its tendency to pursue unsustainable
development. In particular:

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 prioritizing of economic growth that leads to unconstrained extraction of resources from the environment;
 enhancing economic growth also led to creating markets all over the world to sustain the economic growth;
and
 encouraging competition is supposed to push firms to create better and cheaper products. However, this drives
firms to exploit cheaper raw materials and cheap labor to produce cheaper products (Cavanagh & Mander
2004).

Furthermore, the structural adjustment policies imposed by the World Bank compels local economies to
prioritize repayment of foreign debts and open local resources and market to foreign corporations. These neoliberal
measures increase the wealth of TNCS while decreasing social service budgets intended to uplift conditions of
laborers, women, farmers, and consumers. Privatization of common resources also threatens the protection of land,
water, and other natural resources (Cavanagh & Mander, 2004).

In the midst of these hardships presented by economic globalization, global civil society and mass movements
create innovative campaigns and strategies to oppose neoliberal globalization and pursue sustainable development.

People organize themselves to respond to unsustainable global economic processes through protest, legal
battles, negotiations with governments, and alliance/network building.

SUMMARY

Sustainable development was first coined in 1987 during World Commission on Environment and
Development. It is, however, interpreted differently by various actors. Some organizations would highlight the
economic aspects, others would emphasize the social and environmental aspects of development. World leaders also
recognized that sustainable development must be a common agenda of all nations, resulting to commitments to global
agreements such as the Millennium Development Goals and the Sustainable Development Goals.

There are, however, challenges in the attainment of sustainable development. These are global poverty,
extreme inequality, environmental destruction, as well as unsustainable patterns of production and consumption.
These issues are interlinked with each other.

Enhancing global trading by making it faster and expansive emphasizes the goal of corporate economic
growth more than other goals (Cavanagh & Mander, 2004). TNCs' practice of dispersing manufacturing often to
developing countries contributes to poverty because of maintaining cheap labor.

The attainment of sustainable development is also influenced by globalization. The global trade agreements
and the authority and power of markets marginalizes the sovereignty of nations and have the propensity to neglect
other important social development goals such as human dignity, rights, and environmental integrity. In response to

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these, transnational social movements challenge the neoliberal economic globalization through collective action and
counter-arguments on better alternatives.

Questions to Answer:

1. What is sustainable development?

2. What are the challenges to sustainable development? Give a short explanation of each challenges.

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GEC 8 – CONTEMPORARY WORLD Period: 2nd Semester AY 2020-2021

Course, Yr. & Block:
Instructor: Angelica D. Sanchez Reference: Nephtaly Botor et. al. The Contemporary
World 2020 REX Bookstore Inc.

Global Food Security

Lesson Objectives: After this lesson, you should be able to:

1. enumerate the different aspects of food security
2. identify the food security issues faced by household, communities and countries

Definition of Term

Food security - the condition of which everyone is able to access sufficient, safe, and nutritious food anytime
Undernourishment - is the condition by which a person only has access, on a regular basis, to food that are
insufficient in providing the required energy for a normal, healthy, and active life, provided his or her own dietary and
energy requirements.

Food security occurs when every person, every time, is able to physically and economically access sufficient,
safe, and nutritious food, depending on their dietary needs and food preferences toward an active and healthy lifestyle
(World Food Summit, 1996).

The concept of food security emerged during the mid-70s (FAO, n.d.) It recognizes the global issue of chronic
food insecurity. Food insecurity is the phenomenon "when people do not have adequate physical, social, or economic
access to food" (FAO). Food security brings into public policy the food-related problem of famine, hunger, and food
crises. Nations and global Institutions make various commitments to achieve the eradication of hunger and food
insecurity. Despite actions to address these issues, global food security remains to be a major concern.

The concept of food security gained prominence in the 1970s. First, hunger was seen as a lack of food supply.
The focus of government programs to make food available was boosting of agricultural production and maintaining
price stability of food (food availability). However, in 1981, Amartya Sen argued that hunger or starvation is not only
about the supply of food but people's lack of access to food despite the availability of food. This resulted in
broadening the concept of food security to include access to food (food accessibility), which are located in the wider
concerns of poverty and development. In 1986, World Bank Introduced that food insecurity can be a permanent or
temporary phenomenon, giving rise to the ideas of chronic and transitory hunger. Chronic food insecurity recognizes
the perennial problem of food insecurity, while transitory food insecurity talks about the momentary shortage of
food. This pushes policy to recognize that sufficient food must be accessible at all times (food stability). Finally, food
security was extended to include issues of food quality. It ensures the utilization of food that meets people's nutritional

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balance, traditions, and preferences (food utilization). Hence, the important aspects of food security are availability,
access, utilization, and stability (Napoli, 2011).

Measurement for Food Security and Food Insecurity

To understand the phenomenon of food security and food insecurity, various measures and indices have been
developed. These measures and indices become the bases for actions to eradicate food insecurity and demand
accountability from governments. Measures and indices can encompass analyzes of causes and/or effects, either
qualitative or quantitative and may be done in several levels-from household levels to national levels (Masset, 2010).
Some indicators are expressed in the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs). Furthermore, examples of indices used for food insecurity are the Global Hunger Index and the
Hunger Reduction Commitment Index.

Prevalence of Undernourishment (PoU) and the Prevalence of Moderate and Severe Food Insecurity in the
Population of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)

PoU measures hunger on several levels, in the regional and global levels, by gathering data on food availability,
consumption, and energy requirements. Some factors being measured are the daily per capita food consumption,
human energy requirements, and agricultural production. On the other hand, the Prevalence of Moderate and Severe
Food Insecurity in the Population collects data through interviews regarding people's experiences of difficulty in
accessing food. Data can reflect individual and household levels and can show what part of the population are most
food insecure.

Global Hunger Index

Global Hunger Index is published by Concern International and Welthungerhilfe. It looks into indicators such
as the share of the population related to:

 undernourishment referring to insufficient caloric intake;

 child wasting referring children with low weight in relation to their height
 child stunting referring to children under the age of five that have a low weight in relation to their age
 child mortality or under-five mortality rates
These indicators are given standardized scores to come up with the Global Hunger Index (GHI) score of each
country. The GHI can monitor the state of hunger in the national and global levels to inform policy and actions where
they are needed (Grebmer et al., 2018).

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Hunger Reduction Commitment Index (HRCI)

Hunger Reduction Commitment Index (HRCI) initiated by the Institute of Development Studies looks into
three themes that measure governments' political commitment in attaining food security: governments policies and
programs; legal frameworks; and public expenditures (Lintelo et al., 2011). Some of the indicators being measured in
HRCI are:

 institutional coordination - whether there is a coordinating body to address hunger and malnutrition and
the successes of this coordinating body
 government intention and action-about priority actions of the government on hunger and malnutrition;
 analytical rigor - about the generation of scientific evidence on hunger and malnutrition as the basis for
public policy;
 learning and adaptation about the governments' effort to innovate with policy approaches to eradicate
hunger and malnutrition (Lintelo et al., 2011).
Some Factors Affecting Food Security

Food security is a multidimensional issue. Ensuring the availability accessibility, utilization, and stability of
food are linked to several social, political economic, cultural, and environmental processes and factors. Some of these
factors are food supply, food prices, income, and sudden changes in the context.

Food Supply

As mentioned, early concepts and policies on food security focused on agricultural production to ensure the
availability of food. Food security involves sustainably supplying the energy and protein needs and healthy diet of the
people.

It is concerned not only with quantity but also the quality of food that promotes the well-being of people
(Martindale, 2015)

Before food comes to people's tables, it goes through a complex process of production, manufacturing and
distribution where different functions and operations must be carried out (Martindale, 2015)

Food supply is also connected with conditions in agricultural production This involves issues of rural farmers.
The conditions of rural poor farmers should be a focus of the discussion of food security because rural farmers,
usually small-scale producers, have an important role in producing food in developing countries (Schanbacher, 2010),
in the Philippines, farmers and fishers remain to be the poorest sectors in 2015, with 34.3 percent and 34.0 percent
poverty incidence respectively (PSA, 2017). Local rural producers must be sufficiently supported by government
programs and reforms to continue to supply sufficient food to the population.

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Food Prices

Changes in national and global economic policies and process may lead to increases in oil and food prices. In
the Philippines, inflation hit 4.5 percent in April 2018, leading to a drastic rise in food prices. Figure 1 shows that by
2019, inflation slows down to 3 percent but food prices are still higher than 2018 prices (IBON, 2019). High prices of
food can compromise the food security of citizens.

People's Income

Another problem associated with food security is the lack of people's access to food because of poverty
(Naylor, 2014). Despite the availability of food. people without economic access to buy food may not meet their food
needs. The minimum wage in Metro Manila amounting to Php512 is barely sufficient to meet food and other needs
(IBON Foundation). The most income-poor Filipinos are also vulnerable to food price increases.

Changes and Shocks in Social and Natural Environments

Variability and shocks in the social and natural environment may affect food availability, accessibility, and
stability. For instance, climate change may affect the timing and length of growing and harvesting seasons, amount of
water supply, and degradation of resources such as erosion (FAO, 2012). In the Philippines, farmers may experience
lower yields due to the scarcity of rainfall during El Niño phenomena. This will result in decrease in food supply and
income poverty for farmers leading to transitory food insecurity. Conflict also results in poverty and hunger. UN
reports that more than half of the 815 undernourished people come from countries in conflict (Action Against
Hunger).

Globalization and Food Security

Food security that is linked to the complex process of food production. consumption, and distribution
intersects with issues of trading, reforms in agriculture, as well as rural development (Schanbacher, 2010).

Economic globalization involves foreign trading of food. This encompasses the creation of a global food
supply chain or the process involving the production, manufacturing, consumption, and disposal happening across
different national borders. Some issues in the supply chain include contamination and the lack of a mechanism to trace
where food comes from. Cultural globalization also creates changes in people's taste, preference, and consumption of
food. For instance, transnational fast food corporations have operated in different countries. Some of the biggest fast
food chains are McDonald's, Burger King, Starbucks, KFC, Pizza Hut, and Subway.

Economic globalization can also tremendously impact food security. In the Philippines, agricultural food
production weakens because of the decrease in government spending for agriculture, as a consequence of the
structural adjustment program imposed by the IMF and World Bank. In 1982, 7.5 percent of total government

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expenditure went to agriculture, then spending decreased to 3.3 percent in 1988. Trade liberalization in the Philippines
marked by the joining of the Philippines in the World Trade Organization required the country to eliminate quota for
agricultural imports allowing the entry of cheap imported agricultural products that discouraged local farmers. The
Philippines also became dependent on rice imports despite the country's ability to become rice self-sufficient (Bello,
2008).

Commitments to Achieve Food Security

Recognizing the urgency and severity of world food security problems, world leaders have made global
commitments to address food insecurity.

In 1996, the World Food Summit was convened by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) in Rome
where UN member states committed to eradicate hunger and reduce undernourished people all over the world. The
UN members in this summit pledged to commit to a plan of action (Napoli, 2011). It is a continuous effort to eliminate
hunger in all countries, with a short-term goal of decreasing the number of undernourished individuals to half (1996
World Food Summit).

This commitment was later reaffirmed during the UN Millennium Summit in 2000 that resulted in the
formulation of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) (Napoli, 2011). The first goal of the MDGs is to eradicate
extreme poverty and hunger. This goal has three targets:

1. To significantly decrease the number of people with daily income below $1.25;
2. To attain full, constructive, and decent employment for all; and
3. To significantly decrease the number of people suffering from hunger

In 2015, UN member states adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Agenda. This encompasses the 17
Sustainable Development Goals that will guide governments, private sector, and civil society to address the global
issues of poverty, inequalities, and climate change. Sustainable Development Goal number 2 is to achieve zero hunger
(Kaci, 2017).

These commitments push governments to take all necessary actions to combat hunger and poverty through
different policies and programs including boosting agricultural productivity, making agriculture resilient to climate
change, increasing investment in agriculture, and correcting trade processes.

Aside from this, organizations and movements critical of too much market driven food production system
espouses the idea of food sovereignty as an approach to achieving food security. Food sovereignty focuses on
promoting the well-being of small-scale farmers and producers, landless farmers, and rural farm workers instead of
prioritizing large-scale, corporate, and liberalized agriculture and food production (Schanbacher, 2010). Food security
is not only about producing food the fastest and cheapest way at the expense of displacing the livelihood and well-
being of poor farmers.
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SUMMARY

Global and national data show alarmingly high levels of hunger and food insecurity. This places food security
as one of the top issues tackled by international organizations. The issue of food security is not a simple phenomenon.
Security of food can be achieved not only with abundant food supply but through eradication of barriers to people's
access to food, ensuring stable food production and access, and providing dietary needs for people's well-being.

There are several means of measuring food insecurity. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) uses the
Prevalence of Undernourishment (PoU) and the Prevalence of Moderate and Severe Food Insecurity in the Population
that looks into data such as human energy requirement, per capita food consumption, and difficulties in accessing
food. The Global Hunger Index of Concern International and Welthungerhilfe analyzes undernourishment, child
wasting, child stunting, and child mortality. The FAO, Concern International, and Welthungerhilfe use measurements
about the status of hunger and food insecurity. On the other hand, the Hunger Reduction Commitment Index (HRCI)
by the Institute of Development Studies use indicators to measure the commitments and actions of governments to
eradicate hunger and food insecurity.

The complex issue of food security is related to factors such adequate food supply both in quantity and
quality. Ensuring food supply in itself is an intricate process involving reliable food production, manufacturing,
distribution, and consumption. It is also linked to the support and poverty reduction programs for poor farmers who
are significantly responsible for food production in developing countries. Other factors include food prices and
people's income. Food must be affordable for the poor sectors of the population, and sudden spikes in food prices must
be prevented. At the same time, people's livelihood and income levels must increase to achieve ideal living standards
and food requirements. Finally, variability and shocks in the social and natural environment can drastically affect food
security. Disasters, climate change, and conflict are some changes that compromise food security.

Food security is inextricably linked to globalization. Global trading of food can affect food supply Economic
globalization marked by the promotion of unregulated trade liberalization of food trading, allow an influx of cheap
imports into the country. In addition to that, conditions and agreements imposed by the IMF, World Bank, and the
World Trade Organization push governments of developing countries to decrease spending in agriculture.

Recognizing food security as a major global concern, governments commit to eradicating hunger and food
insecurity by pledging to global agenda such as the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in 2000 and the
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in 2015. Civil society organizations and mass organizations and movements
across the globe have pointed out the need for food sovereignty that focuses on promoting the well-being of small-
scale farmers and producers, landless farmers, and rural farm workers by allowing them to define and pursue their

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own food and agriculture system, free from the dictates of global economic organizations such as the World Bank,
IMF, and transnational agriculture corporations.

Questions to Answer:

1. How can you describe the concept of sustainable development?

2. What are the challenges to sustainable development?
3. Identify and differentiate the four aspects of food security.

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CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE
F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines

College of Education

GEC 8 – CONTEMPORARY WORLD

Course, Yr. & Block:
Instructor: Angelica D. Sanchez Reference: Nephtaly Botor et. al. The Contemporary
Period: 2nd Semester AY 2020-2021 World 2020 REX Bookstore Inc.

Global Citizenship

Lesson Objectives: After this lesson, you should be able to:

1. explain the definition of global citizenship and the categories of global citizenship

2. identify the types of rights and duties of global citizenship;

Definition of Terms

Citizenship - how residents live in a particular area with previously agreed upon rights and responsibilities

Rights - any lawful, social, or moral principle of autonomy or entitlement

Duty - an obligation or expectation to perform an action based on the law, social norms, or a moral standard

Global citizenship - the belief that all people have rights and civic responsibilities based on the reason that they reside
in the world

What is Citizenship?

It may be defined on the lenses of membership, status, practice, or performance. For instance, described in
terms of membership and status, citizenship is defined as how residents live in a particular area with previously agreed
upon rights and responsibilities. These statutes are restricted in a particular territory and a political boundary. This
means that the citizens must have an understanding of their rights and responsibilities (Abdi, Shultz, & Pillay, 2015.in
Abdi, Shultz, & Pillay, 2015. eds).

In addition, using the lenses of practice and performance, citizenship may be defined as an institution that
mediates the rights between constituents of a governing system and the system itself. However, the relation between
the citizens and the governing system is not always unified nor stable (Isin & Nyers, 2014. in Isin & Nyers, 2014.
eds.).

Three Types of Rights

Two very important aspects of citizenship are civic rights and duties. First, let us discuss the definition of
rights and the different types of rights. Rights are defined as any lawful, social, or moral principle of autonomy or
entitlement. It is a collection of what is allowed and what should be provided to a group of people based on a
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particular legal system, norms, or ethical standards (Wenar, 2015). The three types of rights are: (1) civil rights, (2)
political rights, and (3) social rights. These will be discussed below:

Civil rights are entitlements provided by a certain locality to its public constituents. These include the right to
free speech. Every citizen is allowed to communicate openly. He or She is permitted to voice opinions even if it is
criticizing the government just as long as it has basis and evidence. Civil rights also include the right to have and to be
treated with dignity.

Political rights are administrative entitlements provided by a specific government. These include the right to
run for office. Every citizen has the right to be elected as a representative of his/her community as long as he/ she
meets various criteria.

Social rights are entitlements related to public services and to social protection. These include insurance,
health care, welfare, housing, and pensions (Isin & Nyers, 2014)

Three Types of Duties

What is the definition of duty? Duty comes from the French word "due" which means "to owe" (Gove,
1986). Therefore, duty is defined as an obligation or expectation to perform an action based on the law, social norms,
or a moral standard (Merriam-Webster Dictionary, n. d.). The three types of duties, in relation to citizenship, are: (1)
conscription, (2) taxation, and (3) participation.

Conscription - pertains to the obligation to register as a reserve force in the army. This means that every able-bodied
citizen is asked to take up arms and fight for their country in case of war.

Taxation - relates to the duty to pay a compulsory contribution to a state or the government

Participation - refers to the obligation to take part in the community.

Every citizen is encouraged to participate in the development of their community. They are also encouraged to vote
for their leaders during elections (Isin & Nyers, 2014. in Isin & Nyers, 2014, eds.).

What does global stand for in global citizenship? Internationalization, or becoming global, is defined as
including worldwide components to education (Yemini, 2017). It is concerned with adding international and
intercultural aspects to the approach to education. Students are encouraged to learn about the whole world and
international relations.

What is global citizenship? Global citizenship is defined as the belief that all people have rights and civic
responsibilities based on the reason that they reside in the world. Therefore, a person's global identity transcends

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his/her geographical and political ones. Although, this does not mean that the individual must denounce his/her
nationality, but these are secondary to his/her global identity (Israel, 2012).

There are three categories of global citizenship. These are: (1) open global citizenship; (2) moral global
citizenship, and (3) sociopolitical global citizenship. These three will be further discussed below:

Open global citizenship believes that nations still exist and differ from one another. However, it recognizes the
interdependence between different nations and the opportunities for cultural diversification.

Moral global citizenship focuses on the ethical aspect of global citizenship. What are the moral facets of global rights
and responsibilities? Moral global citizenship put emphasis on human rights, equality, and global responsibility.

Sociopolitical global citizenship - emphasizes the social and governmental systems and structures around the world.
It advocates to shift the existing political power in order to advance global equality (Veugelers, 2011).

Why Global Citizenship?

In 2015, the United Nations (UN) summit declaration "Transforming our world: The 2030 Agenda for
sustainable development" named global citizenship education as one of the strategies in the Sustainable Development
Goals (SDG) 4.7. It was also mentioned in Declaration 36 (UN, n. d.). In addition, the UN Secretary-General report in
2015 urged educators to utilize global citizenship education to promote peace around the world (UN, 2015). As one
can see, global citizenship is highly supported by international organizations and worldwide declarations.

Learning to Live Together

An important principle in education is for people to "learn to live together." In fact, it is also crucial in the
rapidly changing world where population is becoming more and more diverse. It is integral for educators to promote a
culture of peace, non-violence, tolerance, and respect.

Learning to live together entails understanding different nation's interconnectedness and interdependence. It
requires strategies for diplomatic coexistence and compromise. Global citizenship education provides a new lens for
the youth to think critically, cast aside hatred, and have the capacity for dialogue and tolerance.

Restore Dignity

Paulo Freire (1970) urges people to be educated in citizenship rights in order to question the hidden
oppressive systems that surround them. The task of global citizenship education is not just to teach about current
systems but also the concepts of global social justice and basic rights.

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Global citizenship education imparts knowledge about the rights of every individual in the international
community. One of these basic rights is that every human being has the right to live in dignity. Global citizenship
education assists in restoring positive identity, dignity, and self-esteem of individuals (Hahn, n. d.).

Issues in Global Citizenship

Despite the progress in the conceptualizations and in the education of global citizenship, there are still issues
and challenges arising. These issues and challenges may be classified into three: (1) conflict between global
citizenship and national citizenship, (2) conflict between global citizenship and individual differences, and (3)
development of the imagination for global citizenship. These will be discussed below:

Conflict between global citizenship and national citizenship - Even though people are encouraged to
become global citizens, in reality, they live in their own culture with their own. This is very obvious in countries with
a significant amount of immigration (Yemini, 2017).

The performative aspect of citizenship, not only looks at the rights and duties being performed, but also at the
rights and duties not being performed or not allowed to be performed. For example, what about states that do not
allow press freedom? How will the global right to freedom of speech be implemented if the state does not allow it?

Conflict between global citizenship and individual differences - For instance, in the membership and
performance aspect of citizenship, how would one classify non-citizens who perform the duty of citizens, like
immigrants that pay taxes? Should they be given the same rights as the citizens? In Italy, for example, immigrants
who perform very personal services or care work for Italian families and know deep-seated secrets are still not treated
as part of the family because they are foreigners. In fact, they are called "intimate foreigners." Examples of these are
caregivers, nurses, and domestic helpers.

In another example related to this, "abject citizens" is a phrase used to describe citizens who experience
being rejected from citizenship even though they were born in the same territory. This term usually refers to nomadic
cultures like the Roma or Sinti who are from a different ethnic group with their own culture.

Individuals may also have multiple citizenship identities. For instance, a person may have dual citizenship
because he/she resides in two countries. Finally, another source of conflict is the assumption that English is the
universal language (Yernini, 2017) even though it is not the language used by most number of population.

Development of the imagination for global citizenship - Another challenge is the slow progress in
developing a global imagination (Richardson, 2008). Citizenship is not permanent, can be transformed, and
contestable.

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The word global in global citizenship has the tendency to focus only on the experiences of the majority. It
highlights only the existing sociocultural, political, and economic systems. It neglects the experiences of the minority
and the marginalized.

Who is the active citizen? The word active has come to refer extremes. On one hand, it is the "good" citizen
who follows social norms. On the other hand, it is the "bad" citizen who questions and disobeys social norms.

SUMMARY

Citizenship is defined as how residents live in a particular area with previously agreed upon rights and
responsibilities (Abdi, Shultz, & Pillay, 2015. in Abdi, Shultz & Pillay, 2015. eds). Internationalization, or becoming
global, is defined as including worldwide components to education (Yemini, 2017). Global citizenship is defined as
the belief that all people have rights and civic responsibilities based on the reason that they reside in the world (Israel,
2012).

The three types of rights are: civil rights, political rights, and social rights. On the other hand, the three types
of duties, in relation to citizenship, are: conscription, taxation, and participation.

Global citizenship may be classified into: open global citizenship, moral global citizenship, and sociopolitical
global citizenship. Finally, the issues and challenges in global citizenship are: conflict between global citizenship and
national citizenship (Yemini, 2017), conflict between global citizenship and individual differences, and development
of the imagination for global citizenship (Richardson, 2008).

Questions to Answer:

1. How can you explain the definition of global citizenship and the categories of global citizenship?

2. List down the types of rights and duties of global citizenship.

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