Sabara Tribe in Indian History

Sabara Tribe in Indian History
Dr. Giridhar Gamang

First published 2008
© Giridhar Gamang 2008

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Preface
The Sabara tribe has travelled all along with epics, history
and present day world. They are distributed and have alienated
themselves with Indian soil on all directions, somewhere they
have their identity, somewhere they have lost it.
They have been associated with Jainism, Buddhism, Savisim,

Vaishnavites, Christianity and their original tribal culture. They
have come through the scale of time and time scale in both
ways.
The classical work of Verrier Elwin, ‘The Religion of an Indian

Tribe’ brought to the modern world, the glimpses of Sabara
tribe of Orissa and an introduction to the anthropological
world at large.

This is an attempt to put forth the Sabara tribes in Indian soil,
and their association and contribution to the Indian history,
culture and religions. It shall be appreciated by all readers and
research scholars. We hope to come up in future on various
other tribal groups of our country and their history in making
the new India.
This book as it is drawn up heavily on the works of various

authors. I am personally indebted to them.
I am thankful to Dr. Das Kornel for his contribution to assist

in preparing this book.
Bhubaneswar, Giridhar Gamang

January, 2008
About the Book
The tribal history is a majorr part of the

Indian history.All tribals have played
their role in making Indian history and
are associated in making a new India.
The tribes have been mentioned in
Mahabharata, various literary works
of Indian literature since ages.
Sabara, as a tribe group, was first men-
tioned in Atreya Brahman.They are as of
now, distributed all over the Indian soil,
some where they have their identity
and some where they have lost.
A large population of Sabara are distrib-
uted in Central India, Orissa and small
populations of Sabara still live in various
parts of India.
The Sabaras have travelled all along with
the Indian religions; they were Bud-
dhists, may be Jainas, were Savites, we-
reVaishnavites and now some are even
Christians. They have been associated
with Lord Jagannath cult since ages,thus
have carved a separate tribal identity
of themselves in the arena of religious
cult administrations of Orissa.
This book gives a breif account of
dynasties,especially of the Sabara lin-
eage and their relationship to Kalinga
and Dakshina-Kosala.A special chap-
ter on Sabaras and Kharavela,Eastern
Gangas,Pallavas and others finds place
in the book.
Another chapter, with reference to
Sabara tribe and Indian literture has
been reviewed.
About the author
Dr. Giridhar Gamang born (1943) in a Sabara
tribal Chief’s family at Dibirisingi village
of undivided Koraput district, Orissa. His
grandfather, Sri Malia Gamang, invented
script for Sabara language, Matarbanum.
Dr. Gamang is presently a Member of
Parliament (Lok Sabha). After graduation
from S.K.C.G College, Paralakhemundi,
Ganjam district, Orissa, he served as a teacher
before entering politics in 1972 during which
year he got elected from Koraput Parliamentary
Constituency to the Fifth Lok Sabha. He
has represented uninterruptedly the same
constituency (Congress Party) in the sixth,
seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, eleventh, twelveth
and fourteenth Lok Sabha. He first became a
member of the Union Council of Ministers
in the Ministry of Supply and Rehabilitation.
Later, he was Deputy Minister in the Ministry
of Welfare, Minister of State in the Ministry of
Tourism, Minister of State (I.C) in the Ministry
of Communications, Minster of State for
Food Processing Industries (I.C), Minister of
State (I.C) Ministry of Planning, programming
Implementations and Minister of State for
Mines. Dr. Gamang, was the President of
Orissa Pradesh Congress Committee and was
the Chief Minister of Orissa State during 1999.
A Parliamentarian of long standing,
Dr. Gamang with intimate knowledge of tribal
and rural development has engaged himself
in several noteworthy endeavours for socio-
economic development of weaker-sections.
He has expertise in tribal music creativity; in
conservation and popularisation of traditional
tribal dance forms and music. He has also
compiled a book on Sabar songs in Oriya script
titled “PIRADA NA KENING” and author of
a book titled “Constitutional Provisions for the
Contents
Page No.
Preface
01. Sabara Tribe and Distribution 01-11

02. Sabara Population and Distribution 12-15
from Census Reports
03. Sabara Tribe in Orissa 16-20
04. Sabaras in Literature 21-42
05. Indian History and Sabaras 43-53
06. Sabaras in Dakshina-Kosala, Kalinga 54-76

Kongoda with relation to Purusottama
Jagannath Cult
07. The Panduvamsis of Dakshina Kosala 77-86
08. Mahendragiri 87-92
Index 93-97
Annex-I 98
Sabara Tribe and Distribution
Sabara tribe a well known ancient tribe of India that has been dealt
in this volume who are also known as Saora, Sabara, Soara, Sora,
Shabar, Sabar, Sahar, Samvara, Sour, Sar, Sayar, Suir, Siwir, Soria,
Swiri, Surris and Saura etc. and have been spelt in various literature,
epic and still from the present places of their living, may be the
surviving remnants of the ancient Sabaras.
Pt. Nilakantha Das wrote, “Before the Dravidians, the Austric people
came to India mostly by the same north-western route or routes from
the Mediterranean regions”(1). They were a cultured people for those
days. After the advent of the Dravidians and then the Aryans they i.e.
these Austrics or Sabaras generally went to the hills and jungles and
lived there in their strongholds. These strongholds are particularly
mentioned in the account of Samvara (which seems to be another
name of the Sabara) in the Rg.Veda (2). He further wrote, “Another
factor perhaps is that the kinsmen of these Sabaras had migrated with
their languages and customs to the still Eastern regions, where these
Austric people had also arrived directly by the sea-route leaving
traces in the Kalinga coast on the way. The aboriginal remnants of
these Austrics are still there in Eastern India, such as Kols, Santals,
Khasis, Nagas etc. Thus the gradual migration of these Sabara people
was by these land and sea routes, as has been indicated, towards
Indonesia and further islands, perhaps up to America.”(3)
Vitebsky (1993) said based on his studies of Sabara of Koraput

“Above all, their (Sora) linguistic connections lie ultimately
with the south east Asia. Linguists classify the Sora language as
belonging to the Munda group, which includes some other Indian
‘tribal’ languages such as Mundari, Ho, Santal and Bondo; while they
consider this group itself to be a branch of the Austro-asiatic family
which includes Mon-khmer languages such as Cambodian, as well
The Sabara Tribe and Distribution 9
as many of the languages of the interior of the Malay peninsula
and of the Montgnard peoples of Vietnam (4, 5 & 6) (Pinnow 1959;
Zide 1966). Though there are historical uncertainties, this suggests
that such peoples from an ancient stratum of the population across
tropical Asia who in such country have been surrounded and
dispossessed by larger, settled rice-growing population.”
Cunningham writes; “that in early times, where the name of the

Sabara is used, it probably covers all the different divisions of the
Kols, as they are now called, including Kurkus and Bhils in the west,
with Santals and Bhuiyas, Mundas and Hos, Bhumij and Juangs in
the east. In later times, when Somadeva wrote the Katha Sarit Sagara,
the name of Sabara is used as synonymous with Pulinda and Bhilla,
and, therefore, means only a man of an aboriginal tribe, of whom
the writer knew nothing except by hearsay.”(7)
But the persistence with which the name recurs suggests that the
Sabras were an important and widely scattered tribe throughout
India; perhaps the confusion about the name is due to the fact that
from the earliest period the Saoras were broken up into different
sections; many of them have lost their language and have been
assimilated in culture and religion of their neighbours.
Cunningham continues, “There seems good reason to believe that

the Sabaras were formerly the dominant branch of the great Kolarian
family, and that their power lasted down to a comparatively late
period, when they were pushed aside by other Kolarian tribes in the
north and east, and by the Gonds in the south”(8). B.C.Mazumdar
is of the same opinion: “All the Kolarians are but branches of the
Sabara people”(9). S. C. Roy agrees and refers to the fact that the
Kolarian Santals are called Sabaras by the Male Paharias (10).
Khageswar Mohapatro gave the Munda language speaking tribals
in Orissa as Soara, Gorum, Gotaha, Gutob Gadaba, Bondo (Remo),
Kharia, Juang, Korku, Santali, Mundari, Bir Hoare, Ho and Karwa.
His classification was based on South, Central and North Munda
speaking regions (11). These Munda language speaking tribes also
belong to the ancient leaders, Soara and thus the above mentioned
10 Sabara Tribe in Indian History
Orissan tribes are all related to each other and also to Soara. The
Parna-Sabaras mentioned by Varaha Mihira (about A. D. 550) are
supposed to be the leaf-clad Juangs, another tribe of the same group,
though they may equally well be the leaf-clad Saoras (12).
Parna-Sabaras in Sagar of Madhya Pradesh, Chanda District of

Maharashtra:
Cunningham opines that the Parna-Sabaras were the most powerful

of the wild races. He surmised that the chief town in the country of
the Phyllitae (i.e. the Parna-Sabaras or the leaf-wearing Sabaras) and
of the Kondali, called Agara, was probably Sagar (13). These Parna-
Sabaras have been identified with the Pans, a very low aboriginal
caste in Orissa and the Eastern Circars. The term Parna-Sabara (leaf-
wearing Sabara) may appropriately be applied to the women in the
wilder parts of the Chanda district of the Central Provinces, who
wear no clothes at all, but only a string round the waist to which they
suspend a bunch of leaves and another behind. The same practice
is reported to exist in the Kol country and also in Orissa.
Sabaras in Bastar district of Madhya Pradesh:
When Verrier Elwin visited some Sabara villages in Sarangarh

in Bastar in 1941, they were an attractive people as described by
him. Further Grigson says, they were manufacturing magnificent
specimens of baskets in brightly coloured patterns for sale in the
bazar in Sarangarh town (14).
Sabaras (Soppu) in South Kanara of Karnataka:
To these leaf-wearing classes of Sabaras we may add those of South

Kanara who are called the Soppu (Toppu) Koragars. These are one
class of the aboriginal people who wear leaves round their waist.
The larger tribe to which they belong played an important part in
the early history of the district (15).
With the above notices of the Sabaras, we may dispense with

the erroneous notions of Rice that the modern Saukars (traders)
were Sabara in origin, and that the latter belonged to a race who
worshipped the moon. This view of Rice is not acceptable because
Saukars is a general term, sometimes more appropriate to landlords
and some business communities of the area.
Sabara Pharia or Sauria in Singhbhum (Bihar), and

Keonjhar Orissa
The Bandkars living between Singhbhum and Keonjhar described

themselves as Saoras in the Census of 1872, and Risley includes them
in his section on ‘Sabaras’ (16). The Males of the Rajmahal Hills
call, or used to call, themselves Savar Paharia or Sauria, and they
resemble the Hill Saoras of Koraput and Ganjam is one remarkable
feature and they too have no exogamous septs.
Hill Kharias a branch of Sabaras of Dalbhum and

Mayurbhanj Kharias:
The Hill Kharias of Dhalbhum trace their ancestry back to

Sabbar-Burha and Sabbar-Burhi. S. C. Roy writes: “This would
appear to indicate that the Kharias originally formed a branch of the
great Sabaras people. The tradition of the Mayurbhanj Kharias that
they are descendants of Basu Sabara lends further support to this
conjecture”(17). Cunningham advances evidence to suggest a link,
which had already been traced by Dalton, between the Saoras and
the Bhuiyas (18). The Purans, who are probably also to be classed
with the Bhuiyas, claim racial affinity with the Saoras as well as
with the Kharias. Crooke and Nesfield show how the Musahars are
connected with both Cheros and Saoras (19).
Sabaras in Malkangiri of Koraput district, Orissa:
According to Mazumdar, the Saoras formerly occupied the areas

watered by the Savari River, and thus once dominated the eastern
part of Bastar (20).
Principalities of Dhenkanal and Dhinka Saora:

The Dhenkanal princely state, where over 50,000 Sabaras are

still living, and Pal Lahara are both traditionally associated with
the Sabaras. Dhenkanal is said to have derived its name from a
Saora named Dhenka, who owned a strip of land on which the
present residence of the Raja stands. It is said that Singh Bidyadhar
conquered the country of Dhenka Saora, the captured King Dhinka
Sabara was put to death. Before his death, he requested that his
head should always be worshipped. As a mark of respect near the
Raja’s palace a stone which is known as Dhenka Sabara Munda,
receives sacrifice once or twice a year. The newly wedded princes
of the Dhenkanal family pay respect at Dhinka Sabara Munda before
entering the palace. The Chintapatris, are supposed to be of Sabara
origin who cook the offerings for Dhinka Sabara Munda at the
Kapilas temple near Dhenkanal. The Brahmins do not accept the
cooked rice-offerings prepared by Chintapatris (21).
Pal Lahara principality origin and Sabaras:
The first Pal Lahara Raja was from Rajput clan, who came to Puri
with a body of his followers and on return to home, he was requested
by Saoras, Konds, Malhars and Thoras to rule over them. He then
got the name of Pal because he was hidden by the Saoras under a
heap of straw (pala) during a battle (22).
The Borasambar Zamindari of Sambalpur and Savar linkage:
The Borasambar Zamindari of Sambalpur also has a link with

the Saoras. The ruling family is an aristocratic representative of the
tribal Binjhals, who resemble the Saoras in having no exogamous
clans and determining marriage simply by relationship. One of the
recent zamindars edited an old book named Nrisimha Mahatmya,
in which he claimed a Kshattriya origin, describing how four heroic
youths, filled with magic power, married Saora girls and became the
ancestors of the Binjhals. B. C. Mazumdar says ‘this fact shows that
Binjha was once the name of a section of the Saoras who came to
Orissa by migrating from the Vindhyan region. Suarmar Zamindari,
in the Raipur district, is believed by some to have taken its name from
the Saoras. It has been held by a Gond family for many generations,
and according to family tradition the name Suarmar was given to
the zamindari on account of an enormous boar which devastated
the country and which was slain by Puranrai, the first zamindar, but
antiquarians say that the present name is a corruption of Sawarmal,
the land of the Sawar tribe, who are said to have originally occupied
the tract (23).
The Sunris of Gwalior, Narwar and South Rajputana:
To the south-west of Gwalior and Narwar and South Rajputana are a

race known as the Surris. They were the Saurs or the Sabaras (24).
North Madhya Pradesh
Cunningham divides the Saoras into two great divisions, the

western and the eastern. During his travels in 1881, he first came
across some Saoras in the District of Damoh and from thence
westward to Sagar and Bhilsa. He traced them in the hilly tracts to
the south of Lalitpur and Gwalior, where they were called Sabarias
and were known as wood-cutters and charcoal-burners. According
to him, there were not less than 120,000 western Saoras (25). This
was also confirmed later by Grigson who found that the Saoras of
Saugar district landless and depressed.
He found some Saoras mixed with Bhils, and those towards

Hoshangabad and Nimar touched the Korkus, ‘a cognate race’. The
western Saoras all spoke the same Hindi dialect. They were short,
and their features were ‘generally of the Tartar type’, with broad
flat noses, slightly oblique eyes and dark skins. They could endure
great fatigue and were ‘active and vigorous foresters’ (26).
Eastern U.P. and Bihar:

Cunningham also noticed small numbers of Saoras living in the
hills to the south of Shahabad and Bihar, where they were known
by the name of Suir (27).
Central U.P. and Ganges:

There were also a few, called Suirai, in the Allahabad District,
and they appeared again in the Ghazipur district to the north of the
Ganges, and another small body apparently of the same clan lived in
eastern Oudh under the name of Sarhia. According to Russell and
Hira Lal, the Saoras numbered about 100,000 in the Bundelkhand
districts in 1911 (28). As per the study made by Garrick, the Suirs and
Swiris of Ghazibad were estimated to be only 47 total population (29).
Crooke gave some account of the ‘Soeri, Soiri or Suri’ of Allahabad
and Benares.
Madhya Pradesh, Betwa river to Mahandi extended to Orissa,

South Orissa
According to Cunningham, the eastern Saoras were separated from
their brethren by a broad tract of country extending from Allahabad to
Jabalpur in one direction and from the Betwa river to the Mahanadi in
the other. From the Mahanadi they extend in scattered groups across
Chhattisgarh, through Sambalpur and down to Ganjam and Koraput
(30). Russell and Hira Lal say that the eastern Saoras have two main
divisions called Laria and Uriya, or those belonging to Chhattisgarh
and Sambalpur respectively (31).
Hutton says ‘there can be little doubt, but that the Sawars of the
Orissa Maliahs and of Chhattisgarh, the Saoras of Saugor, Damoh
and Bundelkhand, and the Saharia caste of Malwa and Gwalior all
belong to the same original stock’ (32).
From the epigraphic records it is also clear that they spread over a
vast area on either side of the Vindhyas up to the Ganges in the North
and the Godavari in the South and they also made their movement as
far South as Polkonda and Srikurman in the Vizagapatam districts.
They had also their settlement in the Dandaka forest of the Central
India (33).
They are mainly distributed in the Ganjam and Vizagapatam

districts of Madras and Orissa and also in the Central Province,
specially in Chattishgarh, Saugor and in Damoh districts (34).
Among them there are two different groups named Savar and Sahar.
Those of them, who came into contact with the groups named Savar
and Sahar. Those of them, who came into contact with the Hindus
and have adopted the Hindu custom are called Sahar and the other
as Savar (35).
Lodha, Lodh or Nodh, a tribe of United Provinces, Central

Province, Orissa and West Bengal claim their descent from the
ancient Sabaras (36). Risley has described them as a tribe allied to
the modern Sabara (37).
Sabaras distribution:
Mamata Choudhury (1977) wrote, “The Sabaras as a tribe was

first mentioned in the Aitareya Brahmana (38) and they inhabited
near the Indus (39). Subsequently they moved east wards as far as
Gangetic plain (40). In the Epic period, they were to the south of
Dandak forest (41), the present Ganjam district.(42)
In the Puranas, the Sabaras have been classified as dwellers of
the Vindhya range (43), but Brhat Samhita speaks that they were
inhabitation of western region also.(44)
The South India inscription (45) shows that the Sabaras were spread
on a vast land on either side of Vindhyas up to the Ganges in the North
and the Godavari in the south and during the course of time they have
settled as far as south of Palkonda, and Sri-Kurmam in Srikakulam as
well as Viziagapatnam district of A.P.”(46)
References
(1) Ancient History of Western Asia, India and Crete - Bedrich Hrozny cited in
OHRJ VIII:1.p.1-40
(2) Ibid Rg.Veda 11-12 and ‘The Pryans’-V.G.Child p-12
(3) Das Nilakantha, Oriya language and culture, Pt.OHRJ VIII 1: p.1-40
(4) Vitebsky, Piers (1993) Dialogues with the Dead. Cambridge University Press,
U.K.
(5) Zide,N.H.ed(1966) Studies on comparative Austroasiatic linguistics, The

Hague,Mounton
(6) Pinnow, H.J.(1959) Versuch einer histroischen Laut lehre der Kharia-Sprache,
We esbaden’ OHO Harra Siewitz
(7) Cunningham, A(1884) ‘Report of a Tour in the Central Provinces & lower
Gangetic Doab in 1881-82’. Archeological Survey of India, Vol.XVii (Calcutta)
p.139
(8) Ibid
(9) Mazumdar, B.C.(1927) The Aborigines of the Highlands of Central India,

Calcutta, p1-13
(10) Roy,S.C.(1912) The Mundas and their country, Calcutta pp.52f
(11) Mohapatra Khageswar, Lanjia Saora, Tribal Language, Study Series, Vol.X.,
Academy of Tribal Dialects & Culture, H&TW Deptt., GOO, Bhubaneswar.
(12) Brihad Samita, Vol XIV, 10-22 and Cunningham,A Ibid p.128
(13) Cunningham,A (1884) Ibid
(14) Grigson,W.V(1944) The aboriginal Problem in the Central Provinces of Beras

(Nagpur) p-284
(15) Saletore, B.A (1935) cited his work “Early Tuluva” in ‘The Wild Tribes in
Indian History’, p-43
(16) Risley,H.H.(1891) The Tribes and Castes of Bengal, Calcutta,Vol.II, p.24
(17) Roy,S.C. and Roy R.C.(1937) The Kharias, Ranchi, Vol.I, p.30
(18) Cunningham, A (1891) Ibid, p.134
(19) Crook,W (1896) The Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and
Oudh (Calcutta), Vol.IV.pp.16f see also p.31
(20) Mazumdar, B.C.(1927) Aborigines of Central India, Calcutta, p-8
(21) Roy,S.N.(1927) The Sabaras of Orissa, Man in India, Vol.VIII, p.294
(22) Cobden-Ramsay,L.E.B(1910) Feudatory States of Orissa, Calcutta,Vol.V, pt.I,

p.276
(23) Russell, R.V. and Lal Hira(1916) The Tribes and Castes of Central Provinces
of India, London, Vol.II, p.332
(24) McCrindle, Ptolemy, pp.173; Oldham, J.B.O.R.S., XIII.p.198
(25) A.Cunningham, ‘Report of a Tour in the Central Provinces & lower Gangetic
Doab in 1881-82’. Archeological Survey of India, Vol.XVII (Calcutta,1884)
p.139
(26) Cunningham, A (1881) Ibid 116
(27) Cunningham, A (1881) Ibid 116
(28) Russell, R.V. and Lal Hira (1916) The Tribes and Castes of Central Provinces
of India, London, Vol.IV, p-500
(29) Garrick,H.B.W.(1885) Report of a tour through Behar Central India, Peshawar

and Yusufari, Reports of the Archeological Survey of India, Vol.XIX pp.320ff
and Crokke,W (1896) Tribes and Castes, Vol.IV pp.320 ff
(30) Cunningham, A (1891) - Ibid p-119
(31) Russell, R.V. and Lal Hira (1916) Vol.IV.p.504 also Nelson, A.E.(1910) Bilaspur
District Gazetteer (Allahabad) p.92
(32) Hullow,J.H.(1941) Modern India and the West edi.by L.S.S.O Maley,London,
p.436
(33) Choudhury, Mamata (1977) Tribes of Ancient India, I.M.Monograph No.7,

pp.105
(34) Sitapati, G.V. (1938-39) Journal of Andhra Historical Research Society, Vol.
XII, pp.576
(35) Patnaik,T (1990) ‘Shabar’ in Tribes of Orissa, H&TW Deptt, GOO,

Bhubaneswar, p-255
(36) Census of India, 1901; Gait, Bengal Report, p.422. Bhowmik,A.K.pp.10-13;

Hutton, J.H.p-285
(37) Risley, H (1915) The People of India (2nd edition) Calcutta p.400
(38) Aitreya Brahmana, VII, 18.cf. Sankhyana Sutra, XV.16
(39) Cunningham,A, p-509, Mc.Crindle, p.149
(40) Majumdar Sastri p.172; Cunnihgham p.509
(41) Mbh.Anusas P(Trans.by PC Roy) XIV.62, JOIB; 5, Sept.1955, pp 1-9
(42) Man in India, Vol.5, pp 28-55; A.P.,21, pp 94-5
(43) Mat.P., CXIV.445; Mask.P, LVII.47; LVIII,22, Br.P.,XXVII 54-57
(44) Brhat Sam, XIV.8, 9, 10; IX.15

(45) South Indian Inscription, 5, No.1312 cf also JAHRS 12, pt.11, p.54
(46) Choudhury Mamata(1977) Tribes of Ancient India, I.M.Monograph No.7,

Calcutta.
Sabara Population and Distribution
from Census Reports
As per the Kitts’s Compendium, the distribution of Saoras in 1881
is as follows:
Bengal ... 82,952
Central Provinces ... 130,719
Madras ... 131,981
North-West Provinces ... 2,099
Hyderabad ... 8
This makes a total of 347,759 individuals for the whole of India,

but was only approximate(1).

According to 1941 Census, no Saoras returned from the United
Provinces, Central India, Bengal or Gwalior(2). They were concentrated
mainly in Orissa, the Central Provinces (now Madhya Pradesh), Madras
and Bihar. In Orissa the names of 316,244 persons were recorded and
the main centres of the Saora population were(3).
In 1941, there were 316,244 Saoras in Orissa, of whom 95,479 and

29,521 were in the Ganjam Agency and plains respectively. There
were 52,518 Saoras in Koraput. Approximately, two-thirds of these
are Hill Saoras, whose number may thus be estimated at about
100,000.
1941 1981
Athgarh(Sundargarh) .. 6,584 2216
Balasore .. 1,993 9956
Cuttack .. 36,435 69492
Dhenkanal .. 27,270 54281
Ganjam(Agency) .. 95,479 181821
Ganjam(Plains) .. 29,521
1941 1981
Kalahandi .. 20,014 55605
Keonjhar .. 5,414 22469
Koraput .. 52,518 75913
Mayurbhanj .. 3,583 11038
Pal Lahara .. 1,239 -
Patna (Bolangir) .. 2,207 56268
Puri .. 26,385 49296
Sambalpur .. 7,602 112379
Verrier Elwin opined on the tribal census that there was

remarkable decrease in the figures from those recorded in 1931;
in Sambalpur district went down by 71,504, Ganjam Plains by
33,505, in Patna State by 24,743. The variations were mainly
due to redistribution of territory or change of official name of
their community in the hope of gaining social advancement,
sometimes to the inefficiency of semi-literate enumerators was
the observations, which he concluded from his studies in Bastar
tribal census (4).
The Saora in Orissa, the population in different years is given as

below(5):

1951 ... 1,91,401

1961 ... 3,11,614

1971 ... 3,42,757

1981 ... 3,70,061
According to 1981 census of Orissa report the Saora and Shabar

tribe population have been reported in two heads separately. But
as per T.Patnaik in his chapter of Shabar writes that Shabar are a
tribal community distributed in the coastal districts of Orissa; he
writes further that they are supposed to be a part of the great Savar
tribe to which Saora belong. The Shabar tribe is divided in two
main divisions (6). One is the Jara Shabar, descendants of Jara, who
killed Lord Srikrishna, and the other group is Vasu Shabar, the
devotees of Lord Jagannath. Thus for all real purposes the Shabar,
Sabaras Population & Distribution from Census Reports 21
an acculturated section of the Saoras are taken into one and the same
‘Sabara’ tribe and the population is reported to be 70073 in Orissa.
In the Central Provinces also the Saora population decreased by
24,106. In 1941 it was distributed as follows:
1941
Bilaspur ... 9,197
Chhattisgarh States ... 349
Raigarh ... 10,037
Raipur ... 22,039
Saugor ... 11,712
This gives the total figure of 42,734 individuals in Madhya Pradesh.
In 1941 there were 2,754 Saora population in Bihar, of which 1,752

were in Manbhum district (7).
With the adjustment of boundaries in 1936, most of the Saoras of

Madras came down to Orissa. But there remained in 1941 a total of
14,696, out of which 12,842 were in Vizagapatam Agency (8).
Comparing the above Census figures with the earliest reports,

it appears that the western Saoras have almost disappeared as a
separate community assimilating in their neighbours and even losing
their distinctive name.
References
(1) Kitts,E.J.(1985) Compendium of the Castes & Tribes found in India, Bombay,
p.17
(2) Census Report 1941, Govt.of India
(3) Elwin, Verrier, (1955) The Religion of an Indian Tribe Geoffrey Cumberlege,
Oxford, University Press Bombay
(4) Ibid
(5) Census Report 1951, 1961, 1971 and 1981, Govt.of India
(6) Patnaik.T (1990) “Shabar’ in Tribes of Orissa, H&TW.Deptt., GOO;

Bhubaneswar, p-255
(7) Elwin, Verrier (1955) The Religion of an Indian Tribe Geoffrey Cumberlege,
Oxford, University Press Bombay
(8) Ibid
Sabara Tribe in Orissa

Historically there is evidence to suggest that the Sabaras have been

squeezed into the present geography from a much wider areas. The
Saoras of Vizagapatam Agency, all show few signs of affinity with
the Hill Saoras of Ganjam and Koraput, remarked Elwin. In most
cases, they have assimilated themselves to the local population,
adopting its language, its dress, its manners and its gods(1). The
Saoras described by Russell and Hira Lal have customs different
from those of the Hill Saoras. They have totemistic exogamous
divisions, they worship such deities as Bhavani and Dulha Deo;
their women ‘abstain from wearing nose-rings’; they are famous
for their sorceries(2). The Saoras discussed by Risley are different
again(3). The Bankura Saoras had exogamous and totemistic septs;
Brahmins served them as priests; they forbade widow-remarriage(4).
The Orissa Saoras worship Thanpati and Bansuri or Thakurani. The
Bendkar Saoras described by Tickell in 1842 spoke Ho or Uriya;
they worshipped Kali; were particular about food-taboos; did not
collect ashes from a pyre; danced in Bhuiya fashion(5). Dalton who
describes the Bendkars as an isolated fragment of Sabaras, regards
them as members of the great Bhuiya family (6).
Hill Saoras of Ganjam and Koraput districts of Orissa:
For convenience, Verrier Elwin calls the Hill Saoras of the Agency
Tracts of the Ganjam and Koraput districts of the modern State of
Orissa as Saoras. They may be further defined by territory and by
culture. A Saora is some one calling himself by this name and living
within a rough rectangle above the Vamsadhara River; one side
of the rectangle stretches north from the Agency boundary near
Parlakimidi for about forty miles; another runs east from Gunupur
for twenty. The most typical of these Saoras live in the Gumma
and Serango Muttas (sub-divisions) of the Ganjam district, and in
the villages within ten miles of Pottasingi in Koraput. To the north
through Peddakimidi and Chinnakimidi are other Saora villages
which gradually change their character as they approach the country

of the Konds (7).
All the Saoras living in this area are not Hill Saoras. They are
distinguished by certain cultural traits. Their villages have long
streets, in which they build little shrines and erect menhirs. They
sacrifice buffaloes for their dead. Both male and female shamans
meet their religious needs. They have both terraced and shifting
cultivation. The men put on a long-cloth and their women wear a
hand-woven brown-bordered skirt and do not usually wear anything
else. The women greatly enlarge the lobes of their ears and have
a tatoo mark down the middle of the forehead. The tatoo colours
came from local black berry. The Hill Saoras have retained their
own language and very few of them speak any other.
Sitapati writes; “the country of the Hill Saoras must formerly have
extended southwards to include the three talukas of Palakonda,
Parlakimidi and Tekkali, but the Telugus, a stronger and more
cunning people, drove them back and those who did not leave
(and there are still hundreds of Saora villages in these talukas) they
assimilated, teaching them their language and many of their social
and religious customs”(8).
The Sabaras as usual have been assimilated into the surrounding

populations and are known by different names. Those who speak
Telugu are called Kampu Sabara - Kampu meaning Telugu: the word
actually is the name of a Telugu Sudra caste. Other ‘civilized’ Sabaras
are the Sudda and Sarda or ‘reformed’ Sabaras, the Based Sabaras,
who live towards the coastal areas (based means ‘salt’); the Bimma
Saoras in the direction of Jirango; may be due to the Bhima temple
of Mahendragiri and a number of other small groups. Some of these
retain their language, but most of them have lost or are losing it(9).
The Hill Saoras are called Lombo Lanjhia Saoras by their Oriya
neighbours in reference to the long-tailed loin-cloth which they wear.
Ramamurti writes that this nickname is resented by Saoras(10). But
Verrier Elwin writes that some Saoras are proud of being called
Lanjhia, which they take to be synonymous with ‘hillman’(11).
Sabara Tribe in Orissa 25
Further Elwin continues, Lombo Lanjhia is the only single term

which covers all the Hill Saoras as distinct from the plains Saoras of
the Kampu or Sudda type. The Hill Saoras themselves use a variety
of names for the different sections of their tribe. The most important
branch calls itself Jati. Jati is not a Saora word, but an Oriya one
which these Saoras have borrowed to show that they are the real
thing, the true caste (jati), pure in blood, custom and religion. The
only characteristic, however, that distinguishes them from other
Hill Saoras is that officially they do not eat beef. Another group is
called Arsi Saoras. Arsi means monkey, but the name has no totemic
reference and the only reason for it seems to be the curious affinity
which many Saoras have for monkeys, and perhaps the long-tailed
cloth. The Arsi Saoras eat monkeys, but so do most of the others.
Some of the Arsis weave cloth and are only Hill Saoras who do so.
The Jadu Saoras live on the tops of hills and in the wilder tracts
north of Serango. There is little difference between Jadu Saoras and
the Jati Saoras, for they claim that they do not eat beef. But Jati Saoras
insist that this untrue and that both the Jadu and Arsi Saoras have
no real reverence for the cow and are therefore inferior breeds.
The Kindal and Takala Saoras are basket-makers. They also

do general bamboo work, weaving mats and winnowing-fans and
making brooms. At Karja ceremonies the Kindals ceremonially
exchange mats and baskets for a share in the rice and meat of the
feast.
The Kumbit Saoras are potters. The Gontaras work in bell-metal

and brass. The Luaras are blacksmiths: they donot smelt iron and
their little forges can only handle the roughest work.
The different groups are vaguely endogamous. But nobody
thinks very much of it if a Jati Saora marries an Arsi or a Jadu. The
barriers between the cultivating and occupational groups are a little
stronger, yet an elopement between a Kumbit and a Jadu is not taken
very seriously and is forgiven after the payment of a small fine. It
is said that members of priests’ families have to be more careful: a
Jati Buyya cannot marry an Arsi Buyya or Jadu Buyya, still less-for
example-a Kumbit Poroja.
Yet members of all these groups look, dress and behave alike.
Even the blacksmiths and potters have their fields and cattle, and
when they are cultivating there is nothing whatever to distinguish
them from the others. They often live together in the same street.
At Boramsingi the Jatis, Takalas and Luaras live next door to one
another. Kumbit potters had their own street in Alangda. Arsis had
a special quarter in Tumulu, Takalas occupied most of Karanjaju. A
blacksmith’s forge is often from fear of fire, built outside a village
and the blacksmith may make his house nearby.
The Saora hills are remarkably homogeneious. The only other

inhabitants are the Doms and, in Ganjam district, the Paiks who work
for the Bissoyi and Patro overlords. These Doms and Paiks live in
their own villages, at Pottasingi, Nuagada, Gumma, Serango”(12).
References
(1) Elwin Verrier(1955) The Religion of an Indian Tribe, Geoffrey Cumberlege,

Oxford University Press, Bombay, p-4
(2) Russell,R.V. and Lal Hire (1916) The Tribes and Castes of Central Provinces
of India, London, Vol.IV, p.4
(3) Risley, H (1915) The People of India, Calcutta, Vol.II, p.242
(4) Ibid
(5) Dalton, E.T.(1872) Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal, Calcutta, p-149
(6) Ibid
(7) Elwin, Verrier (1955) The Religion of an Indian Tribe, Geoffrey Cumberlege,
Oxford University Press, Bombay, Risley, H.(1915) The People of India (2nd
Edi), Calcutta. Russell & Hiralal
(8) Sitapati, G.V.(1938) The Soras and their Country, Journal of Andhra Historical
Res.Society,Vol.XII, pp 578
Sabara Tribe in Orissa 27
(9) Elwin, Verrier (1955) The Religion of an Indian Tribe, p.8 Geoffrey Cumberlege,
Oxford University Press, Bombay, p.8
(10) Ramamurti,G.V.(1931) A Manual of the Soara (or Sabara) Language, Madras
(11) Elwin, Verrier (1955) The Religion of an Indian Tribe, Geoffrey Cumberlege,
Oxford University Press, Bombay, p.8
(12) Ibid, p 8-10

Sabaras in Literature
According to earlier history, there is evidence to show that the
Saoras at one time were a powerful tribe. Pliny writes, “next to the
Prasii, in the interior, came the Monedes and the Suari to whom
belonged Mount Maleus on which shadows fell towards the north
in winter, and to the south in summer, for six months alternately.
Ganguli considered Mount Maleus as the beautiful Malyagiri in Pal
Lahara, in whose vicinity Saoras are found. Verrier Elwin suggested
Mahendragiri of Paralakhemundi to be Mount Maleus(1).
Ptolemy writes; “towards the Ganges River are the Sabarai, in

whose country the diamond is found in great abundance; their towns
are Tasopion and Karikardama (2). Cunningham observes that it
places the Saoras to the south-west of the Gangetic delta and at a
short distance from the sea-coast(3). Yule considers that the Saoras
must have been further north in Dosarene, towards the territory of
Sambalpur which produced the finest diamonds in the world (4).
Lassen thought that Karikardama was somewhere in Singbhum so
also Oldham suggested that in the first centuries of the Christian era,
the Saoras occupied the inland hill and jungle country to the south
and south east of what is now the Ranchi District (5).
Cunningham writes; “the native notices of the Saoras ascend to a

much earlier period”. Although the hymns of the Rigveda do not
mention them clearly, they have a great deal to say about the Dasyus
who are identified by S. C. Roy with the great Kol race (6&7). He
further says; “the Mundas and other allied tribes appear to have
waged wars on equal terms with their Aryan opponents. At the
end the Aryans conquered the older inhabitants of the land and in
the first explicit reference to the Saoras, in the Aitareya Brahmana
they were classed with such Dasyu tribes as the Andhras, Pulindas,
Pundras and Mutibas and living as outcastes on the fringe of the
Sabaras in Literature 29
Aryan settlements. This places the Saoras in trans-Vindhyan India

about 800 B.C”.(8)
The Aitareya Brahmana has traditionally accounted the origin
of Sabaras and other similar tribes. It describes the Saoras as the
descendants of the elder sons of Visvamitra, who were cursed by
their father for an act of disobedience, and this epitomizes the general
attitude of the Hindu classical writers towards the ‘aboriginals’.
The curse was to become the progeny of the most abject races such
as the Andhras, the Pundras, the Sabaras, the Pulindas and the
Mutibas(9). According to Hunter, the Saoras appear in very early
Sanskrit writings and are spoken of by them with even more than
usual detestation. As the Sudras or aboriginal tribes, who had been
subdued into the servile caste of the Aryan Commonwealth, sprung
from the feet of Brahma, so the Sabara and other forest races, who
successfully withstood the invaders, proceeded from the sweat of
a cow. They were goblins, they were devils, they were raw-eaters,
they were man-eaters, and the Vishnu Purana has concentrated the
national antipathy towards them in its picture of a dwarfish race, with
flat noses and a skin the colour of a charred stake. Another sacred
text assures us that they were as black as crows, with tawny hair,
red eyes, a chin jutting out, short arms and legs, and the typical flat
nose. A third Sanskrit sage adds a protuberant belly, drooping ears
and an ogre mouth. They seem to have made their individuality very
strongly felt in ancient India. The beginning of their territory long
marked the last point of the Aryan advance. They are often spoken
of as border tribes, who resisted the Sanskrit invaders scattered their
armies and earned for themselves the name of the “terrible Saoras”
(10).
Some of the Saora references in the Mahabharata reflect this

attitude. The origin of the Saoras is traced to the cow of Vasishtha
Nandini, which was desired by Viswamitra, King of Kanyakubja
(Kanauj). He offered the owner an arbuda, or ten crores of his own
kine, or even his kingdom itself, in exchange, but in vain. He then
tried to take the cow by force. To prevent this from her tari, she
began to rain showers of burning coals all round. The cow attacked
Visvamitra’s troops; from her tail she brought forth Pahlavas, from
her udders Dravidas and Sakas, from her vagina Yavanas, from her
dung Sabaras, from her urine Kanchis, from the froth of her mouth
Paundras, Yavanas, Simhalas, Barbaras, Vasas, Chivukas, Pulindas,
Chinas, Hunas, Keralas and numerous other Mlechchas (11). This
army routed the soldiers of Visvamura. This is the reading of the
Calcutta text, and it suggests a link between the Saoras and the
Kanchis, people of Conjeevaram in the south, the one originating
from dung, the other from urine. But in the text published by the
Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute the Sabaras are associated
with the Sakas, a northern people. The attitude of the ruling race,
however, is clear; the Saoras can be used as mercenaries, but they are
not fit, in view of their birth from dung, to be admitted into Aryan
society. As per P.C.Roy’s version Elwin has interpreted it.
The above description of the cow when placed on map of India with
the head facing to north, the distribution of the tribes as said above in
the Indian continent condition stands true to the geography.
The most famous of the epic references to the Saoras is that

connected with Lord Ramachandra. They are all ultimately derive
from Valmiki’s Ramayana where, in Book III, Canto 74, it reads
how Lord Rama and Lakshman, in the course of their search for
Sita, came to the banks of lake or river, Pampa, lying to the west of
‘Rishyamukha’s wood-crowned height’, where an aged ascetic Savari
had made her home. Before her time the hermitae was occupied by
Matanga and other rishis, and the neighbouring forest renamed after
Matanga. When she knew that her visitors were on the way, Savari
collected the fruits for which the place was famous and offered
them to Rama for his comfort. She introduced Rama the hermitage
saying, ‘See the charming great forest abounding in flowers and
fruit, resembling a bank of clouds, filled with all sorts of deer and
birds; this is famed on earth as Matanga’s forest’. Rama then gave
her permission to depart from this world. In the presence of the
two brothers, Savari went into a fire and ascended into the heavens
while all the sky was lighted by her glory(12).
It is said that Valmiki introduced the character of Savari for the
reason, a clue as to what tribes were then inhabiting the Forest of
Dandaka, and she has no real bearing on the story and the incident
does not advance the plot in any way. Ramadas rather optimistically
believes that it is from the Saora language that we may discover
the real meaning of some of the names in the Ramayana. Thus he
derived the name of Lanka, the Rawan’s capital, from the Saora
lankan, meaning tall, high or above, which in most cases described
the characteristics of the city of Lanka on the Trikuta. Similarly, he
suggests that the low-lying Janasthana is derived from the Saora
jaitan means below. The Forest of Dandaka itself, which was known
for its ‘lucid pools, floods and lakes, beautiful stream from their
parent hills’ does not mean the Forest of King Danda, instead it is
‘full of water’, from the Saora word for water dan or dak, repeated
twice for emphasis. But these views have been controverted by
Ambika Prasad, who points out for example, that Lanka really means
‘white’ and that the name refers to the shining white buildings of
the city(13).
Ramadas had also made an ingenious attempt to identify the

Vanars of the Ramayana with the Hill Saoras. Both Vanars and Saoras
are afraid of strangers; both delight in rivalry; both love alcoholic
refreshment; both enjoy a younger brother to marry an elder
brother’s widow; both drink from leaf-cups. More convincing is the
point that while the Vanarmen had tails, the women apparently did
not have ‘this appendage’. This thus suggestive that the ‘monkey-
hosts’ of Sugriva were none other than the Arsi (monkey) Saoras
with their long-tailed loin-cloth. ‘Since the Vanars of the Ramayana
resemble in dress, customs and manners the Saoras of today and
many of the names of persons, places and objects existing between
the Ganges and Lanka are of Saora origin, it is clear that Sugriva and
his men were Saoras or of tribes allied to them(14 & 15).
To this we may add the very high place which ‘Ramma’ has in
Saora mythology, though obviously Ramadas’s identifications can
be no more than conjectural.
According to Griffths, the story of Savari is told and exist today

in many different forms. The Kols of Middle India regard her as
their mother; children are born in answer to her prayers; by her
merit they are clothed and fed. The Kol tradition differs in many
particulars from the story in the Ramayana. Rama, Lakshman

and Sita were together in exile in the forest and one day when
they were very hungry they met ‘Shavari’ who fed them with
wild plums. After this she used to gather the fruits daily for her
divine visitors, but one day she forgot what she was doing and
as she picked them she took a bite from each before dropping it
into her basket. When she returned home, Lord Rama asked her
for the plums, but when she realized what she had done, she was
ashamed to offer them to him. But he pressed her to do so, and
in spite of the fact that they were half eaten, Sita and Lord Rama
enjoyed them. But Lakshman refused to touch them-for to do so
was to eat the ‘leavings’ of an aboriginal and as a result he was
struck down by an arrow and only recovered when he changed
his mind. Lord Rama was so pleased with the woman’s devotion
that when he left her home, he gave her the boon that she should
have many descendants and that they should never lack for food
and clothing(16).

Other Kol stories say that Shivari or Sheori was a devotee of
Bhagavan, who is sometimes called Siva and sometimes Krishna. She
used to follow her lord wherever he went, gathered wild plums for
him, and spread large leaves for his couch in the forest. According
to the Kols, Shivari’s hermitage was near the modern Seori-Narayan,
not far from Raipur(17).
Other passages are equally derogatory in tone. ‘He (Siva) assumes

the form also of men and women, pretas and pisachas, Kiratas and
Sabaras and of all aquatic animals’- Saoras are placed between
goblins and fishes. Janamejaya, son of Parikshit, is reported as saying
that wretches like himself had forfeited all claim to the respect of
the world and after death would have to dwell in hell like Pulindas
and Sabaras(18).
But in other passages there is a change of attitude. When Mandhatri

asks what duties should be performed by a number of peoples, of whom
the Saoras are one, who have sprung from the four main castes who
reside in the domain of the Aryan kings, Indra replies: “All the robber
tribes should serve their parents, their preceptors and other seniors and
recluses living in the woods. All the robber tribes should also serve their
kings. The duties inculcated in the Vedas should also be followed by
them. They should perform sacrifice in honour of the Pitris (manes),
dig wells, give water to thirsty travellers, give away beds and make
other reasonable presents to Brahmins. In this passage there appears
to be recognition of the Saoras as of the same blood as the ruling race,
for they are derived from one of the four castes, even though they are
degraded because they have become a robber tribe. It is the King’s duty
to reclaim them by teaching them the laws of the land and the ideals of
piety(19).
Mr.Saurindranath Roy suggests that this change of attitude may

have been due to the influence of Buddhism or to a missionary zeal
on the part of the rulers to Hinduize the tribal people as well as
the foreign settlers in the country, refusing to make any distinction
between them.
Another passage which refers to the Saoras in friendly terms is

that which places a Sabaralaya, a residence of Saoras, in the northern
region inhabited by Mlechchas. A Brahmin named Gautama
belonging to the middle country went to this region and reached a
village which was peopled by Dasyus. He was kindly received by
one of them who was wealthy, truthful and munificent. The house
of this Dasyu is described in the text as a Sabaralaya, and we gather
that the village was a colony of Saoras who lived by hunting birds,
their chief weapons being bows and arrows. They were sufficiently
well-to-do to present Gautama with new clothes and on his arrival
he was offered and accepted the hand of a widowed girl, whose
husband had recently died(20).
According to Markandeya Purana, the Parna-Sabaras were among

the people who lived in the right fore-foot (of the Tortoise)(21). The
Sabaras were also mentioned along with the Pulindas in the same
work as living in the southern regions. The Matsya Purana includes
the Sabaras also among the daksina-patha-janapadas (southern
countries)(22).
The Sauri of Pliny and the Sabarae of Ptolemy were identified by

Cunningham with the Sabaras or Suars, a wild race of cultivators
who live in the jungles without any inhabitation. They may be said
in general to have occupied the central parts of India. But they have
left their relics in other provinces as well. Cunningham identified the
famous place of pilgrimage, Savari Narayan, lying on the high road
from Bilaspur to Jagannath, about thirty five miles to the south-west
of Bilaspur and seventy five miles north-east to Raypur, with the
chief town of the Sabaras (the Sorae Nomades of the foreign writers)
called Sora Arcati regia. The people of the locality refer the name of
Savari Narayan to the Srmana Savari of the Ramayana mentioned
above. The oldest building existing at Savari Narayan is the temple
of the Sun (arka) and this was probably what the foreigners referred
to when they spoke of the Arcati regia. That the temple now holds
a figure of Visnu is no justification for supporting that it was a
Vaisnavite temple. The existence of an original dedication to the Sun
god is proved by the figure of the god being placed over the middle
of the doorway(23).
The poet Bana tells the story of how Harsha Vardhana,

immediately after his accession in A.D.607, went to search for his
sister Rajya Sri in the wild forests of the Vindhyan Mountains. As he
travelled across the hills, he met a Chief named Vyaghraketu, son of
Sarabhaketu, and Nirghata, commander-in-chief of the Bhukampa
Sabaras. ‘The King made enquiries of the Sabara Chief regarding
Rajya Sri; he replied that no woman answering to the description
given by the King was known to have been seen in his jungles, but
promised to make vigorous efforts for her discovery. He suggested
that she might have taken refuge in a hermitage and guided the King
thither. Although the names seem to be fictitious-the Bhukampa
Sabaras means the ‘earthquake’ Sabaras- the story suggests that
at this time the Saoras were still powerful in the Vindhyan Hills.
According to Bana, Sabaras were described to be lived in the forests
of the Vindhyas, who killed the lions for the pearls attached to their
nails(24).
Ridding wrote in his Kadambari; Bana opens his account of the

Sabara army with a procession of fifteen unflattering similes. The
Sabaras were like ‘all the nights of the dark fortnight rolled into one’,
‘a crowd of evil deeds come together’, ‘a caravan of curses of the
many hermits dwelling in the Dandaka Forest’. Their leader’s name
was Matanga. ‘He was as the child of the Vindhya Mountains, the
partial avatar of death; the born brother of wickedness, the essence of
the Iron Age.’ Like the trident of Durga, ‘he was wet with the blood
of buffaloes’-as most of his descendants still are. ‘Like a summer
day, he always showed a thirst for deer. Yet Bana cannot altogether
withhold his admiration. Horrible as he was, he yet inspired awe by
reason of his natural greatness and his form could not be surpassed.
He was hard as iron.
And he was certainly good to look at. He filled the woods with
beauty that streamed from him sombre as dark lotuses, like the water
of Yamuna; he had thick locsk curled at the ends and hanging on his
shoulders. To ward off the heat he had a swarm of bees which flew
above him like a peacock-feather parasol. Yet he bore the marks
of his profession; his shoulders were rough with scars from keen
weapons often used to make blood-offerings to Kali; his chest was
scarred ‘by constant and ceaseless fatigue’. He was surrounded by
hounds whose throats were covered with strings of cowries(25).
‘Ah, he says, ‘the life of these men is full of folly, and their career is
blamed by the good. For their one religion is offering human flesh to
Durga; their meat, mead and so forth, is a meal loathed by the good;
their exercise in the chase; their shastra is the cry of the jackal; their
teachers of good and evil are owls; their knowledge is skill in birds;
their bosom friends are dogs; their kingdom is in deserted woods;
their feast is a drinking bout; their friends are the bows that work
cruel deeds; and arrows, with their heads smeared, like snakes, with
poison, are their helpers; their song is what draws on bewildered
deer; their wives are the wives of others taken captive; their dwelling
is with savage tigers; their worship of the gods is with the blood of
beasts, their sacrifice with flesh, their livelihood by theft; the snake’s
hood is their ornament; their cosmetic, elephants’ ichor; and the very
wood wherein they dwell is utterly destroyed root and branch.’(26)

The love of spirituous liquor, animal-sacrifice, marriage by capture,
the love of dogs, axe-cultivation still exist in Sabar society(27).
There is some evidence that the Saoras were not only a robber
tribe, but well organized to arms, There is a reference to the ‘terrible
Saoras’ created by Vasishtha’s cow who caused great carnage among
the troops of Visvamitra. Cunningham considered that the Saoras
were among the seven tribes of Dasyus inhabiting the mountains,
the Utsavansanketas, who were conquered by the Pandavas.
Among those vanquished by Saineya, Krishna’s charioteer, were the
Kambojas, Sakas, Sabaras, Kiratas and Varvaras; on this occasion the
earth was covered with the helmets and shaven and bearded heads
of the Dasyus.
It is not easy to draw any conclusion from the references in

the Mahabharata about the location of the Saoras in early times.
Sometimes the name Sabara occurs in association with northern,
sometimes with southern tribes. In one passage they are definitely
described as a southern people.
“I shall now, O son of Kunti, speak to you about the sinful creatures
of the earth. Listen to me. These men, O King, are born in the
southern region and are called Andhrakas, Guhas, Pulindas, Sabaras,
Chuchukas, Madrakas. Those that are born in the northern regional
shall also mention. They are Yavvanas, Kambojas, Gandharas,
Kiratas and Barbaras. All of them, O sire, are sinful and move on the
earth characterized by practices similar to that of Chandalas, ravens
and vultures. In the Krita (Golden) Age they were nowhere on the
earth.”(28)
Two other references to the origin of the Saoras may be given. In

the first we read:
The Mekalas, the Dravidas, the Lathas, the Paundras, the

Konwasiras, the Saundikas (wine-settlers), the Darvas, the Chauras,
the Sabaras, the Kiratas, the Yavanas, and numerous other tribes of
Kshattriyas have become degraded to the status of Sudras through
the wrath of the Brahmanas(29).
Then some of the Kshattriyas afflicted with the terror of

Jamadagni’s son, entered mountain fastnesses, like deer afflicted by
the lion. Of them that were unable, through fear of Rama (that is,
Rama of the axe, Jamadagni’s son) to discharge the duties ordained
for their order, the progeny became Vrishalas (Sudras) owing to their
inability to find Brahmanas. In this way the Dravidas and Abhiras
and Pundras together with the Sabaras became Vrishalas, though
these men had Kshattriya duties assigned to them(30).
During the first thousand years of the modern era, we have only
a few scattered references to the Saoras. The Puranas describe them
as Dakshina-patha-vasinah and Vindhyamaulika, which places them
towards the south. In the period A.D.500 to 600. Amar Sinha classes
the Saoras with such barbarians as Kiratas and Pulindas. Varaha
Mihara speaks of the ‘naked Sabaras and the Parna Sabaras’ as
Sauris and Kirnas as living in the south. Cunningham quotes Kern
as holding that the Parna Sabara were ‘manifestly the Phyllitae of
Ptolemy’: he explained the name as ‘feeding upon leaves’.(31) But
Cunningham suggests that since the Juangs, a ‘cognate race’, still
wear leaves, it is more probable that the term means ‘leaf-clad’-as late
as 1886 the Saoras of Ganjam were reported as wearing leaves(32).
Varaha Mihira also speaks of the ‘Sabara savages’ and the ‘savage
Sabaras and Pulindas’.(33)
The Natya-Sutra, attributed to Bharata Muni of the sixth century

A.D., refers to the Saoras as charcoal-burners, and lays down the rule
that when they or other barbarians such as the Odras are represented
on the stage, they should be made to talk vibhasa, which probably
means that they were to use a rough dialect flavoured with tribal
words(34).
Though many of the Saoras are wild and savage enough, they are
not altogether unattractive in their simplicity. A Saora messenger
appears, ‘bow in hand, with his hair tied up in a knot behind with
a creeper, black, and wearing a loin-cincure of bhilwan leaves(35).
Other Saoras are ‘adorned with peacock’s feathers and elephant’s

teeth, clothed in tiger’s skins and living on the flesh of deer(36).
The palace of the Saora Chief Ekakikesarin is ‘crowded with Saoras,
having its high walls covered with the tusks of elephants, adorned
with tiger skins; in which the women had for garments the tails of
peacocks, for necklaces strings of gunja fruit and for perfume the
ichor that flows from the forehead of elephants(37). Saora women
dance ‘delighted’ at a great feast.
The ruling Saoras are wealthy and are accepted on equal terms
by other Kings. The Saora King, Mayavatu, is able to entertain a
visiting host, ‘giving them all splendid baths, unguents, food, arms
and beds’. King Amaradatta and his son camp in his palace at
Kanchanapura and spend an agreeable day there, with ‘song, music
and dancing’(38).
And finally, Mrigankadatta says to the Saora King Mayavatu,
“When the Creator made you here, he infused into your composition
qualities borrowed from your surroundings, the firmness of the
Vindhya hills, the courage of the tigers, and the warm attachment
to friends of the forest lotuses”(39).
The Saora King in Jimutavahana’s story is merciful and intelligent;
he goes to find pearls on the heads of elephants and on the way meets
an equisite maiden ‘like the digit of the moon resting in the lap of
an autumn cloud’; she is riding on a lion. He at once thinks of his
friend, Vasudatta, goes to fetch him, takes him to the Himalayas,
and arranges his marriage. Here we have an important Hindu of
good family, son of a rich merchant, cherishing the friendship of
a tribal Chief. Indeed he considers that he has attained all that the
heart could wish in having Manovati for a wife and the Saora prince
for a friend. It is interesting to note the effect of this friendship on
the Saora; he spent most of his time with Vasudatta, finding that he
took less pleasure in dwelling in his own country than he formerly
did(40).
The King of Vatsa also owed much to a Saora who came from the
mountain of the sunrise and guided him to find his wife(41).
Vishnudatta describes the husband of the wanton Saora girl, in

whose house he stayed, as performing an act of ‘surprising courage,

characteristic of men of mighty minds’(42).
Elwin remarked, ‘The important thing about these references is

that they show that, in Somadeva’s time, the tribal peoples were
regarded with respect and even affection; there is indeed a certain
sentimentalizing of them, a Rousseau-like attitude that there may be
something to be said for the noble savage and his free life of skins
and leaves and feathers’(43).
Sabaras and Mauryan Empire:
The Sabara aid was called into requisition in the troublesome

times of the foundation of the Mauryan Empire. This is evident
from Visakhadatta well known drama as referred Mudrarakasa says
that Raksasa, on his way to Prince Malayaketu (who summoned
him on hearing the alleged plot), told Priyamvadaka, thus, “Let
the chiefs that follow the Prince be informed in my name that they
should proceed en route in the proposed order, now that they are
nearer to Kusumapura every day - Khasa and Sabara chief should
march in the var in battle array after me. Yavana chiefs should be
careful to keep the centre along with Gandhara chiefs. Valiant S’aka
chiefs accompanied by Huna chiefs should be in the rear. And the
remaining group of chief, namely the king of Kuluta, etc. should
post themselves about the person of Prince Malayaketu in the line
of march”.(44)
Saletore (1935) says again as to how the fact that the foreign or
Mleccha Kings having helped either side during the eventful days
of the establishment of the Mauryan Kingdom being thus proved
beyond doubt, the question arises - How do we account for the
presence of the foreign powers, especially the forces of the Kiratas
and the S’baras, whom Candragupta enlisted in his service during
the investment of Pataliputra?
This on analysis can be termed that the S’abara tribes who gave
assistance to Candragupta Maurya was not merely adventitious, but
may have been, an identity of interests between the future Emperor
and the Sabara tribes, he concluded.
The Maha vamso rannates that after the nine Nandas, Chanakya
anointed a glorious youth by name Chandragupta, as king over all
Jambudipa, born of a noble clan the Moriyas (45).
The strength of assertions of Visakhadatta and those of Manu

confirmed by the statements in the Mahabharata it is permissible
to ask whether or not there was a distinct S’abara element in the
parentage of Chandragupta said Saletore.
Further, Chanakya calls Chandragupta by the name Vrsala

Maurya (46). The term Vrsala seems to have had some particular
significance in the code of law givers. Under that denomination
were included a number of ancient tribes, as we had an occasion
of explaining on the evidence of the Mahabharata and the Code of
Manu among whom were the Kiratas and the S’abaras.
The word Vrsala appears thus in Brhadharanyaka Upanisad says,

‘when the monthly illness seizes his wife...................Let no Vrsala
Vrsali touch her (47). A Snataka was forbidden to go on journey
with outcastes or with a women or with a S’udra who was evidently
no other than Vrsala(48).
Manu pronounced the following verdict on those who dared to

violate justice:- ‘For divine justice, a bull (ursa); that (man) who
violates it, the gods consider to be a S’udra (Vrsala); let him therefore,
beware of violating justice’(49).
According to Saletore from the evidences so available and

Chanakya pointing out Chandragupta Maurya as to Vrsala parentage
and the substantial aid which he had received from the S’abaras and
the Kiratas, who appear frequently in the drama Kudraraksasa,
suggest that Chandragupta, though considered to be Ksatriya by
virtue of his remarkable military achievements, in the wider sense
of the term - may have been of S’abara or Kirata (i.e. Sudra) stock
not only from his mother’s side, as is admitted, but also from his
parental line, about which, however, it must be confessed, direct

evidence is not forthcoming in history.
Similarly, Saletore (1935) gave the blood relationship of Gupta

royal house, Nisadas with Sabara tribe(50). The reasons to place
Dasa or Kaivartas as S’baras do not appear convincing at this stage.
The Brhatsamhita also confirms the statements in Ramayana that

Sabaras the wicked Dasyus, were found in southern region of Central
India who were given over to the practice of evil customs (51). But
the same epics refers to the pious S’abara figure to Sabari in Rishi
Matangas abode (52).
In the Brhatsamhita it continues that the western and south-eastern

homes of the Sabaras and the Nisadas together with the habitat of a
particular branch of Sabara called Nagna-parna-Sabars, which reads
as follows:
Vrsanalikeracarmadvipa Vindhyanta-vasinah-tripuri |
s’mas’ radhara Hemakutya Vyalagriva Mahagrivah ||
Kiskindha-kanthakasthala Nisada-rastrani purika Das’arnah|
saha Nagna-parna-S’abaraiah-as’lesadhyaitrike des’ah|| (53)
The same author couples the Sabaras with the Vangas, the Suhmas,
the Kalinga, the Bahlikas, the S’akas, the Yavanas, the Maghadas,
and the people of Pragjytissa, Cina and Kamboja (54).
The Nagna-Parna-Sabaras as said above were not naked leaf-eating
S’abaras interpreted by Kern and Fleet (55), but were leaf-wearing
Sa’baras as Gerini rightly pointed out (56).
Sabari-Narayana or Serori-Narayana:
Russel and Hira Lal also refer to the story of Savari, which they
attribute to ‘local tradition’. Their version traces the origin of the
Saoras ‘to the celebrated Seori of the Ramayana, who is supposed to
have lived somewhere near the present Seori-Narayan in the Bilaspur

district and to have given her name to this place. Ramachandra in
his wanderings met her, ate the plums which she had gathered for
him after tasting each one herself, and out of regard for her devotion
permitted her name to precede his own of Narayan in that given to
the locality. It will be noted that in this version of the story the Saora
woman tastes the plums as an act of devotion, presumably to see if
they are sufficiently ripe, not from forgetfulness. The Saoras living
in this area still call themselves Seori-Narayan Saoras. The Bilaspur
Gazetteer (1910) says that Seori-Narayana gets its name from the
hermit Sawar who worshipped Jaganath there(57).
The claim of Seori-Narayan to be the scene of this incident is not

undisputed. The people of Sirpur, to the north-east of Rajim and
forty miles lower down the right bank of the Mahanadi, claim that
the anchoret Savari offered her plums to Rama. The Ramayana itself
describes the Pampa lake or river, on whose banks Savari lived, as
being to the west of ‘Rishyamukha’s wood-crowned height’. But if
Sirpur was the site of Savari’s hermitage, then the Mahanadi must
be identified with the Pampa, and the hills to the east with the
Rishyamukha Mountain, and this is improbable. Pargiter places
Pampa as far west as Sholapur, and S.N.Roy declares that Matanga’s
hermitage was in the neighbourhood of Nasik(57). The matter can
hardly be concluded with certainty, but the general modern tradition
is that Savari lived somewhere in what is now Chattisgarh and it
is probable that the Panchapsaras like, where Rama spent ten years
of his exile, was in this region(58). It is of much significance, says
Mazumdar, that ‘so late as the eight century A.D. Pallavamalla of
South India in recording his military expedition against Udayana-the
ruler of this tract-has called this country the land of the Sabaras’.
Swiris (of Ayodhya) Azimgarh and Ghazipur:
According to Garrick, Swiris or Saoras once extended as far as the

present districts of Azimgarh and Ghazipur near the modern town of
Ghazipur indeed there still exist ruins which are supposed to mark
the site of an ancient Swiri town and in and around Vaidyanath
Garrick discovered many remains to which he attributed a Swirani

origin. He records, they were Solar Race and their progenitor was
Sabaran. Their ancient capital, long before the time of Rama, was
Ayodhya, but in the reign of the fourth Swiri King Sainjith it was
removed to Vrithavr, near Kasiji, in which was the royal palace. In
this King’s reign and in that of his successors many fortresses and
castles were built and the races who inhabited them were called
Swiris by all. When king Purmedh, whose family is fabled to have
belonged to the Silver Age, ascended the throne, great were the
rejoicings of the Cow and the Brahmin; old and young, rich and
poor, were contented and happy(60).
Brighu, Ragh and Nag-Vansa and Swiris (Sabaras) in Ayodhya:
Again Garrick wrote, ‘In the meantime other powerful tribes

became envious, and the three races of Bhrighu, Raghu and Nag
entered that kingdom very humbly and became the Swiris’ servants.
It is related that some time after the advent of these three tribes
into Swirani territory, a tributary king died, on which there was
a large gathering of people, and these vansas slew the Swiris by a
stratagem which their menial capacity greatly facilitated, namely,
when their masters (the Swiris) called for sherbet, these foreigners
mixed a herbaceous poison, yhr, in the beverage, on drinking which
large numbers of the Swiri-vansa died instantly. Then the Swiris,
being considerably weakened, and thus affording an easy chance of
conquest, an attack was made by the Bhrighu-vansa, Raghu-vansa
and Nag-vansa conjointly, in which the three races were victorious,
and in this manner the kingdom passed from the race of Swiri, and
the descendants of Bhrighu (contrary to custom) began to reign
in their stead. The few Swiris who escaped from this great war
fled to the woods and lived in concealment, some taking refuge in
mountain-caves, others going on durjatra, or distant sacred places of
pilgrimage unknown to the three tribes, who entered their kingdom
as cupbearers and usurped their throne’(61).
Garrick considers that this event may be assigned to some time

in the first 225 years of the present era; this means that the people
who were once the rulers of the vast tract of country before named,
of which they are the aborigines, have been homeless wanderers for
nearly 2000 years.

Sabara chief Tarangatama in Kannada literature of
Abhinava Pampa:
The Kannada writer Abhinava Pampa mentions about the havoc

which the Sabaras caused to the people. He calls the Sabara leader
Tarangatama, king of the great Mleccha-desa, with his capital at
Ardhapura, north of Dhanadacala and south of Vijayardhacala.
His encampment (sibira) was Mayuramale. He plundered in every
direction the territory of king Janaka including Kapota, Kamboja,
etc. and caused such great havoc that the king had at last to seek the
aid of Rama and Laksmana. In the battle the Sabara leader was of
course defeated(62).
Kharia traditional story and Sabaras:
There is an interesting link between the Saoras and the Lord

Jagannath is found in a Kharia tribe tradition of Mayugbhanj. Out
of the primeval egg, from which came the ancestors of the Bhanja
Kings, the first Purans and the first Brahmana Kharias, came also
the ancestor of Jara Saora. The present descendants of Jara Saora are
the Brahmana Kharias, who have the privilege of placing of silken
cloth over the sacred car of Jagannath at the Rath-jatra festival at the
capital of Mayurbhanj, just as the descendants of Vishwabasu Saora
do at Puri. Jara is the name of an old hunter in the Mahabharata, who
shot Krishna in the forest. Russell and Hira Lal say that this Jara was
himself a Saora, the first ancestor of the tribe, and that it was in the
form of a deer that he shot Krishna. (63)
The word Jara resembles Jadu, or jungly, which is the name of

one of the divisions of the Hill Saoras, and in fact Maltby gives it
with this spelling in his early Manual of the Ganjam District. Risley
says that the Saoras of the Orissa Tributary States were divided into
four branches-Bendkar, Parira, Jharua and Palli, and it may be that
Jharua is another variant of the same name. Roy suggests that it
will not be unreasonable to infer that the Hill Kharias who claim to
have been intimately associated or connected with the Jara-Saoras
may have found their way from their original home in some part
of the central hill belt of India by the same route as the Saoras of
the Ganjam district, and thus reached the Mayurbhanj hills which
became the centre of their subsequent dispersion(64).
The Sabaras and Musahar, Bhuiyas and Cheros tribe:
Another tribe whose traditions appear to connect them with the

Saoras is the Musahar, which also has associations with the Bhuiyas
and Cheros. Nelson recorded the following legend. “Arjuna had
retired to the forest to meditate on the 108 names of Siva, and to test
him the god caused a wild boar to run before him. But Arjuna first
finished his devotions and then seized his bow and arrow and gave
chase to the animal which led him to a hermit’s hut. Here Siva and
Parvati had assumed the disguise of a Saora and his wife. Arjuna
and the Saora both commenced pursuing the boar and when the
animal had been hunted down and killed, a contention arose as to
who had the right claim to it. It was agreed that the matter should
be decided next day by a wrestling match. Arjuna wrestled with
the disguised god all the day till sundown, when he pleaded that he
must go and repeat his evening devotions, to which his antagonist
consented. In the course of these Arjuna realized who the Saora really
was and, returning to the hut, threw himself at the feet of his divine
antagonist and received his blessings. Now in this hermitage there
was a maiden of unknown parentage whom the hermit cherished
as a daughter. She had just completed her period and after bathing
returned to the hut where she found Siva and Parvati in their Saora
disguise. The eye of the god fell on her. From the glance of that eye
she became pregnant, and gave birth in due course to twins, one a
male and the other a female, who bore an exact resemblance to the
Saora and his wife whom she had seen in the hermitage. The hermit,
judging from the uncouth features and dark complexion of the babies
that she had been guilty of unchastity with some wild man of the
woods, sent her out of his hermitage. From the two children whom
she had borne sprang the Musahar tribe.”(65)
References
(1) Bostock,J and Risley, H.T.(1856) The Natural History of Pliny, London&
Ganguli,M.M. (1912) Orissa and her remains, Calcutta
(2) Sastri,S.M.(1927) Mc Crindle’s Ancient India as described by Ptolemy,

Calcutta p-172
(3) Cunningham,A (1884) Ancient Geography of India, pp 508-9 (4) Sastri,

S.M.(1927)cited Yule p-173
(5) Lassen Oddham,C.E.A.W.(1927) Diamonds in Bihar and Orissa, J.B.O.R.S.Vol.

XIII, p-128
(6) Roy,S.C (1922) The Mundas and their country, Calcutta, p-55
(7) Rig.Veda 11, 14, 6
(8) Aitareya Brahmana, VII, 18.2; Dutt,N.K.(1925) The Aryanisation of

India, Calcutta, p-68 and Raychaudhuri, H 1932) Political History of India,
p-64
(9) Aitareya Brahmana,VII.18. Cf.Sankhayana Sutra, XV.16
(10) Hunter,W.W.(1872) Orissa, London & Calcutta, Vol.I, pp.176f
(11) Mahabharata I, 174
(12) Valmiki Ramayana, cited by Elwin Verrier (1950) p-21,22
(13) Prasad Ambika(1926) Some names in the Ramayana, J.B.O.R.S.Vol.XII, pp-

290ff
(14) Ramadas,G(1925) The Aboriginal Tribes in the Ramayana, Man in India,

Vol.V, pp.28ff
(15) Ramadas,G(1925) The Aboriginal Names in the Ramayana,J.B.O.R.S., Vol.

XI,pp-41ff
(16) Griffths,W.G.(1946) The Kol Tribe of Central India, Calcutta, p.207

(17) Ibid
(18) Mahabharata XIII, 14
(19) Ibid, XII, 64
(20) Ibid, XII, 168, 171, 173
(21) Markandeya Puran, I.A. XXII, p-188
(22) Gerini, Ptolemy pp-749, 809 cited by Cunningham,A
(23) Cunningham,A(1924), Ancient Geography of India edited by S.M.Sastri,

Calcutta, A.S.R.XXI, pp-94-95
(24) Daji Bhau (1874) Discovery of complete Manuscript copies of Bana’s

Harsha Charitra, J.B.B.R.A.S, Vol.X, pp-39-41 (25) Ridding,C.M(1896) trans-
lated the Kadambari of Bana, London, pp-27ff
(26) Ibid
(27) Elwin Verrier(1955) The Religion of an Ancient Tribe, Geoffrey Cumberlege,

Oxford University press, p-17 & 18
(28) Mahabharata, XII, 107
(29) Ibid XIII, 35
(30) Ibid XIV, 29
(31) Brihad Samhita, Vol.XIV, 10
(32) Cunningham,A (1884), Report of a Tour in the Central Provinces and lower
Gangetic Doab in 1881-82; Archeological Survey of India, Vol.XVII, Calcutta.
p-128 Cunningham, A(1924), Ancient Geography of India edited by S.M.Sastri,
Calcutta
(33) Brihad Samhita, Vol.IX, 15, XXXII, 1
(34) Matsya Purana, 114, p-46-48
(35) Penzer,N.M (1924-28) The Ocean of Story, London, Vol.II, p-158
(36) Ibid, Vol.VII, p-167
(37) Ibid, Vol.IX, p-46

(40) Ibid, Vol.II, p-141 ff
(41) Ibid, Vol.III, p-67
(42) Ibid, Vol.III, p-94
(43) Elwin, Verrier (1955) The Religion of an Indian Tribe, p-21
(44) Mudraraksana,VV.II, p-75(text) cited by Saletore,B.A.(1935) in The Wild

Tribes in Indian History, Lahore
(45) Geiger Bode, Mahavamso, I.H.Q; VIII, p-27 and p-466
(46) Mudraraksana, Acts I & III; and ibid, pp-4-38 (trans)
(47) The Upanisads, V.13, pp-218-9(SBE.XV) 20
(48) Budhayana, Dharmastra, I-1, 32 and Jayaswal, ABORI, p-53
(49) Mazumdar E.I.XI, pp-103-4 cited by Saletore,B.A.
(50) Saletore,B.A(1935) The Wild Tribes in Indian History, Lahore
(51) Brhatsamhita, XIV, 9-10, p-89
(52) Ramayana, Adi Kanda, I, p-59; Aranya Kanda, LXXI, 23, 26
(53) Brahatasmhita, XIV, 9-10, p-89
(54) Ibid, XVI, I, p-99
(55) Kern and Fleet,I.A. XXII, p-188
(56) Gerini, Ptolemy, pp-749, 808
(57) Russell, R.V. and Lal Hira (1916) Vol.IV, p-502
(58) Roy,S.N.(1927), Sabaras of Orissa, Man in India, Vol.VII, p-281
(59) Mazumdar,B.C.(1927) Aborigines of Central India, p-8 and Pargiter(1894), The

Geography of Rama’s Exile, J.R.A.S. p-246
(60) Garrick Report of a tour through Behar, Central India, Peshawar and Yusufzai
in the reports of the Archeological Survey of India, Vol.XIV, pp-40ff
(61) Ibid
(62) Pampa Ramayana, IV.VV, 37-8, pp-82-86
(63) Russell, R.V. and Lal Hira. op. cit
(64) Roy,S.N.(1927) op. cit
(65) Nelson, A.E.(1910) Bilaspur District Gazetteer (Allahabad) p.92

Indian History and Sabaras
The Sabaras from Inscriptions:

A Korni copper plate grant of Anantavarma Choda Ganga
tells that Karmavarna, the founder of the Kalinga Ganga dynasty,
defeated and killed the previous ruler Sabaraditiya, a Sabara Chief
somewhere to the east of Mount Mahendra, about A.D.720(1). In
the Udayendiram plates of the twenty-first year of the reign of the
Pallava King Nandivarman Pallavamalla, he is said to have defeated
the Saora King Udayana and captured his mirror banner made of
peacock feathers. This was about A.D.736(2).
Another Saora Chief is mentioned in the Sanskrit and Kanarese

prasasti of the Western Ganga Chief Marasimha II, who was a
subordinate of the Rashtrakuta King Krishna III and placed Indra
IV on the throne. This inscription is at Sravana Belgola in Mysore
and states that Narasimha II (963-74) defeated a Saora Chief named
Naraga(3). The Naihati grant of Vellasena dated about 1100 declares
that the children of the Kings who were Vellasena’s enemies were
reduced to living in the houses of Saoras; this gives us Saoras
in the Burdwan District of Bengal(4). A rock inscription of the
time of Bhojavarman (A.D.1300) in the Ajayaarh Fort records that
Ananda the Governor subdued the wild tribes of Bhillas, Sabaras
and Pulindas(5). A Khadavada inscription dating rom Gyasahi of
Mandu, A.D. 1484, declared that one of Mandu’s military officers
put down a Saora rebellion at Khidavada on the Chamanvati(6).
The only inscription, however, from the area now populated by

the Hill Saoras occurs in the Kurmesvara temple at Sri-Kurmam
in the Srikakulam district. This records that the famous Vaisnava
scholar Narahari-tirtha had protected the people of Kalinga and
The Indian History and Sabara 51
defended the temple against an attack by the wild Saoras(7).

This was some time in the latter part of the thirteenth century.
This may be the solidarity given by Eastern Gangas to Sabaras of
Kalinga.
Sabaras in History:
Kharavela, the Kalinga Emperor and Sabaras
N.K.Sahu wrote, “Last but not the least in the social structure
were the Sudras who were of great help to the cultivators in the
farms, to the traders in the field of trade and to the artisans in the
factories. They worked hard as labourers to augment production
and prosperity of the country with bare but regular subsistence. The
aboriginal people in the hilly regions were probably classed among
the Sudras and they constituted an important elements in the army of
Kalinga. The Sabaras and the Pulindas fought valiantly in the army
of Kalinga at the Kuruksetra battle, while the Atavi people fought
for the defence of Kalinga in the famous Kalinga war of Ashoka.
The Hathigumpha inscription reveals that Kharavela organised the
military resources of the territory of the Vidyadharas and with the
help of the army of that land crushed the Rathikas and the Bhojakas
in his 4th regnal year. Thus the tribal people constituted the strength
of Kalinga through ages and the Hathigumpha inscription rightly
calls their territory as ‘Ahatapuvam’ meaning ‘never conquered in
the past”.(8) The Atavi people can be taken to Sabaras of Kalinga
safely.
As it looks from the records of Chola Kulotunga I, he conquered

Kalinga and in the great Tamil epic of Kalingattupparani it is
mentioned of people dwelling on hills as Jains and Budhists; the
Chola army did a great massacre to the Kalinga inhabitants and
though it does not mention of any tribe name of ‘Sabara’ still the
whole activity of the army of Chola points it out to the Sabaras
of Kalinga.(9)
Saluva Nrisimha of Vijayanagara and Sabara principality:
There seems to have been a Sabara principality even in the

times of Vijayanagara monarch Saluva Nrisimha. At the request
of the people called Kutavacalendratatavasi, Saluva Nrisimha
invaded Nagamangala. Leaving a garrison there, he proceeded
to conquer Prthugiri. Here he was attacked by a Sabara leader.
It may be supposed that the Sabara leader whom aluva Nrisimha
conquered was one of the Dasyu chiefs near abouts Candragutti.
This region was held by the Dasyu Nayakas from Keladi Basava
Raja’s Sivatattvaratnakara(10).
Krsna Devaraya and Sabara:
The Keladi Nrpati Vijaya narrates that once Krsna Deva Raya
heard that the Sabaras were causing great havoc in his Empire. He
summoned Sadasiva Raya Nayaka, ordered an efficient army to
be got ready, and commanded him to destroy the enemies, having
honoured him with the tambulam (i.e.betel leaf and nut)(11).
The Sabaras certainly were agents of turmoil. But they were not
so barbarous as not to come within the civilizing influence around
them. In the age of the epics itself, a certain amount of dignity seems
to have been attached to the name Sabara.
In the Pampa Ramayana, Rudra disguising himself as a Sabara, and

accompanied by Parvati, Guha, and others, pursuing Mukadanava,
who had assumed the form of a boar. The same work relates in
an upakathe of Vasubhuti being born as a Sabara under the name
of Kalajangha in the Sardulasya forest. A Sabara messenger is
introduced in the same work as hurrying with a report that a large
elephant had broken loose in the royal garden of king Janaka(12).
The turbulent Sabara leader who caused great havoc to the

Brahmans of Tagare-nad, as reported in an epigraph dated A.D.972
already cited, was a Sabara minister(Sabara Pradhana) as his birudu
signifies. His other titles were Narakasura and a most formidable
opponent equal to Kala and Sisupala(13).
Suirs (Sabaras) of Shahabad and their conquest on Cheros:
Another tradition, however, makes the Saoras conquerors. This

ascribes to them the conquest of the Cheros, and their expulsion
from the plateau of Shahabad, about A.D.500. According to Risley,
a number of ancient monuments in the Shahabad district are still put
down to the Sabaras or Suirs, who are supposed to have been driven
south by the inroad of Rajputs under the Bhojpur chief, which made
an end of their rule(14).
Sabaras and Haihaya dynasty and Gonds of Balaghat and

Bhandarai:
Cunningham writes; “the whole of the plain country of

Chhattisgarh formerly belonged to the Haihaya princes, while the
hilly districts of Balaghat and Bhandara were occupied by the Gonds.
The jungly districts to the north and east of the Mahanadi river would
appear to have been occupied by the Baigas and Sabaras. Then the
Haihayas, following the course of the Narbada, first displaced the
Sabaras in Mandla (where the Baigas still remain) and the Gonds in
Balaghat, and extended their sway over the plain of Chhatisgarh.
But the Sabaras and Gonds must still have held all the more jungly
tracts to the south-east and south-west as tributaries of the Haihayas,
until in the lapse of time the Gonds conquered Mandla from the
degenerate Haihayas and greatly extended their kingdom. That the
domination of the Haihayas on the Narbada cannot lay claim to a
greater antiquity than the middle of the third century A.D.”(15)
The Kosala rulers as lords of Magadha with Sabara lineage:
The Kosala rulers were lords of Magadha. According to the

Rajim copper-plate inscription of the Mahasiva Tivarajaja, Tivara
Deva was the adopted son of Nanna Deva whose grand-father was
Udayana of the Sabara lineage.(16)
Pallavas and Sabara lineage:

The Pallavas themselves seem to have had some Sabara blood

in their veins. Mukunti Pallava, son of Mahadeva by a girl of the
wild mountain tribe called the Censuaras (i.e. the Cen-Sabaras)(17)
was supposed to have been the founder of the Pallava line with
his capital at Dharanikota. These Censuaras were the same as the
modern Cencu, Cenju or Irala tribes found in the Goomsoor wilds,
and westward of Ahobalam, Srisailam, as well as in the North and
South Arcot districts. They are also called Villiyans or bowmen. The
males put on skins, and women stitched leaves. They live on the rice
of the bamboo. They are also found near Pulicat, twenty four miles
north of Madras along the sea, under the name of Centsus(18).
The history of the agrahara Bellnr alias Visnuvardhana-

caturvedimangalam, contains some pleasant notices of Sabaras
who came within the pale of civilization. The epigraph which
gives us this information relates that several Srivaisnava scholars in
that agrahara village had a large number of disciples both among
Brahmans and non-Brahmans. A few of their descendants, still
live in that village. One of the leaders of this village was Prativadi-
bhayankaram (A Terror to hostile Disputants) Anna, a disciple of
Manavalamahamuni, the great Srinivaisnava teacher and author
who flourished in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. One of
the ancestors of the villagers then living, named Vellurappa or
Annangaracarya, came from Kanci and settled in that village some
120 years ago. On hearing that some of his Sabara disciples were
addicted to beef, he became disgusted and made up his mind to
leave the place for Melkote. Thereupon the Sabaras swore on his
foot-prints that they would give up their wild habits, and entreated
him to remain. The foot-prints are still pointed out on a rock on the
Cikka-Urukala Gudda to the west under the name Gurugala-pada
(the Guru’s feet)(19).
Sarava relations in Ceylon:
The Matharas rule dynasty in Kalinga is placed between 4th nd

5th century A.D. Their capital was known as Simhapura according
to their inscriptions (20). From Ceylonese chronicles indicate that

a certain Simhabahumi granted from Kalinga and established a
kingdom there, after which there was close association between
the royal families of Ceylon and Kalinga. The Matharas were
Bhagavatism and became worshippers of the God Narayana, but
from Ceylonese records it is apparent that they also followed
Buddhism. One thing that should not be overlooked is the aboriginal
influence of the Sabaras or the Pulindas on the religious spheres of
Kalinga and Ceylon. V.R. Ramachandra Dikshitar in his paper (21)
on “South India and Ceylon” writes: “there is still a village near
Tatnapur (in Ceylon) named Havaragama, probably Sabaragrama,
which reminds of a Sabara settlement. According to the Markandeya
Purana, the Sabaras and the Pulindas were forest tribes in south
India. This points out to a migration of these tribes from South India.
Further, the Mahavamsa explains the origin of the Pulindas as rising
out of the two children of Vijaya by Yakkhini Kubeni. It sounds to
reason to take that the Veddhas of modern Ceylon are akin to these
ancient tribes of Sabaras and Pulindas of South India”(22).
When the Eastern Gangas conquered the area south of the

Mahendragiri mountain shortly before 500 A.D., they acknowledged
a deity of the Saora tribe on the Mahendragiri under the name Siva-
Gokarnasvamin as the tutelar deity of the family (ista-devata). This
tradition has been preserved for centuries. In an inscription of the
early 12th century it is mentioned that the founder of the dynasty,
Kamarnava, after his arrival in Kalinga, climbed up the Mahendragiri
and worshipped Gokarnasvamin. “Out of grace (prasadat) the god
bestowed on Kamarnava all symbols of kingship (samrajya-cihna)
who descended (avatirya) from the mountain, killed the chief of the
Sabara tribe (Sabarditya) and conquered Kalinga”.(23)
The most famous svayambhu linga worshipped in Orissa is the

Lingaraja in Bhubaneswar, whose temple was built in the eleventh
century (24). The temple has two classes of priests: Brahmins and a
class called Badus who are ranked as sudras and said to be of tribal
origin(25).
These Badus are similar to Boyas of Simhachal temple, who are

also Sabaras which can be seen from Manual, Ganjam. Only Badus
are allowed to bathe the Lingaraja and to adorn him and at the times
of festivals when the god, represented by his calanti pratima, leaves
the temple only Badus may carry this movable image. Without them,
it is said, the god “cannot move one step”.
The Badus are described by the legend as tribals (sabaras) who

originally inhabited the place and worshipped the linga under the
tree(26).
Western Ganga King Marasingha Permmanadi and Sabara chief

Naraga:
In the reign of the Ganga king Satyavakya Permmanadi (A.D.972),

the Brahmans of Tagare-nad went on a mission to Marasingha
Permmanadi, who ruled over Gangavadi. A Sabara leader called
Naraga was slaying and laying waste with fire all the country
round. The Brahmans approached Marasingha Permmanadi with
the petition. Marasingha Permmanadi granted their petition and at
his command, his soldiers slew Naraga together with his son-in-law,
his children, his family, subjects and slaves.(27)
Sabara Tribesmen of Kalinga and Eastern Chalukyas
The Sabaras have been mentioned throughout the Eastern

Chalukyan inscriptions. The Vengi country of Eastern Chalukyas
was located to the south of Kalinga, but many wars and conflicts
appeared from time to time for extending their territory against
each other. The traditional Sabara country was located in Kalinga
as well as in south Kalinga extending into the Eastern hills. As said
earlier a great number of rulers with their civilization passed through
their country. Some of the exerts of importance between the Eastern
Gangas and Eastern Chalukyas have been cited in this paper with
relation to Sabaras as found in some important inscriptions.
B.Venkatakrishna Rao (28) writes; “Yuddhamalla had actually

brought in the Rashtrakuta armies and those of others to install

him on the throne. The other allies who rendered him assistance
in this civil war against his successors appear to be Ayyapa, lord of
the Nalambas and Ereyapa, king of the Western Ganga and other
Rashtrakuta feudatories of the south and lastly the feudatory Sabara
Chieftains of the Andhra country(29), who these Sabara feudatory
chiefs were, it is difficult to guess. They were probably a tribe of
the northern region ruling in the Kalinga country which was an
appanage in the empire of the Eastern Chalukyas about this time or it
might be that the commanders of the Eastern Ganga king, Vijrahasta
I (AD 895-939) were contemptuously called the Sabara Chieftains by
the proud Eastern Chalukyas”. (30)
He again wrote “Vajrahasta I (AD 896-940) of Eastern Ganga was

a contemporary of Chalukya Bhima I, Kollabhiganda, Ammaraja I
and lived down to the middle of the reign of Chalukya Bhima II.
He appears to have been a powerful tributary king in the empire of
Chalukya Bhima I but to have rebelled immediately after his death,
against his successor Kollabhiganda, taking advantage of the death
of Chalukya Bhima I and the sudden revival of the hostilities with
the Rashtrakuta king, Nityavarsha-Indra IV. (AD 912-917) (31). But
this revolt proved disastrous to Kalinga once again. Kollabhiganda,
as we have seen before, invaded Kalinga and conquered Vajrahasta
I in a most decisive battle and captured his innumerable elephants,
horses and chariots (AD 917). Vajrahasta I, never after this ignoble
defeat, attempted again to rebel or to withhold his usual tributes to
the Eastern Chalukya sovereign. Even though he was on the throne
for six months, he is stated to have reigned over the wild country of
Trikalinga for a short period of eleven months, and claimed to have
reigned over the whole of the Vengimahamandala together with the
kingdom of Trikalinga. Vajrahasta I would appear to have taken
up the case of Yoddhamalla II, who succeeded Vikramaditya II or
Bhimaraja, and fought against his rivals, notably, Chalukya Bhima
II; for king Yuddhamalla II was characterized as having divided the
kingdom between himself and the Sabara chieftains and the Vallabha
commanders, by Chalukya Bhima II”.(32)
Vajrahasta I’s defeat against Chalukyan of Vengi gives the

impression that the Sabara tribes had important role for Eastern
Gangas, because from the prideful laughter of Eastern Chalukya
saying Eastern Gangas as Sabara chieftains. Thus it can be clearly
said that Sabara chieftains were the Eastern Gangas thus the Kalinga
itself. In later course of time, to weaken the Eastern Gangas divided
the Kalinga under the Sabara chieftains (who they were not known)
and Vallabhas and himself. It is quite evident from the titles of the
chieftain of Sabara societies, a hereditary position as it is today still
post-fix to the name ‘Gamang’, which is derived from their alliance
as well as partners of administration of Kalingas, during Eastern
Gangas.
Moreover, the Sabara have been in the history of Kalinga and

before in the plains as well as in Hill country and also south Kosala.
Till date in almost all important towns of Orissa having ancient
historical relevance has one street of Sabara called ‘Sabara Sahi’, take
it in Bhubaneswar, Puri, Jeypore, B.Singhpur, and everywhere. All
the ruling dynasties in Orissa had to take their assistance and thus a
place for them in the capital. The Sabara existing villages in Koraput
other than Gunupur area has such value.
References
(1) Kroni plates of Chodagangadeva, J.A.H.R.S.1 p-108
(2) I.A.VIII, pp-278-9, 283, Sef; XXIII, p-188
(3) Epigraphica Indica Vol.V, p-176; Banerji, Op.cit.Vol.1, p-20
(4) Ibid. Vol.XIV, p-18, N-10
(5) Ibid Vol.I, pp-330-8
(6) Sitapati,G.V. The Soras, J.A.H.R.S.; Vol.XII, p-61
(7) South Indian Inscriptions, Vol.V, No.1312; Epigraphic Indica, Vol.VI, pp-266-8
(8) Sahu, N.K.(1984) Kharavela, Orissa State Museum, Bhubaneswar

(9) Kalingattupparani, (Colas ii,p-36), S II iii No.30, E.I.xxi,p-232
(10) Aiyangar(1919), The Sources of Vijayanagara History, pp- 91-98, Madras and
Sivattat varatnakara, The Sources, p-199
(11) Linganna, Keladi Nripa Vijaya, India Office, copy, pp-13-4
(12) Pama Ramayana, IV, V.16, p-98
(13) E.C.II, pp.19, 120(lst ed.)
(14) Risley, H, Vol.11, p-242
(15) Cunningham,A(1884), report of a tour in the Central Provinces and Lower

Gangetic Doab in 1881-82, ASI, Vol.XVII, P-81
(16) Mazumdar,E.I.XI, pp-103-4
(17) Wilson, Mackenzic Collection, I. pp.cxx, cxxiv; Rice, Mysore Inscript.Intr.

pp-lii-liv, Cunningham.A(1924) Ancient Geography of India, Calcutta
(18) Thurston(1909) Castes and Tribes of Southern India, II, pp-328
(19) Mysore Archaeological Report for 1913-14, p-6
(20) E.I.Vol.XXVII, p-36
(21) South India and Cylon, Indian Culture, Vol.XV, p-97
(22) Indian Culture, Vol.XV, pp-97-98
(23) Vizagapatnam plates of Anantavarma Codaganga of the year 1119

A.D.(Rajaguru,1968/73, Vol.II, p-14ff)
(24) cf.Panigrahi, 1961, p-164f
(25) Ibid 219, Eschmann refers it to be personal communication to Dr.K.N.Mohapatra
(26) Ibid
(27) E.C.II, Intr.p-18, n(7); EC VI, Kd.147, p-28
(28) Venkatakrishna Rao, B. (1973) History of the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi

(610-1210 A.D) Andhra Pradesh Sahitya Academy, Hyderabad, p-261.
(29) C.P.No.1 of 1916, Mangallu Plates of Amamaraja II, Ibid p-253
(30) Ibid lines 19-21, A.R.E.1917 p-117; Ibid p-253
(31) Epi.Ind.Vol.V.p-131, lines 17-18

(32) S.I.I, vol.I, No:37, p-43, line 16.

Sabaras in Dakshina-Kosala,
Kalinga-Kongoda with relation to
Purusottama Jagannath Cult
King Hastivarman was ruling Kalinga, the other side in Dakshina
Kosala was ruled by Mahasiva Tivaradev of Pandu dynasty.
They were feudatory chief of Mahasudevaraja of Sarabhapura. The
Rajim and Baloda plates indicate the fact that Mahasiva Tivaradeva
used the title of ‘Sakala Koshaladhipati’(1). Tivaradeva was Vishnu
worshipper and had the pithlet of Paramavaisnava. The above grants
of Tivardeva of Pandu dynasty were issued from Siripur, which is
about 78 kms from Raipur towards Sambalpur. The Pandu dynasty
referred to Udayana belonged to Sabara lineage(2). This has been
dealt separately.
It is said that if Udayana of the Siripur inscription is identical

with the Sabara king of the same name of the aforesaid king
Nandivarman, then we have to presume that another Sabara king
Sabaradity who was said to have been defeated on the peak of
Mahendra by the first Eastern Ganga king, Kamarnava may have
had some relation with Udayana and also the Pandu dynasty king
of Dakshina Kosala. Pulindasena, a great chief of Kalinga-Janta(3)
and a devoult worshipper of Svayambhu may also be linked with the
same Sabara-lineage. His successor was taken by the court-poets of
the Sailodbhava kings as belonging to the Ksatriya race, Sailodbhava
by name.
It was Richard Jenkins, who discovered ‘Rajim Mahatmya’ in

the early decades of the 19 century, was stated by Cunningham(4).
The Mahatmya records suggest the Mahanadi river bore the name
of Utpalesvari, also the course of the river below its junction with
river Jonk is still known by the name Citrotpala.
Rajim is few kilometers from Siripur, the Rajvoleana temple
of Rajim is well surrounded by Varaha, Narasimha, Badasinath,

Vamana, Jagannath, Rajesvara and Danesvara, and two Siva-
temples also Budha. It is thus concluded that the Pandu dynasty
kings, may be from Tivardeva onwards used to worship Visnu in
his various forms. Cunningham assigns these temples to about
5th century A.D. on archaeological grounds, so the conclusion
derived by Mishra that both Sabara king of Mahendragiri defeated
by Kamarnava and the Sabara king of this locality, Siripur is well
established.
The Budhistic sculptures are found in different places of the

present Chattisgarh, that is the Mahanadi inscriptions and flow areas,
which is well evident in Sabarinarayana or Seorinarayana and Siripur
and around others. The name Seroinarayana as has been described
elsewhere in this work was a place of Sabaras well documented
from Ramayana and others as well. These places attained religious
importance before the advent of Pandus and the Sarabhapuria
dynasties. The records of Chinese pilgrim, Hiuentsang indicates
that these part of South Kosala was under the influence of the great
Buddhist teacher, Nagarjuna. Hiuentsang further points out that the
South Kosala king was Buddhist in religion and of noted enevolence
(5). Though it is claimed that the kings worshipped Visnu and still
patronised Buddhism, this can be well verified from Sirpur temple
which deplicts at the ‘dwar’ or entrance wall the Buddha taken as
one avatar along with others like matsya, Baraha and Bamana etc.
The Sirpur was also one of the important centre for Budha biharas.
The Sabara were both followers of Visnu and Buddhist.
It is evident from the Buguda plates, that Pulindasena, leader of

Kalinga-janta worshipped the god Svyambhu, on Mahendra hill top
and was bestowed with a boon that a stalwart youth would come
out of a rock after it had split. It thus happened and he was named
Sailodbhava, and later on him the family name followed (6). The
Mahendra mount of Kalinga and Seroi-narayana of Dakshina-Kosala
were two main centres of Sabara culture and pre-dominancy, even
before the advent of Sailodbhavas and Panduvamsis. The Sabara
Sabaras in Dakshina-Kosala, Kalinga-Kongoda with relation 63
to Purusottama Jagannath cult
were known as Pulindas in Kalinga. The history speaks importance
of Mahendra mount even before the Sailodbhavas, to the Matharas
and the Gangas. Mishra wrote, “ From the study of the religious
history of this locality it could be concluded that the religious
conditions in the countries of Daksina Kosala and Kongada were
almost similar being inter linked through the agency of the aboriginal
tribes, namely the Sabaras(7).
Now, if an aboriginal god, possibly made of wood, was installed

on the Mahendra mountain and worshipped by the Pulindas or the
aboriginal Sabaras (8) under some name in their own language, and
if that was taken as the divine lord of the country of Kalinga, it is
presumable that the Matharas, who were Bhagavatas, devoted to
the god Narayana, might have worshipped the former according to
their faith under the name of Narayana or Purusottama Narayana.
The same rastradevata of the kingdom was perhaps earlier called

Narayana by the Matharas, Gokarnesvara by the Gangas and
Svayambhu by the Sailodbhavas. After the Sailodbhavas, the Saivite
kings, the Gangas, probably called the same deity Gokarnesvara
in the form of a Siva who, according to them, was responsible for
the prosperity of the royal State. Although an unknown primitive
god was worshipped by the followers of Visnu, Brahma and Siva
according to their faith, they did not dare change the iconographic
features of the deity, which would have wounded the religious
sentiment of the aboriginal tribes who formed an important part
of the militia of these countries. If any image corresponding to the
peculiar image-type of Jagannatha could be found in the Sabara
country, we could have unhesitatingly suggested that the former was
the prototype of the latter. But, in the absence of any such image, we
have to seek for other data to explain the form of the three peculiar
images comprising Purusottama Jagannatha and his associated, now
enshrined in the temple of Puri.”
As per the copper-plate inscription discovered in Terasinga
(Kalahandi district), about the 4th or 5th century A.D.(9) there was a
local king named Tustikara, who was a worshipper of Stambhesvari.
This deity is called Bhagavati in the copper-plate grant. Since the
shape of the goddess Stambhesvari resembles a wooden pillar,

corresponding to the Sabara image installed in every Sabara village,
we may infer that originally a goddess, installed in the country
of Gondrama inhabited by a aboriginal tribe was a subsequently
worshipped by king Tustikara and after him by the Sulkis and
the Bhanjas of Gondrama and Khinjalimandala respectively. The
goddess possessed the Sanskritised name, Stambhesvari, given by
the Brahmanas. While discussing the Hindol plate of Kulastambha,
D.C.Sircar says, “Stambhesvari was the family deity of the Sulkis of
Orissa”(10). According to him, the representation of the goddess
was probably made out on a Stambha indicating a Sivalinga. But,
according to S.N.Rajaguru, it is an aboriginal goddess which was
subsequently taken by the Brahmanas. In this connection Rajaguru
says, “In every village of these hill tribes we find one or two wooden
pillars, small in size, and worshipped by villagers on ceremonial
occasions”. It is, therefore, probable that these pillar deities were
named “Stambhesvari” by the Sanskrit Pandits who were mainly
responsible for Aryanising these aboriginal deities. The Tantrayana,
which is called “Sabari Vidya”, is nothing but a transformation of
the religion of the Sabaras.(11) This is a glaring example of the
blending of dogmatic belief in mysticism with primitive superstition.
The human sacrifice which prevailed among these hill-tribes was
adopted by the Aryans who assimilated it into their own religion and
called it Naramedha. All these accounts given some idea as to how
the so-called Hindu religion became an admixture of heterogenous
cults embodying the percepts of different tribes; in different times.
In the Kalika-Purana we come across the name of the Sabaras as
worshippers of the Goddess Kali. Pargiter has rightly observed,
“The Aryans met with religious practice and belief among the
people whom they ruled over or came into lasting contact with and
have assimilated among them gradually, thus modifying their own
religion to a certain extent”(12).
Folklons on Sabara tribe religious outlook:
A popular Sabara tradition says that two brothers, Rama and

Bhima came to the top of the Mahendra mountain(13) and extended
as far as the Vindhyas in Central India. They worshipped a large

number of gods and semi-gods(Elwin). The Sabaras worshipped
Sitabinji(Sita) in Keonjhar district of Orissa in the form of a stone
image in cave, believing that it was the place where her two sons
Lava and Kusa were born. Again, the Linga of Madhuke Sabara at
Mukhalingam was discovered by the Sabaras, which subsequently
taken over by the Brahmans in the time of Gangas(14). Such
innumerous examples appears still like one Sabara discovered the
linga in the caves of Ramagiri, named Gupteswara. There are many
siva temples around Dakshina Kosala and tri-kalinga which are
still worshipped by the tribals and some have been taken over by
Brahmins.
Cult transformation through time scale:
The Sabaras originally spread over a wide region as said earlier.

The Brahmins when migrated to these regions, they discovered that
Sabaras worshipped several gods and goddesses, and called in their
language “Kitung”. The new settlers did not disturb or injure the
aboriginal sentiments of the aboriginal settlement; but however,
they worshipped the local gods by Sanskritising their names like
Stambhesvari and Svayambhu. The word ‘Svayambhu’ was not only
used by the Brahmanical priests for Siva or Brahma, but also by the
Jaino gurus for the Tirthankaras(15). Rev.Long during his visit to
Orissa in 1859 made the following statement.
The concept applied to Srayambhu of the Mahendragiri looks

close and applicable to certain images found at Siripur, from
the iconographic features point of view. Cunningham’s view in
connection with Sabari Narayana image which he attributes to
features of Budha runs, “The figure inside is said to be of black stone
about 3 feet high, it represents a two armed and two-legged seated
human figure. The legs crossed, one hand resting on the thigh,
the other below the chest held horizontally. The statu is said to be
precisely that at Rajim known as Rajivalocana’s, and like it is clearly
Buddhist resembling the great statue of Buddha at Rajjhana and
about the same also in height; they are, however, full statues and not
altorelievos. At the extremity of the Colonnade built in front of the
temple, is a statue said to be of Garuda. I could not see this or examine
it, there is also a statue of Hanuman. To the right of the entrance
of the temple is a loose pilaster with a sculptured figure similar to
the pilasters described at Siripur; this female figure is now known
as the statue of Savari. The legend is that here Sabari worshipped
Rama, and as a boon asked that her name should precede his; hence
the name of the place Sabarnarayana (shortened to Seorinarayana)
which was also later named as Savaripur.(16) “This place is within
a distance of about 3 miles from the confluence of the River Jonk
and the Mahanadi. This is the religious seat of the Pandus which is
popularly known as Sabarinarayana.”
The age to which these sculptures and temples belong to in this

locality is the clue to the integration of different religions, viz.
Saivism, Buddhism, Vaisnavism. But this is the history of years and
years of cultural development and transformations with changes.
The remnants of these religions are traceable in and around Savaripur
or Siripur, the ancient capital of Panduvamsi Kings, who were known
as Sakalakosaladhipati too. Mahasivagupta Balarjuna, successor of
Mahasiva Tivaradeva praised his family good Narasimha, who is
taken by the prasasti-writer as Purusottama, for he starts with the
mangalacarana “Om Namo Purusottamaya(17).
The Buddhist literature, we see, that some aboriginal gods and

goddesses were taken by the Mahayanists into their own pantheon.
According to Taranatha, Mahasiddha Savari was an important monk
who converted the minister and the king of Orissa and one Maitra
or Maitragupta who afterwards lived in Nalanda.(18). The goddess
Parna-Sabari is highly regarded in the Mahayana School.(19) It is
clearly evident that the Sabaras of Daksina Kosala, Kalinga and
Kongada were associated with the Brahmanas as well as with the
Mahayana Buddhists.
The Sabaras as usual with time and influence accepted the names
of Brahmanical gods and goddesses along with Lord Jagannath. They
worshipped the gods under the name of Kitung, and are named as
Bhima, Rama, Hodepulu, Peda, Rungjung, Tumernna, Garasada,
Jaganta, Mutta and Teata(20). In Saora the word ‘Kittung’ means
‘god’, so does the Gutob Kituch and the Remo and Pareng Kittung.
Here Elwin meant Gutob to Gadabas, Remo to Bondas and Pareng
to Parenga poroja of Koraput. Elwin wrote from his investigations
that in Dantara village they spoke of seven Kittungs, viz. Garsada,
Indraraika, Kuraitu, Maddia, Ranadiu, Sunaraika, Udurkuara,
and the sons of the Kittungs were Jagannatha, Jodebulla, Mutta,
Pedramadtung, Rungrung, Tumanna and Yete-tete whereas in Pattiti,
in the Pottasingi valey of Sabaras knew of these Kittungs; Argatta,
Bhimma, Garsada, Jaganatha, Kuraitu, Jodebulla, Labusum, Peda,
Ramma and Sitabri(21). It certainly indicative of Jaganatha being
taken in Sabaras life and culture even among the once living in the
forests and hills of Ganjam and Koraput. There is another aspect
as can be seen from the deities and temple names from Mahendra
mountain reminds of Bhima, Kunti, Judhisthira - the Pandava
relevance to Sabaras; the Bhima is still worshipped in the Dakshina
Kosala area tribes in the form of two wooden pillars, placed at one
end of the village. Mishra cites Jara Sabara class of Sabara tribe from
the land between the confluence of the Indravati and Sabari, southern
part of Koraput district. They are locally known as Raju, well this
is a common title of kings in this part of the country. Their family
deity is Nilamadhava whom they worship in their form and way.
Mishra further writes, “ The deity of Nilamadhava is four armed
having all the four attributes of Visnu. Further the Rajus used to go
to Nilamadhava of Kantillo (Orissa) as their centre of religion which
they consider to be the holy land of their family. There are a number
of Madhava images found in different parts of Orissa known as Niali
Madhava, Lalita Madhava, Ganga Madhava, Sabari Madhava and
Mudgala Madhava, etc. It appears that there are fourteen Madhava
pithas in Orissa. The reason is, that Nilamadhava is the previous
form of the present Jagannatha, worshipped in Lilacala. The ancient
name of Jagannatha which is still in vogue in the Sabara languages
is Sonam and the images have the name of Kitung. Of all Kutungs,
Jaganaelo is the greatest and he is called the Lord of all the Lords
and the Lord of the universe, according to Sabaras.”(22)
The Buddhist influence on Sabaras was well marked in Western,

Southern, Eastern as well as in the North-east also. The present
Balasore and Keonjhar districts of Orissa was the seat of Mahayanists
of the Buddhists, during 5th or 6th century A.D. The relationship
between Buddhists and Brahmans been sour, and is evident from
Bhaskaresvara temple at Bhubaneswar inscriptions of 5th century
A.D., which is now in Orissa State Museum. As a result of it attempts
were made to destroy Buddhist monasteries and the replace them
with Saiva temples(23). During these events many Buddhist images
were set up in Hindu temples.
Tripathy writes from the ‘Indradyumna Legend’ which was

also examined by R.Geib. It says, ‘In the beginning of the present
millenium, therefore, whom the worshippers of Jagannath felt the
need and the necessity to explain to themselves and to others this
strange form and the wooden character of their Deity, they naturally
thought first of Nilamadhava which was the most common form
of Visnu in those days. They claimed and propagated that their
Jagannatha had not all along been so. He was, in fact, originally a
Nilamadhava of stone which stood under the shade of a tree and
was worshipped by the chief of the Sabara race. But when a Brahmin
emissary of the king Indradyumna of Malva who wanted to have a
darsana of the Lord, discovered Him once, He vanished and a divine
voice (or a dream) gave the king to understand that He would now
no more be visible to the people in his Nilamadhava form which was
appropriate only for the golden age of the humanity (krtayuga) but
would instead assume a new shape more suitable to the prevailing
time, to be worshipped as a Deity made of wood(24).
The Jagannatha - The Ageless Deity of the Hindus
Mishra wrote the same legend, in his words, “Once upon a time,
a king named Indradyumna of the Maga Clan wanted to remove
the Lord Nilamadhava from the Sabara village. For fulfillment of
this object, he captured the Sabara-Satrusal whom he confined but
soon liberated when he heard a divine voice to set him free. The
same voice advised him to construct a lofty temple at Nilakandara
(Puri). Accordingly, the temple was built; but where was the deity
(image)? The king, then employed a Brahmana named Vidyapati,
in search of the deity, Nilamadhava. The Brahmana started for the
Sabara village on the Mahendragiri (Mahendra Mountain) where he
met a handsome Sabara girl named Lalita and fell in love with her
and at last married her.
Being a spy, employed by the King Indradyumnya, Vidyapati was

all the time searching for the deity whom he could spot-out in the
dense forest of the locality and sent the news immediately to the king
where upon some young men of the Sabara tribe were appointed in
the sacred log (Dirubrahma) for building the images of the supreme
lord.”(25)
According to the mythical and legendary accounts, that a certain

Kamarnava I, son Virasimha, gave over his own territory (Gangavadi
in Mysore) to his paternal uncle and with his brother set out to
conquer the earth and came to Mahendragiri, where he worshipped
Gokarnasvami and conquered aged king, Baladitya (or Sabaraditya)
and took possession of Kalinga countries(26).
It is well suggested that civilisation progressed through the course

of the river Chitrotpala or Mahanadi to the coastal regions of Orissa
from the far-away hinderland of Madhyabharata. There are number
of temples dedicated to Visnu under the name of Madhava on the
lower course of the Mahanadi. The two good examples of Madhava
cult are Gandharadi and Kontilo which in later times spread to the
coastal belt of Puri with the names of Lalita Madhava, Niali Madhava,
Niparia Madhava etc(27).
An inscription of temple Sobhaneswarara, at Nilamadhava,

speaks of one Nagavamsi king named Vaidyanatha(28) who had
built one temple in a place named Bhujangamapuri. The god
Nilamadhava, according to tradition, was worshipped by the Sabara
Chief Visvavasu, was ultimately transformed into Purusottama
Jagannatha. Sri S.N.Rajaguru had secured one palm-leaf manuscript
titled, Jarosabara Vamsa Bibarani (Dynastic account of the Jarasabara)
from the village Dimirijhola in Parlakhemundi Taluk proves the fact
that originally the deity was worshipped by Sabaras on the Mahendra

mountain(29).
According to Madala Panji, Yayati Kesari discovered the

descendants of the Puri priests in the border region of the western
Orissa and eastern Madhya Pradesh. It was where the early existence
of a Purusottama-Nrsimha cult has been proved which in later times
had greater influence on the Jagannath cult of Puri.
This border region as said above was the original homeland of

the Somavamsis when they were still the feudatory chiefs of the
Sabarapuriya king who had worshipped Visnu as ‘Sahari-Narayana’
(‘Visnu-Narayana of the Saora-woman’). During 15th century A.D.
in Oriya Mahabharata, Sarala Dasa wrote that Jagannatha himself
announced that previously (in the satyayuga-age) he had existed in
the form of the Sabari-Narayana(30).
The Indradyumna legend is also interpreted another form, which

is “Long ago, there lived on the Mahendra Mountain twelve families
of the Sabara tribe who built for them twelve houses. They were
known as the Bara-Gharias (twelve settlers). They used to worship
and protect their supreme Lord Nilamadhava which was installed
in the form of a divine logn (Darubrahma) and was worshipped
by Satrusala Sabara who lived in a Sabara village on the submit of
the Mahendra Mountain(31). The story has much similarity those
prevailing among Remo (Bondo tribe of Koraput) also the Gutob
Gadabas of Koraput, and all of them belong to austric stock only
and distant neighbours. The Remo speak of first twelve villages
which came and settled in the present hills, so also the Gutob speak
of 12 brothers who came crossing the Godavari river to the present
habitat.
Mishra wrote, “There is every probability that the god Narayana

was installed on the Mahendra Mountain where he was worshipped
by the Mtharas for a long time. There might have been also, prior
to this period, some unknown god worshipped by the Sabaras
on the same mountain. Now, when the Matharas came, they
over-powered the Sabaras, and it is not unlikely that they, on the
acquisition of the deity worshipped by the Sabaras, Aryanised the

same and began to worship it at the same place. Next came the
Gangas and the deity was similarly worshipped by them in the
name of Gokarnesvara because of their faith in Saivism. The same
deity began to be worshipped as Svayambhu by the Sailodbhavas.
Now, the Sailodbhavas were the worshippers of both Siva and Visnu
which is evident from their records. This is also corroborated by the
fact that they were worshipping Cakradhara Madhava or Bhagavan
Madhava as mentioned in their grants in Kongada area in which
Purusottama Ksetra is situated. Their love and respect towards the
god Madhava is very often recorded in their charters, as they seem
to compare themselves with Bhagavan Cakradhara although they
are Saivas. This shows that they were certainly patronising the god.
We also have another god Maninaga alias Balabhadra in the 6th
century and a goddess namely Stambhesvari in the 4th century A.D.
in Tosali and Gondrama areas respectively. There is no evidence at
our disposal to suggest anything definitely regarding the removal
of Narayana Madhava of the Mahendragiri and Kongada Mandala
to Puri. But, the god came to be closely associated with the place,
and many other places in Kongada Mandala came to have shrines
with the deities bearing the same names. It is probable that during
the time of the Sailodbhavas the deity was removed to Krsnagiri and
subsequently to Nilagiri. There is another god called Nandagirinatha
worshipped by the Svetaka Gangas. It is likely that the conception of
Nandagirinatha or Krsnagirinatha later on gave rise to Nilagirinath-
Jagannatha.”(32)
The Skanda Purana presents Purusottama as ‘Sabara Devata’ or

the deity worshipped by the Sabaras under the main leadership of
Visvavahu. A legend originates that during Varaha incarnation of
Visnu, Bramha asked Vishnu as to the means of attaining salvation
of all beings. Vishnu replied; ‘He himself is being worshipped as
Nilamadhava in the Blue Mountain of the holy Purusottama Pitha,
and Salvation on earth can be relieved by visit to this god and
place. This frightened Yama, the god of death that he would lose
his importance and position as well. Thus Visnu again declared that
he shall be invisible from that place after some days. The story goes
ahead. It depicts, “The Rohini Kunda was located a mile to the west
of the Kapa-vrksa (the desire-yielding tree) on the Blue Mountain,
at its north the shrine of Nilamadhaba was being worshipped by a
Sabara. The Devas used to worship Lord Nilamadhaba every day
here and non-else knew the sanctity of this holy peace Indradyumna,
a king of solar-dynasty, standing fifth in line of succession to Brahma,
was ruling the Kingdom of Avanti in the Satyayuga. One day he
enquired from his wise councillors about the place of Lord Visnu
and learned from one Sanyasi that Lord Visnu himself adhore as
Purusottama at the ‘Blue Mountain’ of the country of Odra. Thus
Indradyumna set Vidyapati, the brahmin priest to Odra. Vidyapati,
went to a Sabara village, to the west of Blue Mountain and woned the
good wishes of the Sabara Chief Visvavasu. He then expressed his
desire to get a glimpses of Lord Purusottama as Nilamadhava and
was obliged by Visvavasu. Vidyapati, returned back to Avanti and
the king Indradyumna set out for Utkala accompanied with Narada.
But Lord Visnu, in the meantime, in order to fulfill the pledge given
to Yamaraja, made the shrine of Nilamadhava invisible in a heap of
sand. Thus Chief Visvavasu sent this sad message to Indradyumna,
who was on his way. He was very aggrieved at the news, but Narada
however, assured him that the Lord would appear in the form of
Daru(wood). The king consolated thus left to perform horse-sacrifice
at Nilagiri, where on the closing day of the ceremony, the Lord
Nilamadhava made Himself visible to Indradyumna in a dream.
Soon when the king was bathing, he received the message that Daru
with four branches floating in the sea. Then with supreme care and
ceremony the king brought the Daru placed on the Mahavedi.
The Mahabharata, in Oriya written by Sarala Dasa during the

region of Kapilendra Deva (1435-1466 (A.D) founder of the Surya
dynasty the version of Indradyumna legend appear.
According to an account when king Indradyumna noticed the

Daru, in the Rohini Kunda, he engaged people to lift it out of the
Kunda. But the Daru was so heavy that they were unsuccessful.
Indradyumna was despaired and did not know what to do. Then
Lord Jagannatha told him in a dream that only Sabara Jara and Basu
Brahmin would be able to lift him as it was not merely a log, but the
pinda i.e. the very body of Lord Krishna himself. Thus Indradyumna
asked both Sabara Jara and Basu Brahmin to help him in lifting the
Daru. When the Daru was lifted it was Jara Sabara who could lift it
easily while the Basu Brahmin could lift it with difficulty.(33)
According to Mishra, “Sarala Dasa appears to ascribe the origin

of the worship of Jagannatha to that of Madhava or Nilamadhava,
also named Sabarinarayana by the Sabara community of the bygone
days. The story begins with Vasu Sabara, (Visvavasu), the son of
Jara Sabara, who used to worship secretly the stone image of the
traditional god of his community-Madhava. The practice of secret
worship is ascribed to the command of the deity Madhava Himself;
the god wanted to be worshipped secretly because of the Kaliyuga,
and had threatened Vasu to wipe out his community if he divulged
the secret to others. Sarala Dasa next proceeds to introduce in the
story another character, Galamadhava, the king of Kanci. One day,
the Brahmin family-priest of the king, also named ‘Vasu’, told to
Galamadhava the secret worship of Nilamadhava in the Sabara palli.
Galamadhava sent his priest (Vasu) to find Nilamadhava. Vasu made
friends with Vasu Sabara, and was taken blind-folded tot he spot
where the deity was then worshipped. While he was thus led to the
deity, he had skilfully managed to drop grain seeds along the way
so that he could trade and reach the place afterwards. After hearing
from the priest Vasu these secrets of Nilamadhava, Galamadhava
set out on an expedition to the Sabara palli to take possession of
the deity. But, to his misfortune the deity had disappeared. The
god Nilamadhava reassured Jara (Vasu-Savara’s father) that he
would incarnate himself as Buddha in Nilagiri. Galamadhava was
enraged at the disappearance of the deity from the spot and attacked
the Sabaras with a view to extracting from them the information
regarding the whereabouts of the deity. A fierce fight ensued and
all the Sabaras, were killed except one. The surviving one cursed the
king that his entire family would be extinct, as he was responsible
for the destruction of the Sabara community. When Galamadhava
was fighting with the last Sabara he heard a voice from above asking
him to desist from so doing as he was a great devotee of the Lord.
Here ends the story of Galamadhava; Indradyumna.”(34)
Now when Padma Purna is examined it referred to Purusottama as

worshipped by the Bhils, and as already said Skanda Purna prevents
Purusottama to Sabara Devata. The idea of worshipping the three
deities of Balbhadra, Subhadra and Jagannatha, each with separate
hymn or mantra comes for the first time from Skanda Purana.(35)
The Sabara Tradition in the Jagannath Temple:
In the process of worship in the temple, the Sabaras have got

a distinct role. Tripathi wrote, “The Daitas(sans. Daitya, a term
originally meaning ‘demon’, but in Orissa applied to the aboriginal
people living in the forests) who take charge of the Deities during
the period of anavasara, also arrange the car festival and play a very
important role in the ceremony of Navakalevara.(36 ) The word
“Daita” also means “Most beloved one”. They are believed to be the
descendants of the Sabara Visvavasu, who, according to the legend of
the foundation of the Jagannath Temple(37), worshipped Jagannath
(in the Nilamadhava form) in a forest before Vidyapati. Jagannatha
was in fact originally a Nilamadhava of stone which stood under
the shade of a tree and was worshipped by the chief of the Sabara
race(38).
The importance of the Sabaras in Jagannath temple at Puri is

remarkable. The Sevakas are called Daitapatis who are of the Sabara
origin. They are in the worship and services of the Deities, as said
above specially at the time of ‘Navakalevara’ during car festival.
The tradition speaks that, In Dvapara-Yuga, when Lord Krishna

was born in the family of ‘Yadus’. Lord Krishna’s father, Vasudeva
was the cousin of Vasu Sabara. When Lord Krishna left His mortal
body, there was quarrel between the Sabaras and Pandavas as to
who would do the funeral rites. Thus in order to solve the problem,
Arjuna and Jara carried off the body of the Lord from Dvaraka to the
sea-shore and started the funeral. Possibly, that funeral ground is
identified to the present ‘Kaivalya Vaikuntha’ or ‘Koili Vaikuntha’ of
Puri. The Sabaras too had come to this place and caught hold of the
‘Indranilamani’ (the azure blue stone) that was favourite of the Lord’s
dress. This was in the funeral place, and Sabaras worshipped it as a
token of last sacred aspect of their Lord. It is believed that possibly
the Sabaras constructed the Holy Image of Lord Krishna with the
help of that azure blue-stone and the image is being worshipped
from time immemorial in the name of Sri Nilamadhava (the Blue
Lord). The mortal body of Lord became the sacred log (Daru) and
started floating to and fro on the perilous sea. At last, Jara Sabara,
who by mistake had killed Sri Krishna, and was in utter despair
found it. He kept the Daru secretly and began worshipping it,
joined by his son, Visvavasu. The ‘Darubrahma’ (the Divine Wood)
which appeared in the dream of Indradyumna, the king of Malava
was the sacred body of the departed Lord Krishna. Soon after, as
the legend says, the ‘Darubrahma’ was carved by Visvakarma, the
divine artist who descended in disguise into the Holy Images of Lord
Jagannatha, Balabhadra and Subhadra. On Navakalevara occasion
when ‘Brahman’ is placed inside the new images, it is presumed to
be the azure blue-stone which was worshipped by Sabara, might
have been placed there. The Sabaras believe that Jagannath to be
the descendant of Lord Krishna. They found and claimed the mortal
body of the Lord, declaring themselves to belong to the family of
Lord, who emerged from Pravasa Tirtha and incidentally came up to
Puri coast by crossing the Vindhacala. They were connected to the
Satava family which is synonymous to Yadu or Yadu vamsa and are
thus closely related to Lord Sri Krishna. Thus the Sabara Daitapatis
at present bury the old images on the event of Nilakalevara and
perform all funeral rites in traditional manner. They are also the
descendants of Visvavasu.
But, in other ways, with deviations Sarla Dasa narrates that the
body of Lord Krishna could not be burnt on the funeral pyre, after
he was shot dead by an aboriginal hunter (Sabara). The body was
placed on sea near Dvaraka, which came floating to Puri, (round the
Cape Comarion) and remained with the custody of the Sabara for
some time and later became mysteriously a tree out of which a statue
was carved in the form of Buddha(39), this being the incarnation of
Lord Visnu it followed to Lord Krishna, the incarnation.
In the dark nights of ‘Amabasya’, Jara Sabara aimed and shot his
arrow at the lively Lotus Feet of Lord Krishna, mistaking them to
be deer’s ear. It is believed to be the Krishna Chaturdasi of Asadha
(early June). The memory of the myth even today leads to the
legendry celebration of the Navakalesvara on the fourteenth day of
dark fortnight on the Asadha. There is no historical evidence about
the relationships between the Lord Jagannath and the Daitapatis,
but the source is the myth and legends.
It is said that just after the Bathing Festival in the full moon day
of Jyestha, the Deities are worshipped in the secret (Anavasara)
chamber for full two weeks. This is the period when Daitas are the
worshippers of Deities, but not the Brahmins. The worship is very
much engaging and continuous that the Datapatis do not have time to
relax and are in busy mood. This period is called Anavasara, means
engagement without rest. There is no Vedic offerings to the Deities
during this fortnight. The Daitapatis decorate the body of the Deities
in the various cosmetics, various kinds of oil and ornaments. They
offer fruits to the Deities and themselves take Prasad there. It is said
that in the Samarpan Kriya’, which is the process of holy offerings,
they affectionately offer fruits to the Deities after testing them by
themselves. The spirit of devotion in this case is informal and not
ritualistic. It is a heart to heart love of tribal offering to the Deities.
They sing different hymns in a low key and offer everything to the
Deities in the most tribal way of worship.
One can grasp the remarkable influence of the Sabaras at the outset
of the car festival. Before the Deities are taken to the respective cars,
different types of fruits are offered, and the Daitapatis tie up charms
and talismens made up of roots and leaves in the arms of the Deities.
Such is the belief that these talismens are supposed to protect the
body according to tantras. All these process is characteristically of
tribal and Sabara mode of worship.
Again, on the cars the worship is not a Vedic lines. Before the car
is pulled, the Deities are dressed in the typical Sabara manner, the
Peti, a type of Sabara costume is placed on the waist of the Deities.
At the time of Pahandi (the procession to the car) the Daitapatis sing
ritualistic ‘Malasree’ songs by tieing up the Petis around their waist.
The deities move towards the cars in north-west (Isana) direction, in
contrary to Aryan process in which the procession moves towards
eastern direction. This is also one Sabara impact on car festival.
When the cars move, the Dahukas continue dance on the car before
the Deities by singing vulgar musical extracts. The Parna Sabaras
have the traditional belief that such songs and wordings rendered by
them might protect and safeguard the Deities on the cars by wading
off the evil spirits. Such songs are also sung by Gutob Gadaba tribes
of Koraput during the procession of Mahaprabhu. This is a type of
‘fertility cult’ observed in most of the tribal societies.
Mishra wrote, “The ‘Mancansnana’ (the bathing ceremony on the

Divine alter) in spite of its Vedic connotations, is out and out a Sabara
process. The bathing of Deities is done exclusively with the water
of confined and closed well, which goes against the Vedic way of
bathing, the Deities with the running water of rivers or open wells.
The water inside the golden well in the northern side of the temple,
is kept untouched all through the year and with the help of this
water the bathing is performed. The Sabaras attach sacredness and
purity to and use the ‘Anadabha’ water for any holy bath, which is
stored inside the thick forest unpenetrated by sunlight. In the light
of this belief, here also the secret and sacred water stored inside the
golden well (Suna-Kua) is used in the bathing of the three Deities.
The Daitapatis sit together with the deities and take the ‘Gyantisara’
dishes (the dishes taken by the members of the same family together).
They practically safeguard and take care of the Deities every now and
then. Therefore, the Vedic Aryans and non-Aryans have joined hands
in worshipping the Trinity of this temple. Of course, only in two
festivals the rights and duties of the Sabaras are duly executed with
traditional decorum. They do not have any privilege to participate
in all other festivals of the Deities, which are celebrated according
to Aryan religious ethos, the Aryan and the non-Aryan or in other

words the Vedic Aryans and non-Vedic Aryans.”(40)
The Sabaras (daitas) and the half-Sabaras (Pati Mahapatra), the

Brahmin priest, the Rajaguru of the King, play very important role
in the ceremony of Navakalevara, where after performing various
ceremonies the brhamapadartha (the immortal life substance)
is transferred from the old statue of Jagannath into the new. A
detailed account has been given by Tripathy, G.C. in the chapter of
Navakalevara (41).
The setting out in search of the Daru is an elaborate ceremony

and the Daitas play the most important role. They are ‘Bad-bada’
Daita (family title: dasa-mahapatra, responsible for Balabhadra,
‘Majhi-bada’ Daita (family title: dasa, responsible for Subhadra)
and ‘Mahaprabhunka-bada’ Daita (family title: Svai-Mohapatra,
responsible for Jagannath) respectively.
Tripathy wrote, “The different rites of the Navakalevara ceremony

are a nice example of the superim-position of the Brahmanic
Hinduism on a cult which was purely tribal in origin. The presence
of the Daitas, who are avowedly of tribal origin, everywhere in this
ceremony and the important part that they play in this ceremony is
an irrefutable proof to this effect.”(42)
The Deities are carved by the carpenters (Maharanas) all of whom

belong to the class of Daitas. The carving of the images takes place
behind the closed doors and nobody else except the Daitas and Pati
Mahapatra are allowed.(43)
It can be said that the services and duties entrusted to Daita brings
them in close contact to Deities, which are like dressing and moving
them. This tradition followed is clearly indicative of tribal origin;
but so far there is no clear satisfactory explanation to trace the origin
and most of the research on Jagannath has been attributed to other
studies than the tribal background.
Mishra rightly pointed out, “When the first devotee of the Lord
i.e. Visvavasu prohibited Vidyapati from looking at the Image
of Nilamadhava, the root of the conflict obviously lay there. The
Aryan king Indradyumna was afterwards interested to Aryanize the
God Nilamadhava who was in fact the Deity of the Sabaras. In this
connection, the Sabaras actively protested, None can say whether
any group won or not in that conflict; yet it is quite evident that both
the races have enlightened each other’s cultural way of life through
exchange of ideas and outlook. Basically, the Indian culture is a
true replica of the Jagannatha Culture. Various castes and creed,
communities and sects, customs and traditions taken together, have
become an organic living whole and have made one religion for
all. The tributaries of multifarious culture in India have joined in
the unity of all Indian cultures and manifested here in Jagannatha
Temple. Lord Jagannatha stands as the single eternal symbol of that
cultural assimilation.”(44)
Thus it can be concluded that the Sabaras have all through travelled
with the induction of civilization in Indian soil, their mentions in
all epics, ancient literature and history. They were in Ramayana, in
Mahabharata with Buddhism, with Jainism, with sakti cult, with
Savites, with Vaishnavities with Lord Jagannath and all the process
of Indian life, history, religion and philosophy development, thus it
is not true to say that Sabaras, tribal gods Lord Jagannath was taken
into the process of Hinduization as has been remarked by Eschmann
et.al in their works., ‘The cult of Jagannath and the Regional Tradition
of Orissa’. It was a process of identification to the neo-administration
of the occupants through Sabara deity Lord Jagannath, the process of
which is not new and unknown, but universally practised and still
continue to exist in the regional identity development for dynasties
and rulers for smooth sailing. Many sailed on these ships and
continue even in modern times through these indigenous or native
or aboriginal. The chapter was an attempt to place the Sabara tribe
relationships to religions and cults that they have come across in the
process of evolution for a better world and being a part of the say.
References
(1) Baloda Plates, E.I., Vol.VII, p.102 and for Rajim Plates, C.I.I., Vol.III
(2) A.S.R.,Vol.XVII, pp.25-26
(3) Inscriptions of Orissa, Vol.I, Part II, p.167
(4) A.S.R.1881-82, Vol.XVIII, pp.8-9
(5) Watters on Huien-tsang’s Travels in India, Vol.II, p.200
(6) The aboriginal tribe of the Pulindas is mentioned in the arly Brahminical
literature like Satapatha Brahmana. They had a country of their own called
Pulindaraj-rastra as referred to in a grant of Maharaj Hastin of the Gupta era
198 or A.D. 518. E.I.Vol.XXI, pp.124-26
(7) Mishra,K.C.(1984) The Cult of Jagannath, Calcutta
(8) Generally we find the wooden images are worshipped by the aboriginals-
Sabaras
(9) J.A.S.B., Vol.VII, New Series, pp.43-47
(10) E.I.Vol.XXVIII, Pt.III, pp.107-112
(11) J.K.H.R.S., Vol.II, No.I, pp.251-252
(12) Pargiter - Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, p-3
(13) J.K.H.R.S.Vol.III,p.110
(14) Indo-Aryan Culture, Vol.II, 1953-54, p.122
(15) Abhidhanacintamoni, p.9, Slokas 24-25(Devakanda). The name Svayambhu

is mentioned among the other Tirthankaras
(16) A.S.I., Vol.VII, pp.196-198
(17) E.I.Vol.XI, p.190

(18) Mystic Tales of Taranath, pp.11-12
(19) In the Pag-Sam-Jon-Zan he is described as having belonged to hill tribe called

Sabaras or Huntsmen in Bengali where he met Nagarjuna during the latter’s
stay in that country, Sadhanamala - Introduction, p.XLVI
(20) Castes and Tribes of Southern India, Vol.VI, p.335
(21) Elwin, Verrier(1955) The Religion of an Indian Tribe
(22) Mishra,K.C.(1984) The Cult of Jagannath Calcutta,
(23) Dr.K.C.Panigrahi’s Archaeological remains at Bhubaneswar,

p.186
(24) Indradyumna Legend - in Sanskrit & Oriya critically examined by R.Geib,

“Indradyumna-Legend, ein Beitray Zur Geschichte das Jagannatha Kultes,
Weisb aden (1975) cited by G.C.Tripathy.
(25) Mishra, K.C(1984) The Cult of Jagannath, Calcutta
(26) Sitapati, G.V.Kort.Copper plate grant of Ananta varmadeva alias,

Chodaganga (J.A.H.R.S vol.I,p.106-127 line 47) cited in History of the Eastern
Chalukyas of Virgi by B.V.Rao, Hyderabad, p-328.
(27) Mishra,K.C.(1984) The Cult of Jagannath, Calcutta
(28) Inscriptions of Orissa, Vol.III, Part II, p.338. The author of this inscription
may be identified with the author of the temple inscription of
Anantavasudeva of Bhubaneswar who lived in the time of
Narasingha-I of the Imperial Ganga dynasty
(29) EI, xxvii, 322-23; Journal of the Kalinga Historical Research Society,
i, 265-66
(30) No.III:XII
(31) EI, xxvi, 49-58
(32) Mishra,K.C.(1984) The Cult of Jagannath, Calcutta, p-
(33) Sarala Dasa-Mohabharata, Mu Sali Parba, Adhy, 8-12, ed by A.B.Mohanty

(34) Ibid
(35) Skandapurana, Chs.20 and 47
(36) Tripathi, Gaya Charan (1978), ‘Navakalevara’ in The Cult of Jagannath and
the Regional Tradition of Orissa - Ed.E.Anncharlott, K.Hermann and Tripati,
G.C, New Delhi (1986)
(37) Geib, R (1975) Die Indradyumna - Legende. Ein Beeitrag Zur Geschichte
des Jagannath Kultes, Wiesbaden (1965), cited by Tripati Gaya
Chandran Ibid.
(38) Ibid
(39) Sarala Dasa, Mohabharata in Oriya, Musali Parva.
(40) Mishra, K.C (1984) The Cult of Jagannath, Calcutta, P.96.
(41) Tripathy, G.C. (1986), Navakalevara: The unique ceremony of the ‘birth’ and
‘death’ of the Lord of the world in Eschmann et.al.edi. The cult of Jagannath
and the Regional Tradition of Orissa. South Asian studies No:VIII, Heidelberg
University, p- 223 ff.
(42) Ibid ref.p-264
(43) Cf.Pur.Mah (Skanda Purana) Adty.19 sl.33.34 cited by Tripathy G C, p-252
(44) Mishra, K.C(1984) The Cult of Jagannath, Calcutta, P.97.

The Panduvamsis of Dakshina Kosala

A major ruling dynasty of the Chhattisgarh region of undivided
Madhya Pradesh after the Sarabhapuriyas was Panduvamsis of
Dakshina Kosala.
Lineage
Natesa Aiyar (1914) showed Udayana of the Pandava as of Sabara

lineage. The Lakneswar Temple (Kharod) inscription of Indrabala,
calls the family sasi-kula or lunar lineage was the oldest records of
the Panduvamsis (1). A lunar origin for the dynasty is claimed in
some other records also.
As per Pt. Nilakantha Das, “Uddiyana seems to be a Buddhistic

term meaning Yana or the way of religious thinking and practice by
the Uddas or the land inhabited or influenced by them. These Uddas
appear to be a race of the Savaras or the Austrics greatly influenced by
some Dravidians or at least the rudiments of the Dravidian language
in later times”(2).
Territories under the Dynasty
All discovered records of Panduvamsis so far, with the exception

of the Kalanjar inscription of Udayana were from the Chhattisgarh
region. The Panduvamsis claimed to lordship over the Kosala
country and the king assumed the title Kosaladhipati, ‘Lord of
Kosala’ (3). It is the Adhabhara grant of his son Nannaraja II that
he is described as the overlordship of the entire Kosala, Utkala and
other mandalas (provinces), which he had earned by his own merit
(4). The Panduvamsi power, Mahasiva Tivara extended temporarily
to the east. The Senkapat inscription of Sivagupta showed that a
part of the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra was within control of
the Panduvamsis (5).
It is believed that the early members of Pandu dynasty formed
The Panduvamsis of Dakshina Kosala 85
their first kingdom, in Chanda region of Maharastra; it was from

here that they occupied Kosala (6). This view is drawn on the
impression that the inscription of the time of Nannaraja (7) referring
to the restoration by Bhavadeva, the fourth brother of Nannaraja,
of a decayed Buddhist temple originally built by a king named
Suryaghosa was found at Bhandak in the Chanda District. There
has been much uncertainty and debate about the actual proof of this
inscription. A group of historians who believe that it was Bhandak
of Chanda District of present Maharashtra to be the place of origin
and others believe it to be Arang of Raipur in Madhya Pradesh. This
is based on evidence and argument base.
It was Rev.Stevenson who first published the inscriptions and

identified Bhandak as its find spot (8). Cunningham also agreed
to the findings (9). Hira Lal (10) D.R. Bhandarkar (11) Moreshwar
G. Dikshit and D.C.Sircar (12) had same view. Kielhorn collected
information, pointed out that, the inscription was brought to
the Central Museum, Nagpur, from Ratanpur (Bilaspur District,
Madhya Pradesh) (13). V.V.Mirashi initially accepted the view that
the find spot was from Bhandak and believed that Tivaradeva’s
predecessors were ruling from that area (14). But shortly thereafter,
he was convinced that the stone bearing the inscription was identified
somewhere in Chhattisgarh and the view that it belonged to Bhandak
was founded on untenable information (15). On the testimony
of Vinayak Rao Aurangabadkar, he (16) and Y.K.Deshpande (17)
pointed out that the inscription was originally from Arang, about
fifty kilometers’ southwest of Sirpur in the Raipur District of present
Chhattisgarh. At the instance of Richard Jenkings, British Resident
at Nagpur (1807 to 1826),Aurangabadkar, undertook a tour of
Chhattisgarh region and submitted a report to him on the inscriptions
in Chhattisgarh. The report is at present in the India Office Library,
London (18). According to the report, Aurangabadkar found the
Bhavadeva Ranakesarin inscription on a slab affixed to a large temple
at Aring, or Arang. However, D.C.Sircar continued to think that the
inscription originally came from Bhandak, but not Arang. N.Natesa
Aiyar mentions of “The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen-Tsant, who visited
India towards the beginning of the seventh century A.D., mentioned
a line of Buddhist Kings ruling at Bhandak.”
Capital
The copper plates discovered with relation to Panduvamsis were

all issued from Sripura, which was the capital of Dakshina Kosala
during the reigns of the Panduvamsis. The Sirpura, was probably
Sarbhapura of Savaras and Sri was prefixed when Vishnu/Buddhist
worships patronised by the Chief. This is found elsewhere also.
Genealogy
The stone and copper-plate inscriptions of the family discovered
so far supply the following genealogy, as per Shastri (19)
Udayana

Indrabala Name lost
Nannadeva I Isanadeva 1
2 3 Bhavadeva
(Names are lost)
Ranakesarin
Tivaradeva Candragupta
(or Mahasiva-Tivara)
Nannaraja II Harsagupta =Vasata, daughter of King
Suryavarman of Magadha
Sivagupta-Balarjuna Ranakesarin
Sivanandin
Mirashi had pointed out earliest (20), that the Panduvamsis

of Dakshina Kosala were probably related to their counterparts
in Mekala. He further postulated that Udayana, the first known
member of the Panduvamsis of Kosala, was probably a son of

Bharatabala, also known as Indra, who was till recently regarded
as the last Pandava king of Mekala (21).
Some relationship between these two lines cannot be ruled out,

there are many difficulties as proposed in regarding the Panduvamsis
of Kosala as the lineal descendants of the Pandavas of Mekala (22).
We may therefore; Ajaya M.Sastry remarked, regard the two families
as collaterally related to each other, the exact relationship being
indeterminable in the present state of our knowledge.
Udayana
Udayana is mentioned to be the first member of the Panduvamsis

of Kosala. There is no inscription of Udayana by himself and he is
referred to in a couple of the inscriptions of his descendants, viz.,
Arang stone inscription of Nanna I (no.III:I) and one of the Sirpur
stone inscriptions of the time of Sivagupta Balarjuna (no.III: XIII).
He had erected a brick temple of the god Bhadresvara (Siva)(23)
at Kalanjar (24). It was thus concluded that Udayana ruled over
a principality including Kalanjar and adjoining area in Central
India. The present state of knowledge is insufficient to determine
if he was in South Kosala. However, his successors conquered the
Chhattisgarh region. He is known to have at least two sons: (i)
Indrabala and (ii) his younger brother whose name has been lost (25).
King Suryaghosa who, according to the Arang stone inscription of
Nanna I, had built a temple of Buddha, which later was restored by
Udayana’s grandson, Bhavadeva Ranakesarin. This brings to light
his relation to Suryaghosa.
Udayana Successors
Udayana succeeded by his eldest son Indrabala. He is credited

to be the first member of the family who definitely ruled over
at least a part of Kosala. A mutilated Kharod (Bilaspur District)
Laksmanesvara temple inscription states that Indrabala had
destroyed his enemies (26). The rise of Harsavardhana might have
forced Indrabala to move away from his kingdom to Kosala, where
after the fall of the Sarabhapuriyas under political chaos enabled
him to carve out a small country for himself.
The order of succession after Indrabala is unsolved. In the Arang

inscription of Nanna I indicate that Indrabala’s younger brother ruled
over a part of the Pandava kingdom in Kosala and was succeeded
by his youngest son Bhavadeva.
It can be concluded that either both Bhavadeva and Isanadeva

ruled over parts of the Pandava kingdom of Kosala as subordinates
under Nanna I or all the three, viz. Nanna I, Bhavadeva and
Isanadeva, ruled independently and ultimately Nanna I succeeded
in becoming the master of the whole of the Pandava kingdom. How
this happened, as per Shastri is one unsolved question.
Bhavadeva was also known as Ranakesarin (literally, ‘a lion in the

battle’) on account of his killing the mad elephants of the enemies;
the viruda of Apriya-vaisika, ‘one disdainful of prostitutes’; and
Cintadurga, by causing anxiety (cinta) to his enemies and difficult
to break (durga).
He patronised Buddhism and maintained the Buddha temple

built by Suryaghosa and repaired and the monastery attached to it
was whitewashed and adorned with stepped well, gardens, etc (27).
Isanadeva was a follower of Saivism. A Sirpura stone inscription

of the time of Sivagupta Balarjuna indicates that he covered the earth
with Siva temples (28).
Mahasia Tivara
Mahasiva Tivara succeeded his father Nanna I. It is known from

his three copperplate charters.
Tivaradeva as ‘Kosaladhipati’ or the lord of Kosala was described

in the seal—inscription, while in the text of the charters themselves
he is said to have acquired the over lordship of the whole of Kosala
(prapta-sakala-adhipatya) (29). The Adhabhara plates of Nannaraja
II denotes that his father Trivaradeva, had acquired mastery over
the whole of Kosala, Utkala and other provinces by of his own merit
(30). That the claim to have achieved possession of Utkala, etc., is
not totally unfounded is indicated by the fact that Nannaraja, the
issuer of the charter, himself is credited with the possessions of the
province of Kosala alone (31). It appears that Tivaradeva had tried
to take advantage of the struggle for succession in the Sailodbhava
kingdom and apparently gained success. This new acquisition did
not last long by the fact that Tivara’s son Nannaraja himself did not
lay any claim to the Utkala-mandala(32).
Tivaradeva was a follower of Vaisnavism and bore the title of
parama-Vaisnava, i.e., a devout worshipper of Visnu (33). It was in
keeping with his faith that Tivaradeva imprinted on his seal a seated
figure of Garuda with outspread wings and grasping a snake with
raised hood in each hand as the principal device and wheel and
conch-shell as subsidiary devices.
Tivaradeva was most respected as the greatest ruler of
Panduvamsis. He brought the entire Kosala country under one
rule and ruled right up to the end of the dynasty. He conquered
the Sailodbhava kingdom of Kongoda, though temporarily political
control over the adjoining region of Orissa.
Nanna is said to have ruling the entire Kosalamandala. The
omission of reference to the Utkala-mandala, which is mentioned in
connection with his father’s dominions, indicates the loss of Utkala
either before to or during his reign.
Like his father Tivaradeva, Nanna II also was a follower of
Vaisnavism and enjoyed the sectarian epithet Parama-Vaisnava.
Candragupta
There is no record of the reign of Candragupta himself, but known

from his grandson’s reign.
D.C.Sircar proposed to identify Nannaraja mentioned in

the Senkapat inscription of the Sivagupta Balarjuna with the
homonymous father of Mahasiva Tivara and Candragupta.
Harsagupta
Candragupta was succeeded by his son Harsagupta who is

known from references in many records, of the reign of the next
king Sivagupta Balarjuna. Harsagupta was a Vaisnava and is said to
have worshipped Acyuta all the time. The construction of a temple
of Visnu in his memory is also a pointer in the same direction.
Sivagupta Balarjuna
Sivagupta Balarjuna, son of Harsagupta ascended the Panduvamsi

throne. He had a long reign of not less than fifty-seven years (34).
He had a younger brother named Ranakesarin who is said to have
helped him in his conquests (35). His son Sivanandin and maternal
uncle Bhaskaravarman are also known.
Two villages mentioned in the Lodhia plates of the fifty-seventh

year of Sivagupta’s reign, Vaidyapai and Khadirapadra, have
been located in the Sambalpur or Kalahandi region of Orissa (36)
indicating thereby the inclusion of at least a portion of the eastern part
of Kosala in his kingdom. The ruins of Sirpur in Raipur (undivided
Madhya Pradesh), of Ranipur-Jharial in Balangirpatna and Belkhandi
in Kalahandi district (Orissa) (36) are believed to have preserved the
glories of his rule.
Sivagupta changed the religion and reverted back to Saivism

and was styled Parama-Mahesvara. He himself donated a village in
favour of a Buddhist establishment and a private benefactor provided
for a free feeding house for the Buddhist monks (37). Sivagupta
Balarjuna’s mother built a temple of Visnu, the same as the so-called
Laksmana temple at Sirpur.
The last ruler:
Sivagupta Balarjuna is known to be the last Panduvamsin

monarch of Dakshina Kosala, and nothing is known of the fate of the
family in the eighth century A.D. From a stone inscription found in
a wall of the Rajivalocana temple at Rajim, about twenty-eight miles

south by east of Raipur, records the erection of a temple dedicated to
Visnu by the Nala king Vilasatunga (38). The inscription mentions
Vilasatunga’a father Viruparaja and grandfather Prthviraja also. It
is evident that the region round Rajim in the Raipur District was
under Vilasatunga at the time of the construction of the temple in
question, which is undoubtedly the same as the modern temple
of Rajivalocana. The record has been assigned to about the eighth
century A.D. on palaeographical grounds (39). Thus, it appears that
the Nalas, who were the neighbours of the Panduvamsis on the
south in Umerkote region of Koraput district, took advantage of the
decline of the Panduvamsin power after Sivagupta and Vilasatunga
succeeded in capturing the Raipur region from Sivagupta’s weak
successors (40). Whether Vilasatunga’s rule was confined to the
Raipur region or he annexed some other parts of Chhattisgarh also
cannot be determined in the present state of inadequate knowledge.
Be that as it may, the fact remains that after Sivagupta we get no trace
of the presence of Panduvamsis in the Chhattisgarh region forming
the western part of Dakshinas Kosala which passed successively
under the Nalas, Banas and Kalachuris, and they are found ruling
in western Orissa which corresponded to the eastern part of Kosala.
References
(1) Mirashi,V.V., Studies in Indology, i, 258, fn.1.
(2) Das Pt. Nilakantha, Oriya language and culture, OHRJ VIII 1: p.1-40
(3) Nos.III:II,16-17; III, line 16; IV, text-line 19.
(4) No.III; V, text-line 5-7
(5) No.III; XV, text-lines 6-7, verse 7.
(6) Majumdar,R.C. and Altekar,A.B.(ed.), The Vakataka-Gupta Age, 9-91;

Majumdar,R.C.(ed.), The Classical Age, 221.
(7) No.III:I
(8) JBBRAS, i, 148ff.

(9) CARS, ix, 127. For Cunningham’s reasons for the attribution of this inscription
to Bhandak, EI, xxiii, 116-17
(10) IA, xxxvii, 208, fn.20; 1xii, 163; ICPB, 13, no.14.
(11) Bhandarkar’s List, No.1650
(12) EI,xxi, 34, xxxiii, 256.Sircar’s view
(13) JRAS, 1905, 618
(14) EI, xxii, 17
(15) Ibid, xxiii, 116-18
(16) EI, xxvi, 227; xxxii, 252-54; Studies in Indology, i, 251-52
(17) As stated by Mirashi, Vinayakrao Aurangabadkar’s report was supplied by

Y.K.Deshpande. A.J.Rajurkar, Candrapuraca Itihasa (Marathi), foreword by
Y.K.Deshpande, 4-5 cited by Ajay M. Shastri
(18) MSS. No.Marathi D, 46
(19) Records of Tivaradeva and Nannarajadhiraja in verse 40 of the Arang stone

inscription as depicted by Shastri, A.M. Inscription of the Sarabhapuriyas,
Panduvamsins and Somavamsins. Part I. Indian Council of History Research,
New Delhi & Motilal Banarasidas, Delhi
(20) Marashi, V.V. studies in Indology, i, 235-36
(21) Supra, 122-6
(22) See Mirashi,V.V., Studies in Indology, i, 236
(23) Kielhorn in EI, iv, 257, fn.4; JRAS, 1905
(24) Sirpur Lithic record no.III:XIII, verse 2
(25) Mirashi, V.V. see note 950 above. Vide also Hira Lal, ICPB, 125 no.208.
(26) The Arang inscription of Nanna I (no.III:I)
(27) No.III:XIII, verse.3.
(28) No.III:II, text-lines 16-17; IV, text-line 19. In III:III, text-line 16

(29) No.III: V, text-lines 5-7
(30) No.III: V, text-lines 8-9 (prapta-sakala-Kosala-mandal-adhipatyah)
(31) No.III:XI, verse 20
(32) No.III:XI, verse 12
(33) Hira Lal, ICPB, 110, no.183

(34) No.III:IX, text-line 13. Archaeological Survey of India, Western Circle Progress
Report for 1904, 49, no.2015
(35) The Lodha and incomplete Burhikhar (Mallar) charters were given in the fifty
seventh year of his rule.
(36) No.III : XI, verse 12 and Hiralal, ICPB 13, 110, no. 183
(37) Bhaskarvarman is mentioned in No. III: IX, text line 13.
(38) E.I, xxvii, 322-23, Journal of the Kalinga Historical Research Society, p.265-66
(39) Ibid 49-58
(40) E.I, xxvi, p.51

Mahendragiri
The Mount Mahendra, well known since ancient times stand at
1501 meters height. It is located between 18-58’-10” N latitude
and 85-26’-4” E longitudes and comes under the undivided Ganjam
district of Orissa. The Bay of Bengal view is most thrilling experience
from the top of the Mahendragiri. Most ancient references show that
the eastern slope of the mount was one entry point; and now a pucca
road takes the route from the western direction. The mount continues
down south with the Eastern Ghats. There are many small hills along
it. The mount Mahendra is plain on its top. The mount Mahendra
has innumerous streams flowing on it and most of them form the
Rusikulya and Mahendra tanya rivers and thence flow down. The
area is filled with thick forest. The hill top mostly remains cloudy
as has been said earlier with frequent clouds looming over it.
According to N.K.Sahu,(1) “The Mahendra mountain range of the

Eastern Ghats forms an important geographical feature of Kalinga
and it is regarded by many royal dynasties in the past as their
respective cradle land. It was thus important as a seat of political
activities and became famous as a centre of religious and cultural
life of Kalinga.
The Mahendra region was originally inhabited by the Sabaras and

Pulindas.
The Mahabharata declares this mountain as an important seat of

Aryan culture, where Parasurama, the champion of Brahmanism is
said to have performed penance.(2)
In the 2nd century A.D. Gautamiputra Satakarni is known to have

extended his empire in the East upto the Mahendra hill.(3)
In the Raghuvamsa of Kalidasa the Mahendra mountain finds
Mahendragiri 95
prominent mention and it is regarded there as the very heart of

Kalinga. Raghu, in course of his Digvijaya is said to have conquered
Kalinga and according to the poet the occupation of Mahendra by
Raghu signifies his over-lordship over Kalinga.(4) The poet calls the
king of Kalinga as the ‘Lord of Mahendra’(5) and suggests that the
political headquarters of Kalinga was in the Mahendra region.
The southern expeditions of Samudragupta as described in the

Allahabad Pillar Inscription, we know from this inscription that the
king of Kalinga, whose headquarters was at Pistapura, was named
as ‘Mahendra-giri’ after this famous hill.
The importance of the Mahendra hill as the religious and

cultural centre of Kalinga was further enhanced with the advent
of the Eastern Gangas, who installed their family deity Lord
Gokarneswara on the crest of this mountain. The Ganga kings
worship Gokarneswaraswami of Mahendra in the preamble of their
charters.(6)
The Sailodbhavas of Kongoda had great reverence for this hill and
they regarded it as a Kulagiri.(7)
An early group of temples standing on the Mahendragiri indicates

that this was an important seat of Saivite culture during medieval
period.”
Pliny writers, “Next to Prasii, in the interior, came the Monedes

and the Suari to whom belonged Mount Maleus on which shadows
fell towards the north in winter, and to the south in summer, for
six months alternately Ganguli considered Mount Maleus as the
beautiful Malyagiri in Pal Lahra, in whose vicinity Sauras are
found. Verrier Elwin suggested Mahendragiri of Paralakhemundi
to be Mount Maleus, which we too agree because of its height and
that proves the shadow factor as has been suggested by Pliny in his
writing. This part we have dealt elsewhere.
As can be seen from Podagadha of Umerkote region of undivided
Koraput, the fort of the Nala King was located on the top of the
tallest hill in that region; similar situation of Mahendragiri where

first the Mathra dynasty ruled reminds that perhaps the fall of the
king and his fort was regarded as fall of the Kingdom. Thus Sahu
writes, that even in Medieval period the conquest of Kalinga was
considered complete only after the occupation of the Mahendra.
(8) Thus they had made their seat of ruling on the top of such hills
which was inaccessible and not easy to take over because of its steep
slopes and strategic location. Moreover, the Mathras of Kalinga and
Nala of Dakshina Koshala(part of Koraput) were more or less of the
same period.
Soon after the expedition of Samudragupta, the Mathra dynasty

from the 4th century A.D. acquired the ruling of Kalinga. They were
in the region of Mahendra, thus the main areas of their territory
extended all around the Mahendra mountain, where they might
have installed their family deity, like the Gangas who immediately
succeeded them on the top of Mahendra mount, there are three
dilapidated temples which are known as Yudhisthira, Bhima
and Kunti. According to the local traditions, those temples were
constructed by the Pandavas, when they visited the locality.
There is another popular Sabara tradition, that two brothers Rama

and Bhima came(8) to the hill top of Mahendra, where they settled
and due course they occupied the range of hills and thence extended
to Vindhya Central India.
Mishra wrote, “ In the Mahabharata Vana-Parva, we find that the

Pandavas on their way to Kalinga, arrived at the river Vaitarani where
they took their sacred bath. Their guide, the sage Lomasa, advised
them to climb on a Vedi, which had been raised by Bhudevi, at the
request of the sage Kasyapa. Lomasa asked Yudhisthira to climb
upon the Vedi to be blessed and thus to acquire divine prowess. The
Pandavas accordingly climbed on the Vedi after they had a sacred
bath in the sea and went to the Mahendra hill to rest during the night.
Some scholars interpret that the Vedi mentioned in the Mahabharata
may be identified with Puri or the Nilacala. Unfortunately, we do
not have any trace of a hill in the neighbourhood of Puri or on its
Mahendragiri 97
sea-shore. From the descriptions of the Mahabharata, we have to

search for this Vedi which must have been on the mountain or near
the mountain, close to the sea-shore and was considered as a sacred
place. Which other place in Kalinga fits with this description if it is
not the Mahendra mountain?”(9)
Similar expression has appeared from Korni copper plate grant

of Chodaganga (1078-1148), there is a verse which has described the
five sons of Chodoganga of Ganga dynasty, Kamarnava, Darnava,
Gunarnava, Marasimha and Vajrahasta came to Mahendra like the
five Pandavas, they worshipped the god Gokarna-svamin.(10)
As already said, the Sailobhava kings of Kongada regarded

the Mahendra mountain as the sacred seat of their progenitor.
The Gangas regarded Gokarnesvara as their family god, and the
Sailodbhavas worshipped Syvambhu as the progenitor of their family
and possibly were installed on Mahendra mount.(11)

The Mahendra region was originally inhabited by the Sabaras and
Pulindas, but about the early Christian era civilised races began their
settlement in that area.
The temples of Bhima, Yudhisthira and Kunti on Mahendra

mountain:
The Bhima temple is unique in archeological point of view among

all others on the Mahendra mount. It belongs to earliest age of temple
construction in Orissa. The temple is complete with seven huge cut
pieces of granite stones. It is apparently belongs to Gupta period
as has been suggested by many. The Bhima temple stands around
25 feet height. The largest single piece of stone in construction of
this temple is 9 feet in length, 4 feet wide and height of 3 feet; thus
it comes to around 100 cubic feet(12).
A very similar temple, made out of nine cut stones, is found on

the top of the hill of Jagamanda village, near Gunupur of undivided
Koraput district not far away from Mahendragiri. The temple has
Siva linga and is named Nilakanthesvara. A small inscription

discovered on the temple which reads the name of Dharmakirti.
It may possible be referred to Dharmakiriti, a Buddhist teacher
of Kalinga, who had defeated Kumarilabhatta(13). Thus it may
be possible that Bhima temple was constructed earlier and before
Dharmakiriti, may be during or before Mathra dynasty. There is
archeological evidence supporting it.
The Kunti temple is also called as Gokarnesvara temple. It is

around 30 feet tall, the temple indicates Kalinga art of construction.
The shrine of Gokarnesvara, siva is an ancient one, and have been
seen in copper plate inscription of Ganga kings of Svetaka dating
back to 5th century.(14)
At the entrance to the temple, there are two inscriptions dating

back to 1045 and 1055 century A.D. It is the opinion of archeologist
that the temples have been rebuilt in 12th century. Panigrahy says
that it may have been constructed during Ganga dynasty (5th to
6th century A.D.) it may have been repaired in later period.(15)

The Yudhisthira temple, on Mahendragiri is placed in late part
of 6th century A.D.(16). The construction is similar to Somesvara
and Madhukeswara temples of Mukhalingam in neighbouring
Srikakulam, but the sculpture construction is different. There is
a Buddhist construction tinge in it. There is a stone inscription of
Rajendrachola which has been depicted in Kalingapur and has been
built.
The Sabara king was ruling Mahendra, Matharas came and

overpowered Sabara. It is possible that Mathras may have installed
Narayana and worshipped him. It is also not unlikely that Mathras
worshipped the same deity of Sabaras by Aryanising it at the same
place. Then came the Ganga dynasty who ruled Kalinga for several
years, and issued almost all inscriptions in the Mahendra. The
Ganga were Saivas, and worshipped the same deity of Mathras as
Gokarnesvara. The Sailodbhavas came and perhaps worshipped
both Siva and Visnu, which is evident from their records.
Mahendragiri 99
Reference
(1) Sahu, N.K.(1964) History of Orissa,Vol.I, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar,

p-91-93
(2) Mohabharat I, 64
(3) E.I. VIII. Pp.60f
(4) Mbh.1.64
(5) Raghuvamsa, IV, 40-43 and ibid, vi, 54
(6) Santabommali grant of Nandavarmana, J.A.H.R.S.I, pp-85-89
(7) Cuttack Museum charter of Madhavavarma, E.I. XXIV, pp.148 and Banpur
charter of Madhyamaraja, E.I. XXIX, pp.32f
(8) Swell,G. And Aiyangar, Rajendra Cholas Conquests - Historical Inscriptions

of South India, C.I.I.Vol.III, pp-146f
(9) Mishra, K.C.((1984) The Cult of Jagannath, Calcutta, p-7
(10) The Korni Plates of Chodagangadeva, J.A.H.R.S.I, p-8 (cradle ofEastern

Ganga) E.I.XXIV, p-148 (cradle of Sailodbhavas)
(11) Inscriptions of Orissa, Vol.II, Appendix-I and I.H.Q.Vol.XXX VI,1960, pp-

261-264
(12) Panda, Bharat(1997) Juga Juga Mahendragiri, Berhampore, p-123
(13) Inscription of Orissa, Vol.II, Appendix I & I.H.Q Vol.XXXVI, 1960, pp-261-264
(14) I.A.Vol.XVIII, p.165, Korni Plates of Annet Varman Chodaganga
(15) Panigrahi,K.C., Art and Architecture, p-37
(16) Ibid. Archeological Remains of Bhubaneswar, p-51

Index
A Borasambar 5
Brhat Samhita 8
Abhinava Pampa 39 Brhatsamhita 36
Abhiras 32 Buddhism 28
Agara 3 Budhistic sculptures 58
Aitareya Brahmana 8 Buguda plates 58
Allahabad 7, 10 Bundelkhand 7
Ambika Prasad 26
America 1 C
Anantavarma Choda Ganga 45
Andhras 23–44 Cambodian 2
Arsi Saoras 19 Ceylon 50
Aryans 1 Chanda 3
Ashoka 46 Chanda District 3
Atavi 46 Chandragupta 35
Austric 1 Cheros 4
Ayodhya 38 Cheros tribe 40
Chhattisgarh 7
B Chinnakimidi 18
Chintapatris 5
B.C.Mazumdar 2, 6 Chola Kulotunga I 46
Bana 29 Christian 23
Bandkars 4 Citrotpala 57
Bastar 3 Crooke 4
Basu Sabara 4 Cunningham
Bengal 13, 21 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11
Bharata Muni 32
Bhilla 2 D
Bhilsa 6
Bhima 63 D.C.Sircar 60
Bhubaneswar 51 Daitapatis 74
Bhuiyas 2, 4, 40 Dakshina-Koshala 57, 58
Bhumij 2 Dalbhum 4
Bilaspur 37 Dalton 4
Bimma 18 Damoh 6
Bir Hoare 2 Dandak forest 8
Bondo 1, 2 Dandaka Forest 30
INDEX 101
Dasyu 23 I
Dhenkanal 5
Dhinka 5 Indravati 63
Dhinka Saora 5
J
Doms 20
Dravidians 1 Jadu Saoras 19
Jagannath cult 57, 66
E Jara Shabar 14
Eastern Gangas 46 Jati Saoras 19
Juangs 2, 3, 32
F
K
Fleet 37
Kalahandi 60
G Kalinga 1, 36, 45, 46, 50, 57, 58,
59, 63, 65, 78, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95
Gangavadi 51 kalinga 61
Ganges 7 Kampu 18
Ganjam 4 Karwa 3
Garrick 7, 38 Keonjhar 4, 14
Ghazipur 7, 38 Kern 37
Gokarnasvamin 50 Khageswar Mohapatro 2
Gonds 2, 48 Kharavela 46
Gontaras 19 Kharia 2, 4, 9, 10, 39
Gorum 2 Khasis 1
Gotaha 2 Kindal 19
Griffths 27 Kitung 61, 63, 64
Grigson 3 Kols 1, 2
Gumma 18 Konds 5
Gunupur 18 Kongoda 57, 92
Gutob Gadaba 2 Koraput 1, 4, 5, 7
Gwalior 6 Korku 2, 6
Korni 45
H Kosala 48
Haihaya dynasty 48 Kumbit Saoras 19
Harsha Vardhana 29 Kunti 31
Hathigumpha 46 Kurkus 2
Hill 4, 13, 17, 18, 19
Hill Saoras 4 L
Ho 1, 3 Lakshman 25
Hos 2 Lalitpur 6
Hutton 7, 11 Lanjhia Saoras 19
Laria 7
Lingaraja 51 Munda 1, 2, 3, 5, 9

Lodh 8 Mundari 1, 2
Lodha 8 Mundas 23, 42
Lombo 19 Mutibas 24
Lord Jagannath 14
Lord Krishna 71 N
Lord Srikrishna 14
N.K.Sahu 91
M Nagas 1
Naihati grant 45
Madala Panji 66 Narayana 50
Madhya Pradesh 3, 6, 7 Narwar 6
Magadha 48 Natya-Sutra 32
Mahabharata 24 Navakalesvara 72
Mahandi 7 Nesfield 4, 40
Maharashtra 3 Nilamadhava 63
Mahayana Buddhists 63 Nodh 8
Mahayana School 62 Nrisimha Mahatmya 6
Mahendra 18, 57, 58, 59, 61, 63,
65, 66, 67, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 9 O
6, 97
Oldham 23
Mahendra hill 58
Mahendra mount 58 P
Mahendragiri 23, 61
Malay peninsula 2 Padma Purna 70
Male Paharias 2 Page No. 109
Males 4 Pahlavas 25
Malkangiri 5 Paiks 20
Malwa 7 Pal Lahara 5
Mamata Choudhury 8 Pallavamalla 38
Manbhum 15 Pallavas 49
Manu 35 Pandavas 71
Markandeya Purana 28 Pandu 57, 58, 62
Matanga 25 Pandu dynasty 57
Matharas 59 Panduvamsis 59
Matsya Purana 29 Parna-Sabaras 3, 28, 37
Mauryan 34 Patna State 14
Mayurbhanj Kharias 4 Peddakimidi 18
Mishra 74 Pinnow 2, 9
Mlechchas 25 Pliny 23
Mon-khmer 2 Polkonda 8
Mount Maleus 23 Pottasingi 18
Mr.Saurindranath Roy 28 Pt.Nilakantha Das 1
Mukhalingam 61 Ptolemy 23
INDEX 103
Pulinda 2, 24, 25, 27, 29, 31, 32 Sambalpur 5

Pundras 24 Samvara 1
Puri 5 Santal 1
Purusottama 57, 59, 62, 66, Santals 1, 2
67, 68, 70 Saora 1, 5, 6, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18,
19, 20, 24, 26, 33, 34, 37, 39, 40
R , 41, 45,
R.Geib 64 50, 63, 66
Raipur 6 Saoras 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 13, 15, 17,
Rajim 48, 57, 58, 62, 77 18, 19, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30,
Rajim Mahatmya 57 31, 32, 33, 37, 38, 39, 40
Rajmahal Hills 4 Sar 1
Rajput 5 Sarabhapura 57
Rama 25 Sarala Dasa 69
Ramadas 26 Sarangarh 3
Ramayana 26 Saura 1
Ranchi 23 Savari River 5
Rath-jatra 40 Sawar 6
Remo 67 Sayar 1
Rg.Veda 1, 9 Serango Muttas 18
Risley 8 Serori-Narayana 37
River Jonk 62 Shahabad 48
Russell and Hira Lal 7 Simhachal temple 51
Singhbhum 4
S Singhbhum (Bihar 4
Siripur 57
S.C.Roy 2, 4 Sita 27
S.N.Rajaguru 60 Sivalinga 60
Sabar 1, 31 Siwir 1
Sabara 1, 1–11, 2, 2–11, 3, 3 Skanda Purana 68
11, 4, 5, 7, 8, 17, 18, 2 Soara 1, 2, 3, 21
4, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 35, Soeri 7
36, 39, 45, 47, 48, 49, 50, Soiri 7
51, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 63, 64, 65 Soppu 3
, 66, 68, 69, Sora 1, 21, 54
70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 93, 95 Sora Arcati regia 29
Sabara Soria 1
S’abara 2 Sour 1
Sabara Pharia 4 sour 64
Sabari-Narayana 37 South Kanara 3
Sagar 3, 6 South Rajputana 6
Sahar 1, 8 Sri-Kurmam 8
Sailodbhavas 59 Srikakulam 8
Saletore 36
Srikurman 8 Z
Stambhesvari 60
Sudda 19 Zamindari 5, 6
Suir 1, 7 zamindari 6
Sunris 6 Zide 2, 9
Suri 7
Surris 1, 6
Svayambhu 51
Swiri 1, 38, 39
Swiris 7
T
Takala Saoras 19
Telugu 18
Thoras 5
Tickell 17
Tivara Deva 48
U
Udayana 38, 45, 57
Uriya 7
V
Varaha 32
Varaha Mihara 32
Varaha Mihira 3
Verrier Elwin 3, 14, 17, 19
Vietnam 2
Vindhya range 8
Vishwabasu 40
Visvavasu 68
Viswamitra 24
Vitebsky 1, 9
Vizagapatam 8
Vrsala 35
Y
Yayati Kesari 66
Yudhisthira 93, 94, 95
INDEX 105
Annexure - I
Pratna Munda
South Munda Central Munda North
Soara Garum Gataha Khadia Juang Korku Kherwari

(Sabara)
Remo Gutab
(Bondo) (Gadaba)

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Sabara Tribe in Indian History

Dr. Giridhar Gamang

© Giridhar Gamang 2008

They have been associated with Jainism, Buddhism, Savisim,

The classical work of Verrier Elwin, ‘The Religion of an Indian

This book as it is drawn up heavily on the works of various

I am thankful to Dr. Das Kornel for his contribution to assist

Bhubaneswar, Giridhar Gamang

The tribal history is a majorr part of the

01. Sabara Tribe and Distribution 01-11

03. Sabara Tribe in Orissa 16-20

04. Sabaras in Literature 21-42

05. Indian History and Sabaras 43-53

06. Sabaras in Dakshina-Kosala, Kalinga 54-76

07. The Panduvamsis of Dakshina Kosala 77-86

08. Mahendragiri 87-92

Vitebsky (1993) said based on his studies of Sabara of Koraput

Cunningham writes; “that in early times, where the name of the

Cunningham continues, “There seems good reason to believe that

Parna-Sabaras in Sagar of Madhya Pradesh, Chanda District of

Cunningham opines that the Parna-Sabaras were the most powerful

Sabaras in Bastar district of Madhya Pradesh:

When Verrier Elwin visited some Sabara villages in Sarangarh

Sabaras (Soppu) in South Kanara of Karnataka:

To these leaf-wearing classes of Sabaras we may add those of South

With the above notices of the Sabaras, we may dispense with

Sabara Pharia or Sauria in Singhbhum (Bihar), and

The Bandkars living between Singhbhum and Keonjhar described

Hill Kharias a branch of Sabaras of Dalbhum and

The Hill Kharias of Dhalbhum trace their ancestry back to

Sabaras in Malkangiri of Koraput district, Orissa:

According to Mazumdar, the Saoras formerly occupied the areas

Principalities of Dhenkanal and Dhinka Saora:

The Dhenkanal princely state, where over 50,000 Sabaras are

Pal Lahara principality origin and Sabaras:

The Borasambar Zamindari of Sambalpur and Savar linkage:

The Borasambar Zamindari of Sambalpur also has a link with

The Sunris of Gwalior, Narwar and South Rajputana:

To the south-west of Gwalior and Narwar and South Rajputana are a

North Madhya Pradesh

Cunningham divides the Saoras into two great divisions, the

He found some Saoras mixed with Bhils, and those towards

Eastern U.P. and Bihar:

Central U.P. and Ganges:

Madhya Pradesh, Betwa river to Mahandi extended to Orissa,

They are mainly distributed in the Ganjam and Vizagapatam

Lodha, Lodh or Nodh, a tribe of United Provinces, Central

Mamata Choudhury (1977) wrote, “The Sabaras as a tribe was

(2) Ibid Rg.Veda 11-12 and ‘The Pryans’-V.G.Child p-12

(5) Zide,N.H.ed(1966) Studies on comparative Austroasiatic linguistics, The

(9) Mazumdar, B.C.(1927) The Aborigines of the Highlands of Central India,

(10) Roy,S.C.(1912) The Mundas and their country, Calcutta pp.52f

(13) Cunningham,A (1884) Ibid

(14) Grigson,W.V(1944) The aboriginal Problem in the Central Provinces of Beras

(16) Risley,H.H.(1891) The Tribes and Castes of Bengal, Calcutta,Vol.II, p.24

(18) Cunningham, A (1891) Ibid, p.134

(20) Mazumdar, B.C.(1927) Aborigines of Central India, Calcutta, p-8

(21) Roy,S.N.(1927) The Sabaras of Orissa, Man in India, Vol.VIII, p.294

(22) Cobden-Ramsay,L.E.B(1910) Feudatory States of Orissa, Calcutta,Vol.V, pt.I,