AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.

2017

Chapter 1
Introduction to PLC

Before we introduce PLC, it is important first of all to understand process control system and what
roles it plays in process industry.

Process control
Introduction
Process control involves automatic regulation and control of the physical aspects (dynamic
variables) of an industrial process to produce desired output.

Process:
It constitutes a sequence of events in which a raw material will be converted into finished product.
“Any system composed of dynamic variables, usually involved in manufacturing & production
operations”.

It is any operation or sequence of operations involving a change of energy, state, composition,

dimension, or other properties that may be defined with respect to a datum (or a piece of
information)

It is sequence of interdependent and linked procedures which, at every stage, consume one or more
resources to convert inputs into outputs. These outputs then serve as inputs for the next stage until a
known goal or end result is reached.

It is an assemblage of phenomena comprising of dynamic variables and raw materials being changed
to create finished products.

A process can be as simple as the one shown in figure 1a and as complex as shown in figure 1b and c

1
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

Figure 1a

Figure 1b

2
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

Figure 1c

Dynamic variable is any parameter which can change either spontaneously or from external
influences. Typical examples of dynamic variables are:
- Temperature
- Pressure
- Light
- Flow rate
- Level
- Speed
- Force
- Humidity
- Ph (acidity or alkalinity)
- Turbidity(is the measure of relative clarity of a liquid)
- Density
- Mass
- Electrical behavior
- Viscosity
- Conductivity
- Concentration
- Flammability
- etc
The term automatic process control came into wide use when people learned to adapt automatic
regulatory procedures to manufacture products or process material more efficiently. Such procedures
are called automatic because no human (manual) intervention is required to regulate them.

Control
This involves the regulation of all aspects of the process. For example precise control of level,
temperature, pressure and flow is important in many process applications.

Control in process industries refers to the regulation of all aspects of the process.

Process control
Is the act of controlling a final control element to change the manipulated variable to maintain the
process variable at a desired setpoint.

Process variable
This is the physical and chemical properties of a process that is being controlled. Common examples
of process variable are the temperature of a room, pressure and flow of fluid passing through a pipe,
level of water in a tank and more.

System
This is defined as a collection of matter, parts or components that are working together to accomplish
a given task.

3
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

Control System
It is an arrangement of physical components connected or related in such a manner as to command,
direct, or regulate itself or another system.

It is a means by any quantity of interest in a machine, mechanism or other equipment is maintained or

altered in accordance with the desired manner.

Types of control systems

i) Open loop control system
ii) Closed loop control system(Feedback control system)

Advantages of feedback Control

The following advantages are the fundamental reasons for using feedback.
i. Many unnecessary disturbances and noise signals from outside the system can be rejected.
ii. The change in the performance of the system due to parameter variations is reduced.
iii. The steady-state error of the system can be relatively small.
iv. The transient behavior of the process can be easily manipulated.
v. The feedback is compared with the desired state in order to take corrective measures.

Disadvantages of feedback Control

i. The system is complicated by the increased number of components, such as sensors and error
detectors.
ii. The overall gain of the system is reduced and must be compensated for in the design.
iii. The system may not be stable (it may oscillate or depart greatly from the desired output), even
though the comparable open-loop system is stable.
iv. The error detector is necessary in order to compare two states.
v. If there is a change in an Output, it will affect the system input.

Purpose of automatic control

i) To reduce the number of personnel on production line. Robots have been introduced in this
realization.
ii) To realize increase in production rates. That is automatic control systems operates without
the error that often result from the morning “blahs” in attention by production workers and
normal human errors.
iii) Automatic control systems can be adjusted to produce end product to close tolerance than
consistently available using human operator; therefore improved quality of end product is
frequently achieved.
iv) Processes with features that render it beyond the capability of human operator e.g. moon
or on the bottom of the ocean which operate in extremes of isolation, areas of high nuclear
radiation, in total darkness, control of high speed military aircraft, transcontinental natural gas
pipeline (where the degree of complexity of control is excessive and where certain control
features are too critical to trust human operator.)

Need for Process control

Effective process control is required to maintain safe operations, quality products, and profit.
4
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

Safety
The primary purpose of a Process Control system is safety: personnel safety, environmental safety and
equipment safety. The safety of plant personnel and the community is the highest priority in any
operation.

Quality
In addition to safety, process control systems are central to maintaining product quality. In blending
and batching operations, control systems maintain the proper ratio of ingredients to deliver a consistent
product. They tightly regulate temperatures to deliver consistent solids in cooling systems. Without
this type of control, products "would vary and undermine quality.

Profit
When safety and quality concerns are met, process control objectives can be focused on profit. All
processes experience variations and product quality demands that the plant operate within constraints.
Profits will be maximized when the process is operated to these constraints.

Other reasons may include:

- Reduction of the number of employees in the production line
- Increased production

All process systems consist of three main factors or terms:

- the manipulated variables,
- disturbances, and
- the controlled variables

Typical manipulated variables are valve position, motor speed, and damper position, or blade pitch.
The controlled variables are those conditions, such as temperature, level, position, pressure, pH,
density, moisture content, weight, and speed that must be maintained at some desired value.

5
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

Basic Elements and Block Diagram

1. Basic Elements of Process Control

In the process control, four basic elements are normally involved: process, measurement,
evaluation (with a controller), and control element (Fig. 2.1).

Fig 2.1 Basic control elements

Process
Many dynamic variables may be involved in a process, and it may be desirable to control all those
variables at the same time. There are single-variable processes, in which only one variable is to be
controlled. However, most industrial processes are multivariable processes, in which many variables,
perhaps interrelated, may require regulation.

Measurement
To achieve the control of a variable in a process, we must have information on the variable itself. Such
Information is found by measuring the variable. In general, a measurement refers to the conversion of
the variable into some corresponding analog signal of the variable, such as a pneumatic pressure, an
electrical voltage, or current. The result of the measurement is a conversion of the variable into some
proportional information in a useful form required by the other elements in the process control
operation.

Sensors/Transducers
A sensor is a device that performs the initial measurement and energy conversion of a variable into
analogous electrical or pneumatic information. Sometimes further transformation or signal
conditioning may be required to complete the measurement function. The sensor used for
measurement may also be called a transducer.

The word sensor is preferred for the initial measurement device, while a "transducer" represents a
device that converts any signal from one form to another. Thus, for example, a device that converts a

6
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

voltage into a proportional current would be a transducer. In other words, all sensors are transducers,
but not all transducers are sensors.

Error Detector
This is the device that determines whether the variable we desire to control, often called the process
variable is above or below the desired level called the Setpoint or reference value. If the process
variable is above or below the setpoint, an error signal proportional to the error is generated. This error
signal is then used by the controller to generate a control action. So before any control action takes
place, an error signal must be generated.

It is worthy to note that the error detector is often an integral part of the controller device; however it
is important to keep a clear distinction between the two.

Controller
The device that acts on the error signal generated to determine what control action, if any, to be taken
is called a controller. The evaluation performed to determine control action can be done by electronic
signal processing, by pneumatic signal processing, or by a computer.

Computer use is growing rapidly in the field of process control because computers are easily adapted
to the decision-making operations and because of their inherent capacity to handle control of
multivariable systems.

The controller requires an input of both a measured indication of the controlled variable and a
representation of the reference value of the variable, expressed in the same terms as the measured
value. The reference value of the variable, you will recall, is referred to as the setpoint. Evaluation
consists of determining action required to bring the controlled variable to the setpoint value.

Final Control element

The final element in the control loop is a control element that exerts a direct influence on the process;
it is the device that provides those required changes in the controlled variable to bring it to the
setpoint.

This element accepts an input from the controller, which is then transformed into some proportional
operation performed on the process. In most process control loops, the final control element is a valve
which is often referred to as the final control element.

The block diagram can sometimes be presented as shown in the figure below

7
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

Process Control Terms

Dynamic Variable
This is a process variable that can change from moment to moment because of unspecified or
unknown sources. It is the process parameter that can change spontaneously or as a result of some
external influence.

Controlled Variable
This is the process variable regulated by the process-control loop.

Controlling Variable
This is the process variable changed by the final control element under command of the controller to
effect regulation of the controlled variable.

Controller
This is a device which operates automatically to regulate a controlled variable. It is a device that
receives data from a measurement instrument, compares that data to a programmed set point, and, if
necessary, signals a control element to take corrective action.

Control Algorithm
A control algorithm is a mathematical expression of a control function. Using the temperature control
loop example, V in the equation below is the fuel valve position, and e is the error.

Actuators
An actuator is the part of a final control device that causes a physical change in the final control
device when signaled to do so. The most common example of an actuator is a valve actuator, which
opens or closes a valve in response to control signals from a controller. Actuators are often powered
pneumatically, hydraulically, or electrically.

8
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

Correcting or final control element is the part of the control system that acts to physically change the
manipulated variable. In most cases, the final control element is a valve used to restrict or cut off fluid
flow, but pump motors, louvers (typically used to regulate air flow), solenoids, and other devices can
also be final control elements.

Final control elements are typically used to increase or decrease fluid flow. For example, a final
control element may regulate the flow of fuel to a burner to control temperature, the flow of a catalyst
into a reactor to control a chemical reaction, or the flow of air into a boiler
to control boiler combustion.

Process action
This is relative direction of change in process variable for a change in the manipulated variable
(“direct” for same direction and “reverse” for opposite direction)

Error
Error is the difference between the measured variable and the setpoint and can be either positive or
negative.

Offset
Offset is a sustained deviation of the process variable from the setpoint. In the temperature control loop
example, if the control system held the process fluid at 100.5 °C consistently, even though the setpoint
is 100 °C, then an offset of 0.5 °C exists.

Load Disturbance
A load disturbance is an undesired change in one of the factors that can affect the process variable. In
the temperature control loop example, adding cold process fluid to the vessel would be a load
disturbance because it would lower the temperature of the process fluid.

Dead Time: The amount of time it takes for a process to start changing after a disturbance in the
system.
Accuracy
This is defined conformity of an indicated value to an accepted standard value, or true value.

Drift
This is change in the output-input relationship over a period of time.

Noise
This is unwanted component of a signal or variable which obscures the information content.
Note: It may be expressed in units of the output or in percent of output span.

Operating Conditions
Conditions (such as ambient temperature, ambient pressure, vibration, etc.) to which a device is
subject, but not including the variable measured by the device

9
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS (PLC)

Introduction
The way many industrial processes look today, is the result of many years of research and hard work of
people committed to improve their functionality, management, and organization. One could recall the
phrase”necessity is the mother of invention”, and certainly this would fit the everyday work of control
engineers and technicians working in industrial processes during the 50’s and 60’s. This necessity was
the origin of devices such as the Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) and the Distributed Control
System (DCS).

Definitions
A programmable logic controller (PLC) is an industrially hardened computer- based unit that
performs discrete or continuous control functions in a variety of processing plant and factory
environments.

It is an industrial computer control system that continuously monitors the state of input devices and
makes decisions based upon a custom program to control the state of output devices.

According to NEMA (National Electrical Manufacture’s Association, USA),the definition of PLC has
been given as “Digital electronic devices that uses a programmable memory to store instructions
and to implement specific functions such as logic , sequencing, timing, counting, and arithmetic
to control machines and processes.”

It was originally intended as relay replacement equipment for the automotive industry. Nowadays the
PLC is used in virtually every industry imaginable. Though they were commonly referred to as PCs
before 1980,

PLC became the accepted abbreviation for programmable logic controllers, as the term ”PC” became
synonymous with personal computers in recent decades.
The sheer number of PLC applications is enormous. According to a recent Control Engineering
magazine poll, ”The major applications for PLCs include machine control (87%), process control
(58%), motion control (40%), batch control (26%), diagnostic (18%), and other (3%).” The results
don’t add up to 100% because a single control system generally has multiple applications.
PLCs are produced and sold worldwide as stand-alone equipment by several major control equipment
manufacturers. In addition, a variety of more specialized companies produce PLCs for original
equipment manufacturer (OEM) applications.

10
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

Unlike a personal computer, PLC is designed to survive in a rugged industrial atmosphere and to be
very flexible in how it interfaces with inputs and outputs to the real world.

Programmable Logic History

The Birth of the PLC
The early history of the PLC goes back to the 1960’s when control systems were still handled using
relay control. During this time the control rooms consisted of several walls containing many relays,
terminal blocks and mass of wires.
The problems related to such kind of systems were many, among those one could mention:
• The lack of flexibility to expand the process, as well as the inordinate amount of time needed
to adjust the process when changes were needed.
• Troubleshooting which covered from dirty contacts, loose wires, outdated prints on the
terminal blocks with informal nomenclature, to cryptic connection documentation.
These problems were faced continuously by technician and control engineers. At this time the adage
“Five hours to find it and five minutes to fix it” was born.

Fig. Conventional relay control circuit

11
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

Figure: Manual relay panels from the early 1960s.

The Problem with Relays

The relays had to be hardwired in a very specific order for the machine to work properly, and heaven
forbid if one relay would have an issue, the system as a whole would not work. Troubleshooting would
take hours, and because coils would fail and contacts would wear out, there was need for lots of
troubleshooting. These machines had to follow a strict maintenance schedule and they took up a lot of
space. Then what if you wanted to change something? You would basically have to redo the entire
system. It soon became clear that there were problems installing and maintaining these large relay
control systems.

In 1968 Bill Stone, who was part of a group of engineers at the Hydromantic Division of General
Motors Corporation, presented a paper at the Westinghouse Conference outlining their problems with
reliability and documentation for the machines at this plant. He also presented a design criteria
developed by the GM engineers for a”standard machine controller”.
According to the criteria developed, the early model of this machine not only had to eliminate costly
scrapping of assembly-line relays during model changeovers and replace unreliable electromechanical
relays, but also:
• Extend the advantages of static circuits to 90% of the machines in the plant.
• Reduce machine downtime related to controls problems, easily maintained and programmed in
line with already accepted relay ladder logic.
• Provide for future expansion, it had to be modular to allow for easy ex- change of components
and expandability.
• It had to work in an industrial environment with all its dirt, moisture, electromagnetism and
vibration.
• Include full logic capabilities, except for data reduction functions.
These specifications along with a proposal request to build a prototype were given to four control
builders:
• Allen-Bradley, by way of Michigan-based Information Instruments, Inc.
• Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC).
• Century Detroit.
Bedford Associates.

The Race is On
Considering the proposal request, the team of Digital Equipment brought a ”minicomputer” into GM,
which finally was rejected for many reasons, from which static memory was one of its serious
limitations.
Allen-Bradley, already well known for its rheostats, relays and motor controls, responded at the risk of
competing with one of its most successful core business which was the electromechanical relays.
Expecting to fulfill the requirements of the proposal, Allen-Bradley went from prototype to actual

12
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

production in five months. The first attempt, the PDQ-II or program data quantizier, was deemed too
large, too complex and too hard to program. The second attempt, the PMC or programmable matrix
controller, was smaller and easier to program, but still it was not able to fully serve customer needs for
machine controls.
By the time of the proposal, people at Bedford Associates, which included Richard Morley, Mike
Greenberg, Jonas Landau, George Schwenk and Tom Boissevain, were already working on the design
of a unit, which characteristics included a modular and rugged design, the use of no interrupts for
processing, as well as direct mapping into memory. The Bedford team named this unit as the 084, since
it was the 84th project for the company. After finding some financial support, the team decided to form a
new company called Modicon (MOdular DIgital CONtroller) which worked closely with Bedford to
create the controller. The team at Modicon was finishing the design and build of the 084, that now they
were calling the programmable controller (PC).
Finally in 1969, the winning proposal came from Bedford Associates and Modicon, when they
demonstrated at GM the Modicon 084 solid-state sequential logic solver. The Modicon 084 consisted of
three distinct components that included the processor board, the memory, and the logic solver board,
which solved the dominant algorithms associated with ladder logic.
When the Modicon 084 was designed, it was built rugged with no ON/OFF switch, totally enclosed
with conductive cooling, it was designed to be reliable. No fans were used and outside air. As Richard
Morley explains,”No fans were used, and outside air was not allowed to enter the system for fear of
contamination and corrosion. Mentally, we had imagined the programmable controller being
underneath a truck, in the open, and being driven around in Texas, in Alaska. Under those
circumstances, we wanted it to survive. The other requirement was that it stood on a pole, helping run a
utility or a microwave station which was not climate controlled, and not serviced at all”.

The History goes On

By 1971, Odo Struger and Ernst Dummermuth engineers of Allen-Bradley, had begun to develop a new
concept that included improvements based on the customer needs that could not be fulfilled by its
second attempt, the PMC. This new concept was known as the Bulletin 1774 PLC. Allen-Bradley
named this new device as the”Programmable Logic Controller” (PLC) over the then accepted
term”Programmable Controller”. The PLC terminology became the

13
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

Figure: Historical photo showing from left to right: Dick Morley, Tom Bois- sevain, Modicon
084, George Schwenk, and Jonas Landau.
industrial standard especially when PC became associated with personal computers. In 1985 Rockwell
Automation acquired Allen-Bradley. The name of the new produced products is still associated to
Allen-Bradley.
During this time Modicon was already gaining experiences through the Modicon 084. Based on this
experience, the design cycle by Michael Greenberg, and the marketing ideas of Lee Rousseau, the
Modicon 184 was born in 1973. The new model not only met the needs of the marketplace and the
costumers, but also produced the take off of the Modicon Company, setting it as the early leader in the
market. Eventually the success of Modicon caused the dissolution of Bedford Associates, to avoid tax
issues. In 1977 Modicon was sold to Gould Electronics, and later in 1997 to Schneider Electric, which
still owns the brand today, and uses the Modicon name.
Around the 1970’s, seven companies were in the PLC business, including con- tenders Allen-Bradley,
Modicon, General Electric, Square D and Industrial Solid State Controls. And although PLCs were
obviously a breakthrough that would revolutionize automation, they were still comparatively primitive.
They were largely developed and used for specific applications, most often in the automotive industry.
The early days of the PLCs however, were not as straightforward nor as simple. There were many
things that made the acceptance of the PLCs very difficult. As Morley explains,”We had some real
problems in the early days of convincing people that a box of software, albeit cased in cast iron, could
do the same thing as 50 feet of cabinets, associated relays, and wiring.” Morley recounted that in
1969, ”all computers required a clean, air-conditioned environment, yet were still prone to frequent
malfunctions. ... Thus, even though PLCs were and are special, dedicated computers, considerable
effort was made to not identify PLCs as computers due to the poor reliability of computers and the fact
that they were not things procured by manufacturing operations.” Unlike computers of that era, the
programmable controller was designed to be reliable.

14
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

Figure: The first programmable logic controller of Allen Bradley, the Bulletin 1774 PLC. It
was invented by Ernst Dummermuth in 1974.

Figure: The Modicon 184, second programmable controller of Modicon.

Beside these difficulties, another one was rising due to the dedicated hardware terminals employed to
program the early PLC versions. These terminals posed high challenges for the PLC programmers. In
this way, visionaries such as Scott Zifferer co-founder of ICOM software, and Neil Taylor owner of
Taylor Industrial Software found the source of inspiration to begin the evolution of the PLC
programming and documentation and to make enormous impacts on the shape of industrial
automation.
Scott Zifferer was solely focused on Allen-Bradley products, according to his own words, ”I wanted to use
a computer for PLC programming and documentation, instead of the dedicated hardware Allen-
Bradley called a T-3 Terminal. ... Allen-Bradley was, itself, developing a similar approach, but was
slow in doing so”. Thus, the users of the T-3 begun to enjoy the comfort of the enhanced user interface
that the ICOM software provided. The evolutionary approach to help control engineers and
15
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

maintenance people interface with Allen-Bradley PLCs improved acceptance and opened new
possibilities for the use of PLCs. Zifferer’s company merged with Rockwell Automation in 1993.
Neil Taylor focused on Modicon PLCs, recalling Taylor’s words, ”I was consulting and saw the need to
replace drafting table-produced ladder diagrams, which cost plenty to maintain and too much time to
create.” Taylor was initially focused on documentation, this resulted on a variety of report options and
reporting formats which helped troubleshooting the PLCs, albeit off-line. He moved into online PLC
program monitoring for Modicon and Allen-Bradley PLCs, and was widely successful with the Modicon
offering. Additionally he moved into other elements of PLC programming and documentation support
by adding more manufacturers to the line-up. Taylor sold his company to TCP, which later on was
rolled into GE Fanuc.

PLC Evolution
The early 1980s saw a cross pollination between PLCs and distributed control systems (DCSs). Where
PLCs already begun incorporating distributed control functions so they could be linked much in the way
that DCSs were linked. Building on the trend, software companies sprang up in great numbers during
this time. During the 90s, standardization and open systems were the main themes. Ethernet peer-to-peer
networking became available from virtually all PLC manufacturers. EEPROM and Flash memories
replaced the EPROMs of the 1980s. PCs and CRTs in general became accepted and started to replace
switches and lights on control system panels. Small PLCs called”Bricks” were introduced to the
marketplace. Redundancy for PLCs became a standard product. The first few years of the 21st century
have seen a consolidation of PLC manufacturers. Very small nano or pico PLCs, some as small as
industrial relays, have appeared. Safety PLCs featuring triple redundancy were introduced. LCD base
operator interface panels have largely displaced CRTs, especially on the plant floor.
There is much more to say about the history of the PLC, and so far we have only focused on the two
main vendors of PLCs which saw the birth of the PLC and kept still on the market, Modicon as part of
Schneider Electric, and Allen- Bradley as part of Rockwell Automation. For completeness of the
information Figure 5 shows additional information related to the contribution of these two companies
to the history of the PLCs.

The Fathers of the PLC

Richard Morley
He is considered by many as the father of the programmable controller. Among his credits are the
design of the original ladder-logic programmable controller, and the creation of the ladder logic
programming, that according to Morley the diagrams on which ladder logic is based on was probably
originated in Germany years before to describe relay circuitry.
The quintessential engineer and inventor with background in physics obtained in MIT hold more than
20 U.S. patents and foreign patents and continue to work on novel computer designs, artificial
intelligence, chaos and complexity, and the factory of the future. He is also part of the Manufacturing
Hall of Fame.
The Society of Manufacturing Engineers offers the Richard E. Morley Outstanding Young Manufacturing

16
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

Engineer Award for outstanding technical accomplishments in the manufacturing profession by

engineers age 35 and under.

Odo Josef Struger (1931-1998)

Often called the father of the Allen-Bradley PLC and credited with creating the PLC acronym. After
moving from Austria to the U.S. in the 1950’s, he became an engineer at Allen-Bradley in 1958, retiring
in 1997 as Rockwell Automation’s vice president of technology.
Strugger also developed PLC application software during his nearly 40 year career at Allen-
Bradley/Rockwell Automation, he also played a leadership role in developing the National Electrical
Manufacturers Association (NEMA) and the International Electro technical Commission (IEC) 1131-3
PLC programming language standards. Strugger has been awarded 50 patents and is part of the
Automation Hall of Fame.

The advantages of the PLC used in industrial control systems are:

 Cost effective for controlling complex systems.
 Adaptable. PLCs can be reprogrammed for different application quickly and easily.
 PLCs can be programmed to control complicated systems.
 Easier for engineers and technician to trouble shoot.
 Reliable. PLC systems can run for years before they need to be replaced.

Advantages of control panel that is based on a PLC controller

1. Compared to relay based control system, number of wires needed for connections is
2. Reduced by approximately 80% i.e. much wiring is associated with conventional relay control
circuit.
3. Diagnostic functions of a PLC controller allow for fast and easy error detection.
4. Change in operating sequence or application of a PLC controller to a different operating
process can easily be accomplished by replacing a program through a console or using PC
software (not requiring changes in wiring, unless addition of some input or output device is
required).
5. Needs fewer spare parts
6. It is much cheaper compared to a conventional system, especially in cases where a large
number of Input/output instruments are needed and when operational functions are complex

7. Reliability of a PLC is greater than that of an electro-mechanical relay or a timer, because of

less moving parts. Once a program has been written and tested it can be loaded to other PLCs.
8. They are compact and occupy less space
9. Use of PLC results in appreciable savings in Hardware and wiring cost
10. They are more flexible
11. Ability to interface / communicate with computers
12. Simple programming
13. High reliability
14. Easy maintenance
17
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

15. Rugged construction - can operate in extremely harsh conditions

16. Small size
17. Easy expandability
18. Economical in long term

Disadvantages:
 Fixed circuit operation.
 PLCs manufacturers offer only closed loop architecture.
 PLCs are propitiatory, which means software and parts one manufacturer can’t be easily used
in combination with part of another manufacturer.
 Number of optional modules must be added to maximize flexibility and performance.

PLCs are robust and can survive harsh conditions including severe heat, cold, dust, and extreme
moisture. Their programming language is easily understood, so they can be programmed without much
difficulty. PLCs are modular so they can be plugged into various setups. Relays switching under load
can cause undesired arcing between contacts. Arcing generates high temperatures that weld contacts
shut and cause degradation of the contacts in the relays, resulting in device failure. Replacing relays
with PLCs helps prevent overheating of contacts. PLCs do have disadvantages. They do not perform
well when handling complex data. When dealing with data that requires C++ or Visual Basic,
computers are the controllers of choice. PLCs also cannot display data well, so external monitors are
often required.

18
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

Comparison between PLC and PC (Personal computer)

Hardware:
 The PLC comes with its program language built into its memory and has no the permanently
attached keyboard CD drive or monitor. While computers are permanently attached to a
keyboard and other hardware.
 Computers are complex computing machines capable of executing several programs or tasks
simultaneously and in any order. Most PLCs, on the other hand, execute a single program in an
orderly and sequential fashion from first to last instruction.
 PLCs come equipped with terminals for input and output field devices as well as
communication ports. PCs have only limited ports and terminals.
 PLC control systems have been designed to be easily installed and maintained.
Troubleshooting is simplified by the use of fault indicators and messages displayed on the
programmer screen.
 Input/output modules for connecting the field devices are easily connected and replaced.

Software:
 PLC software that allows the user to only program and document gives the user the tools to
write a PLC program. While a PC has much more options in adding programs.
 The PLC support different programming languages 6 such as:
Ladder diagram
Sequential function chart
Function block diagram
Fuzzy logic
 PLC software that allows the user to monitor and control the process is also called a human
machine interface (HMI). It enables the user to view a process—or a graphical representation
of a process—on a monitor, determine how the system is running, trend values, and receive
alarm condition.
 Programmable automation controllers (PAC) combine PLC ruggedness with PC functionality.
Using PACs, you can build advanced systems incorporating software capabilities such as
advanced control, communication, data logging, and signal processing with rugged hardware
performing logic, motion, process control, and vision.

Features make programmable controllers highly desirable in industrial application

Although PLCs are similar to 'conventional' computers in term of hardware technology, they
have specific features suited for industrial control:
a) Robustness: A standard PLC has no moving parts, so it can withstand harsh
environments for millions of cycles. However, industrial PC’s are now just as durable
as a PLC, although a PC requires additional options to equal the functionality of a
standard PLC.
b) Serviceability: The ease and cost of repair or replacement over the life of the
controller is another consideration. PLC external devices can be replaced while the
system is in operation, and the compact design enables the whole unit to be replaced
with ease. This reduces machine downtime. If a PC has a more modular design, such
19
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

as a rack or panel-mount system, replacement time is closer to that of a PLC. Trying

to find parts for a PC (even after a year or two) can be more challenging than for a
PLC, however long-term availability of spare parts is a minimal issue with long-
standing, reputable industrial suppliers.
c) Serviceability: The ease and cost of repair or replacement over the life of the
controller is another consideration. PLC external devices can be replaced while the
system is in operation, and the compact design enables the whole unit to be replaced
with ease. This reduces machine downtime. If a PC has a more modular design, such
as a rack or panel-mount system, replacement time is closer to that of a PLC. Trying
to find parts for a PC (even after a year or two) can be more challenging than for a
PLC, however long-term availability of spare parts is a minimal issue with long-
standing, reputable industrial suppliers.
d) Hardware Integration: Both a PC and PLC have the ability to control other devices
using industrial networks. Although a PC and PLC can offer an array of
communication options, a PLC has many of these options built-in, whereas PC’s
require additional cards and drivers to function. While a PLC can interface with
devices and perform complex operations, it still needs a PC to handle memory-
demanding tasks and connect with other devices. A PC is equipped with more flexible
interfaces, giving users access to more devices, such as an advanced imaging system,
where the images are stored, analyzed and compared. A PC is ideal for this task,
whereas a PLC would have limited storage and processing capabilities.
e) Security: There are two aspects: preventing unauthorized access (such as virus
attacks and malware) and limiting user access. A PLC is less exposed to unauthorized
access through viruses. Although a PC is far more susceptible to virus attacks, strict
security measures can be implemented to significantly reduce potential threats, and
standard software is available to detect and remove viruses. PC’s and PLC’s offer
different levels of user access to keep the contents as secure as desired.
f) Safety: PLC’s have a long history in machine automation, designated communication
channels to slave devices to tightly monitor operation, and optional integrated circuits
for redundancies. Integrated safety has only recently become available on some PC-
based platforms.
g) Programming: Device functionality is only as good as the program running on it.
Therefore, the programming environment and language are crucial to optimal
machine performance. The main difference between the technologies is how code is
executed. A PLC mixes scan-based and event-driven program execution, whereas PC
software is typically event-driven. The scan-based execution of a PLC program can
take longer because the system needs to complete higher priority actions first. Each
execution style requires different programming philosophy, and users often commit to
one over the other
h) Cost: Cost considerations go beyond the initial investment. Many applications can be
solved by either a PC or PLC solution, but for some applications, the overall cost can
differ widely. Cost comparisons should take into account performance requirements,
future expandability and flexibility, development and programming effort. Long-term
there can be little cost difference between a PC and a PLC solution.
Other reasons are. They:-
20
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

 Are rugged, and have immune noise equipment;

 Have modular plug-in construction, allowing easy replacement or addition of units
 (e.g. input/output);
 Have standard input/output connections and signal levels;
 Have easily understood programming language;
 Are capable of communicating with other PLCs, computers and intelligent devices;
 Are competitive in both cost and space occupied with relay and solid-state logic
Systems.

In nutshell, PC Characteristics
1）High reliability
2）Flexibility
3）Easy to improve and correct
4）Improved contact utilization
5）Abundant I/O interface
6）Analog debugging
7）Micro monitoring of site
8）Snap action
To determine the most suitable PLC to be used in the automation task, there are several basic
considerations to be made:
 Necessary input/output capacity
 Types of I/O required whether analogue, digital or both
 PLC Communication
 Number of inputs and outputs application requires
 Size of memory required
 Speed and power required of the CPU and instruction set
 The type of voltage that works best for the user
 PLC Language and how the user communicates with the system
 Manufacturer's support and backup.

PLC Usage
Controlling elevator, anti-theft system, traffic diversion lights, automatic controlling of water supply,
fire fighting system, power supply system in buildings, of fountain pool and various production lines.
1. Logic control of switching value
Substitution of conventional relay-contactor control circuit with capacity of logic and sequence
control. It is used either for controlling single device or controlling multiple units and automated lines,
such as injection molding machines, printer, stapler machines, machine tools, grinding machines,
packaging lines, and electroplating lines.
2. Control of analog quantity
Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) algorithm is used to perform function of closed-loop
controlling, such as quantity of process in temperature, speed, pressure and flow.
3. Motion control
PLC can be used for positioning control of circling motion or rectilinear motion and is widely used in
various machinery, machine tools, robots and elevators.
21
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

4. Data processing
Modern PLC has functions of mathematical operation, data transferring, data conversion, sequencing,
table looking up and bit operation, and is capable of data acquisition, analysis and processing. In
which data processing is generally used in large control system such as unattended flexible
manufacturing system; or process control system such as some large control systems in paper,
metallurgy and food industry.
5. Communications and internet
Communications among PLCs and between PLC and other intelligent devices are included.
Areas of Application
- Manufacturing / Machining
- Food / Beverage
- Metals
- Power plants
- Mining
- Petrochemical / Chemical
- Glass Industry
- Cement Industry
- Paper industry
- e.t.c

PLC VS DCS
PLC: Programmable Logic Controller is a system that has a processor and input-output system that has
some functional units which use basic modules, communication modules, etc. It makes use of
SCADA for visualization and also does not use a central database.
DCS: DCS mainly uses multiple processors which have a central database and the functionality is
distributed evenly. Here the control functions are performed by the control subsystem. The
history node is used to connect to data, also the IMS node provides reports, and the operator
station provides a good HMI. In addition to this, the engineering station allows engineering
changes to be made.

22
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

Chapter 2
PLC SYSTEM

THE PLC SYSTEM

Figure below illustrates conceptual diagram of PLC application

23
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

Basic parts of PLC:-

All programmable controllers contain a CPU, memory, power supply, I/O modules, and programmable
devices. Basic parts of the PLC are as follows:-
1. Processor
2. Memory
3. Input/output devices
4. Programming panel or unit
5. Power supply

Recall from you computer application lessons that

A computer CPU consists of:
 CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.
 CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
 It stores data, intermediate results and instructions (program).
 It controls the operation of all parts of computer.

CPU itself has following three components.

 Memory or Storage Unit
 Control Unit
 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

24
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

1. Memory or Storage Unit

This unit can store instructions, data and intermediate results. This unit supplies information to the
other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or main memory or
primary storage or Random access memory (RAM).
Its size affects speed, power and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are two types of
memories in the computer. Functions of memory unit are:
 It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
 It stores intermediate results of processing.
 It stores final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
 All inputs and outputs are transmitted through main memory.
2. Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of computer but does not carry out any actual data
processing operations.
Functions of this unit are:
 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a
computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of the
computer.
 It communicates with Input/output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
 It does not process or store data.
3. ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
This unit consists of two subsections namely
 Arithmetic section
 Logic Section
i) Arithmetic Section
Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division. All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of above
operations.

25
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

ii) Logic Section

Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching and
merging of data.

Likewise
The basic parts of the PLC are
1. Processor
2. Memory
3. Input/output devices
4. Programming panel or unit
5. Power supply
Simplified block diagrams of a PLC are as follows

OR

26
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

Fig. PLC block diagrams

The figure above shows the basic arrangement.
 The processor unit or central processing unit (CPU) is the unit containing the
microprocessor. This unit interprets the input signals and carries out the control actions
according to the program stored in its memory, communicating the decisions as action signals
to the outputs.
 The power supply unit is needed to convert the mains AC voltage to the low DC voltage (5V)
necessary for the processor and the circuits in the input and output interface modules.
 The programming device is used to enter the required program into the memory of the
processor. The program is developed in the device and then transferred to the memory unit of
the PLC.

27
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

 The memory unit is where the program containing the control actions to be exercised by
the microprocessor is stored and where the data is stored from the input for processing
and for the output.
 The input and output sections are where the processor receives data from external devices
and communicates information to external devices. The inputs might thus be from switches
or other sensors such as photoelectric cells, temperature sensors, flow sensors, or the like. The
outputs might be to motor starter coils, solenoid valves, or similar things. Input and output
devices can be classified as giving signals that are discrete, digital or analog.

Devices giving discrete or digital signals are ones where the signals are either off or on. Thus a
switch is a device giving a discrete signal, either no voltage or a voltage. Digital devices can be
considered essentially as discrete devices that give a sequence of on/off signals. Analog
devices give signals of which the size is proportional to the size of the variable being
monitored. For example, a temperature sensor may give a voltage proportional to the
temperature.
 The communications interface is used to receive and transmit data on communication networks
from or to other remote PLCs. It is concerned with such actions as device verification, data
acquisition, synchronization between user applications, and connection management.

INTERNAL ARCHITECTURE
Figure below shows the basic internal architecture of a PLC. It consists of a central processing unit
(CPU) containing the system microprocessor, memory, and input/output circuitry.

The CPU controls and processes all the operations within the PLC. It is supplied with a clock that has
a frequency of typically between 1 and 8 MHz. This frequency determines the operating speed of the
PLC and provides the timing and synchronization for all elements in the system.

The information within the PLC is carried by means of digital signals. The internal paths along which
digital signals flow are called buses. In the physical sense, a bus is just a number of conductors along
which electrical signals can flow. It might be tracks on a printed circuit board or wires in a ribbon
cable. The CPU uses the data bus for sending data between the constituent elements, the address bus to
send the addresses of locations for accessing stored data, and the control bus for signals relating to
internal control actions.

The system bus is used for communications between the input/output ports and the input/output unit.

28
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

The CPU
The internal structure of the CPU depends on the microprocessor concerned. In general, CPUs have
the following:
 An arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) that is responsible for data manipulation and carrying out
arithmetic operations of addition and subtraction and logic operations of AND, OR, NOT, and
EXCLUSIVE-OR.
 Memory, termed registers, located within the microprocessor and used to store information
involved in program execution.
 A control unit that is used to control the timing • of operations.
The Buses
The buses are the paths used for communication within the PLC. The information is transmitted in
binary form, that is, as a group of bits, with a bit being a binary digit of 1 or 0, indicating on/off states.
The term word is used for the group of bits constituting some information the CPU can execute at a
go. Thus an 8-bit word might be the binary number 00100110. Each of the bits is communicated
simultaneously along its own parallel wire. The system has three buses:
 The data bus which carries the data used in the processing done by the CPU. A
microprocessor termed as being 8-bit has an internal data bus that can handle 8-bit numbers. It
can thus perform operations between 8-bit numbers and deliver results as 8-bit values.

29
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

 The address bus is used to carry the addresses of memory locations. So that each word can be
located in memory, every memory location is given a unique address. Just like houses in a
town are each given a distinct address so that they can be located, so each word location is
given an address so that data stored at a particular location can be accessed by the CPU, either
to read data located there or put, that is, write, data there. It is the address bus that carries the
information indicating which address is to be accessed. If the address bus consists of eight
lines, the number of 8-bit words, and hence number of distinct addresses, is 28 ¼ 256. With 16
address lines, 65,536 addresses are possible.
 The control bus carries the signals used by the CPU for control, such as to inform memory
devices whether they are to receive data from an input or output data and to carry timing
signals used to synchronize actions.
The system bus is used for communications between the input/output ports and the input/
output unit.
Memory
Memory be it a computer memory or PLC, it is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and
instructions. Memory is the storage space where data is to be processed and instructions required for
processing are stored.

The memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each location or cell has a
unique address which varies from zero to memory size minus one. For example if computer has 64k
words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024=65536 memory locations. The address of these locations
varies from 0 to 65535.

There are several memory elements in a PLC system:

 System read-only-memory (ROM) gives permanent storage for the operating system and
fixed data used by the CPU.
 Random-access memory (RAM) is used for the user’s program.
 Random-access memory (RAM) is used for data. This is where information is stored on the
status of input and output devices and the values of timers and counters and other internal
devices. The data RAM is sometimes referred to as a data table or register table. Part of this
memory, that is, a block of addresses, will be set aside for input and output addresses and the
states of those inputs and outputs. Part will be set aside for preset data and part for storing
counter values, timer values, and the like.
 Possibly, as a bolt-on extra module, erasable and programmable read-only-memory (EPROM)
is used to store programs permanently.

The programs and data in RAM can be changed by the user. All PLCs will have some amount
of RAM to store programs that have been developed by the user and program data. However,
to prevent the loss of programs when the power supply is switched off, a battery is used in the
PLC to maintain the RAM contents for a period of time. After a program has been developed
in RAM it may be loaded into an EPROM memory chip, often a bolt-on module to the PLC,
and so made permanent. In addition, there are temporary buffer stores for the input/output
channels.

30
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

The storage capacity of a memory unit is determined by the number of binary words that it can
store. Thus, if a memory size is 256 words, it can store 256 X 8 = 2048 bits if 8-bit words are
used and 256 X 16 = 4096 bits if 16-bit words are used.

Memory sizes are often specified in terms of the number of storage locations available, with
1K representing the number 210, that is, 1024. Manufacturers supply memory chips with the
storage locations grouped in groups of 1, 4, and 8 bits. A 4K X 1 memory has 4 X 1 X 1024 bit
locations.
A 4K X 8 memory has 4 X 8 X 1024 bit locations. The term byte is used for a word of length 8
bits. Thus the 4K X 8 memory can store 4096 bytes. With a 16-bit address bus we can have
216 different addresses, and so, with 8-bit words stored at each address, we can have 216 X 8
storage locations and so use a memory of size 216 X 8/210 = 64K X 8, which might be in the
form of four 16K X 8-bit memory chips.

The following memory storage units

Unit Description
1 Bit (Binary Digit) A binary digit is logical 0 and 1 representing a passive or an active state
of a component in an electric circuit.
2 Nibble A group of 4 bits is called nibble.
3 Byte A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte is the smallest unit which can
represent a data item or a character.
4 Word A word, like a byte, is a group of fixed number of bits processed as a
unit which varies from computer to computer but is fixed for each
computer.
The length of a computer word is called word-size or word length and
it may be as small as 8 bits or may be as long as 96 bits. A computer
stores the information in the form of computer words.

Few higher storage units are the following

Sr.No. Unit Description
1 Kilobyte (KB) 1 KB = 1024 Bytes
2 Megabyte (MB) 1 MB = 1024 KB
3 GigaByte (GB) 1 GB = 1024 MB
4 TeraByte (TB 1 TB = 1024 GB
5 PetaByte (PB) 1 PB = 1024 TB

31
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

For a computer the memory is primarily of three types

 Cache Memory
 Primary Memory/Main Memory
 Secondary Memory

1. Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up CPU. It acts as a
buffer between the CPU and main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program which
are most frequently used by CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from disk to cache
memory by operating system, from where CPU can access them.
Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows:
 Cache memory is faster than main memory.
 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows:
 Cache memory has limited capacity.
 It is very expensive.

2. Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is currently working. It
has limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up of
semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and instruction required
to be processed reside in main memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.
Characteristics of Main Memory
 These are semiconductor memories
 It is known as main memory.
 Usually volatile memory.
 Data is lost in case power is switched off.
 It is working memory of the computer.
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without primary memory.

32
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

3. Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than main
memory. These are used for storing data/Information permanently. CPU directly does not access
these memories instead they are accessed via input-output routines. Contents of secondary memories
are first transferred to main memory, and then CPU can access it. For example: Floppy disk, Hard
disk, CD-ROM, DVD, flash disk etc.
Characteristic of Secondary Memory
 These are magnetic and optical memories
 It is known as backup memory.
 It is non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
 It is used for storage of data in a computer.
 Computer may run without secondary memory.
 Slower than primary memories.

Computer - Random Access Memory

RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program and
program result. It is read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working. As soon as
the machine is switched off, data is erased.
Access time in RAM is independent of the address that is, each storage location inside the memory is
as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in the RAM can be
accessed randomly but it is very expensive.
RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a power
failure. Hence a backup uninterruptible power system(UPS) is often used with computers. RAM is
small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.
RAM is of two types
 Static RAM (SRAM)
33
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Static RAM (SRAM)

The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being supplied.
However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of
6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need
not have to be refreshed on a regular basis.
Because of the extra space in the matrix, SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same amount of
storage space, thus making the manufacturing costs higher. So SRAM is used as cache memory and
has very fast access.
Characteristic of the Static RAM
 It has long life
 There is no need to refresh
 Faster
 Used as cache memory
 Large size
 Expensive
 High power consumption
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is done by
placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per second.
DRAM is used for most system memory because it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up of
memory cells which are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.
Characteristics of the Dynamic RAM
 It has short data lifetime
 Need to be refreshed continuously
 Slower as compared to SRAM
 Used as RAM
 Lesser in size
 Less expensive
 Less power consumption

Computer - Read Only Memory

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot write on
it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories
during manufacture. A ROM, stores such instructions that are required to start a computer. This

34
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other
electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.

Following are the various types of ROM

MROM (Masked ROM)

The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or
instructions. This kind of ROM is known as masked ROMs which are inexpensive.

PROM (Programmable Read only Memory)

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM
and enters the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip there are small fuses
which are burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.
EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for duration of up to 40 minutes.
Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming, an electrical charge is
trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more than ten years because the charge
has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz crystal
window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal use the quartz
lid is sealed with a sticker.

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten
thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (milli second). In EEPROM,
any location can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time,
rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of re-programming is flexible but slow.
Advantages of ROM
The advantages of ROM are as follows:
 Non-volatile in nature
 These cannot be accidentally changed
 Cheaper than RAMs
 Easy to test
 More reliable than RAMs
 These are static and do not require refreshing
 Its contents are always known and can be verified

There are several memory elements in a PLC

35
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

PLC Processor Memory Organization

Memory organization refers to how certain areas of memory in a PLC are utilized. Not all PLC
manufacturers organize memory in the same manner but even so the principles involved are the same.

The memory map or structure for a PLC processor consists of several areas, some of these having
specific roles

A PLC’s CPU is controlled by operating system software. The operating system software is a group
of supervisory programs that that are loaded and stored permanently in the PLC’s memory by the PLC
manufacturer.

Software is a general term for the various kinds of programs and other operating information used to
operate computers and related devices

The memory space can be divided into two broad categories:

• Program files
• Data files.
Sections, their order, and the sections’ length will vary and may be fixed or variable, depending on the
manufacturer and model.

The data files store the information needed to carry out the user program. This includes information
such as the status of input and output devices, timer and counter values, data storage, and so on.
Contents of the data table can be divided into two categories:
1. Status data and
2. Numbers or codes.
Status is ON/OFF type of information represented by 1s and 0s, stored in unique bit locations. Number
or code information is represented by groups of bits that are stored in unique byte or word locations.
The Figure below shows the program and data file organization for the SLC 500. SLC stands for
Small Logic Controller (Allen Bradley SLC 500 series controller). SLC is the most famous PLC (
well as least in the US) and is often referred by its nickname "Slick" .

36
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

Program Files
Program files are the areas of processor memory where ladder logic programming is stored.
System functions (file 0)
This file is always included and contains various system-related information and user-programmed
information such as processor type, I/O configuration, processor file name, and password.

37
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

Reserved (file 1)
This file is reserved by the processor and is not accessible to the user.
Main ladder program (file 2)
This file is always included and contains user-programmed instructions that define how the controller
is to operate.
Subroutine ladder program (files 3–255)
These files are user-created and are activated according to subroutine instructions residing in the main
ladder program file.

Data Files
The data file portion of the processor’s memory stores input and output status, processor status, the
status of various bits, and numerical data.

All this information is accessed via the ladder logic program.

These files are organized by the type of data they contain and may include:
i. Output (file 0)
This file stores the state of the output terminals for the controller.
ii. Input (file 1)
This file stores the status of the input terminals for the controller.
iii. Status (file 2)
This file stores controller operation information and is useful for troubleshooting
controller and program operation.
iv. Bit (file 3)
This file is used for internal relay logic storage.
v. Timer (file 4)
This file stores the timer accumulated and preset values and status bits.
vi. Counter (file 5)
This file stores the counter Accumulated and preset values and status bits.
vii. Control (file 6)
This file stores the length, Pointer position, and status bit for specific instructions such
as shift registers and sequencers.
viii. Integer (file 7)
This file is used to store numerical values or bit information.
ix. Reserved (file 8)
This file is not accessible to the user.
x. Network communications (file 9)
This file is used for network communications if installed or used like files 10–255.
xi. User-defined (files 10–255)
These files are user defined as bit, timer, counter, control, and/or integer data storage

Figure shows a typical data file memory organization for an Allen-Bradley PLC-5 controller. The
PLC-5 Control System is discontinued by Company and is no longer available for sale

38
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

Each data file is made up of numerous elements and each element may be one, two, or three words in
length.
Timer, counter, and control elements are three words in length; floating-point elements are two words
in length; and all other elements are a single word in length.

Connection of open and closed switch to the input image table file
The figure below shows the connection of an open and closed switch to the input image table file
through the input module.

39
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

Its operation can be summarized as follows

For the switch that is closed, the processor detects a voltage at the input terminal and records that
information by storing a binary in its bit location.

For the switch that is open, the processor detects no voltage at the input terminal and records that
information by storing a binary 0 in its bit location.

Each connected input has a bit in the input image table file that corresponds exactly to the terminal to
which the input is connected.
The input image table file is changed to reflect the current status of the switch during the I/O scan
phase of operation.

If the input is on (switch closed), its corresponding bit in the table is set to 1 and If the input is off
(switch open), the corresponding bit is cleared, or reset to 0. The processor continually reads the
current input status and updates the input image table file.

Figure shows a typical connection of two pilot lights to the output image table file through the output
module.

40
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

Its operation can be summarized as follows:-

 The status of each light (ON/OFF) is controlled by the user program and is indicated by the
presence of 1 (ON) and 0 (OFF).
 Each connected output has a bit in the output image table file that corresponds exactly to the
terminal to which the output is connected. If the program calls for a specific output to be ON,
its corresponding bit in the table is set to 1. If the program calls for the output to be OFF,
its corresponding bit in the table is set to 0.
 The processor continually activates or deactivates the output status according to the output
table file status

INPUT MODULES
Input/output Module
The input/output unit provides the interface between the system and the outside world, allowing
for connections to be made through input/output channels to input devices such as sensors and output
devices such as motors and solenoids. It is also through the input/output unit that programs are entered
from a program panel.

Every input/output point has a unique address that can be used by the CPU. It is like a row of houses
along a road; number 10 might be the “house” used for an input from a particular sensor, whereas
number 45 might be the “house” used for the output to a particular motor.

41
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

The input/output channels provide isolation and signal conditioning functions so that sensors
and actuators can often be directly connected to them without the need for other circuitry.

Electrical isolation from the external world is usually by means of optoisolators (the term optocoupler
is also often used) shows the principle of an optoisolator. An optocoupler is a semiconductor device
that uses a short optical transmission path to transfer an electrical signal between circuits or elements
of a circuit, while keeping them electrically isolated from each other.

When a digital pulse passes through the light-emitting diode, a pulse of infrared radiation is produced.
This pulse is detected by the photo transistor and gives rise to a voltage in that circuit.

The gap between the light-emitting diode and the photo transistor gives electrical isolation, but the
arrangement still allows for a digital pulse in one circuit to give rise to a digital pulse in another
circuit.

The digital signal that is generally compatible with the microprocessor in the PLC is 5 V DC.
However, signal conditioning in the input channel, with isolation, enables a wide range of input
signals to be supplied to it (see Chapter 3 for more details).

A range of inputs might be available with a larger PLC, such as 5 V, 24 V, 110 V, and 240 V
digital/discrete, that is, on/ off, signals. A small PLC is likely to have just one form of input, such as
24 V.

The output from the input/output unit will be digital with a level of 5 V. However, after signal
conditioning with relays, transistors, or triacs, the output from the output channel might be a 24 V, 100
mA switching signal; a DC voltage of 110 V, 1 A; or perhaps 240 V, 1 A AC or 240 V, 2 A AC, from
a triac output channel.

With a small PLC, all the outputs might be of one type, such as 240 V, 1 A AC. With modular PLCs,
however, a range of outputs can be accommodated by selection of the modules to be used.

42
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

Outputs are specified as being of relay type, transistor type, or triac type:
 With the relay type, the signal from the PLC output is used to operate a relay and is able to
switch currents of the order of a few amperes in an external circuit. The relay not only allows
small currents to switch much larger currents but also isolates the PLC from the external
circuit. Relays are, however, relatively slow to operate. Relay outputs are suitable for AC and
DC switching. They can withstand high surge currents and voltage transients.
 The transistor type of output uses a transistor to switch current through the external circuit.
This gives a considerably faster switching action. It is, however, strictly for DC switching and
is destroyed by over current and high reverse voltage. For protection, either a fuse or built-in
electronic protection is used. Optoisolators are used to provide isolation.
 Triac outputs, with optoisolators for isolation, can be used to control external loads that are
connected to the AC power supply. It is strictly for AC operation and is very easily destroyed
by over current. Fuses are virtually always included to protect such outputs.

Sourcing and Sinking

The terms sourcing and sinking are used to describe the way in which DC devices are connected to a
PLC. With sourcing, using the conventional current flow direction as from positive to negative, an
input device receives current from the input module, that is, the input module is the source of the
current. With sinking, using the conventional current flow direction, an input device supplies current
to the input module, that is, the input module is the sink for the current. If the current flows from the
output module to an output load, the output module is referred to as sourcing. If the current flows to
the output module from an output load, the output module is referred to as sinking

43
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

It is important know the type of input or output concerned so that it can be correctly connected to the
PLC. Thus, sensors with sourcing outputs should be connected to sinking PLC inputs and sensors with
sinking outputs should be connected to sourcing PLC inputs. The interface with the PLC will not
function and damage may occur if this guideline is not followed.

NB
The sinking device is the device that’s connected to the DC- and the sourcing device is the device
that’s connected to the DC+ side of the circuit.

PLC I/O DEVICES

PLC I/O is the part of the PLC that connects the brain of the PLC, the CPU, to the outside world, the
machines. In a PLC system there will usually be dedicated modules for inputs and dedicated modules
for outputs. As already been discussed, an input module detects the status of input signals such as
push-buttons, switches, temperature sensors, etc. An output module controls devices such as relays,
motor starters, lights, etc.

Analog I/O
Analog I/O refers to signals that have a range of values much greater than just 1 or 0. For instance, an
analog signal could produce a voltage anywhere in the range of 0 – 10 VDC. The signal could be 2 V,
3 V, 8.5 V, etc.

44
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

In the PLC world, analog input modules usually measure analog inputs in one of the following forms:
-10 to 10 VDC, 0 – 10 VDC, 1 to 5 VDC, 0 to 1 mA, or 4 – 20 mA. Basically the analog input module
either measures voltage or current from the input device. There are other types of analog signals but
these are definitely the most common.

These analog input devices sense continuous parameters. The information that they provide is given as
a continuous range of values, not just an on or off indicator. Common analog inputs are pressure,
temperature, speed, weight scales etc.

Analog output devices respond to a range of output values from the controller. Common analog
output signals include motor speed, valve position, air pressure, etc.
I/O modules connect “real world” field devices to the controller. They convert the electrical signals
used in the field devices into electronic signals that can be used by the control system, and translate
real world values to IO table values.

Digital IO
The most common type of PLC I/O is discrete I/O. Sometimes discrete I/O is referred to as digital I/O.
discrete I/O are signals that are either on or off. Some examples of discrete input devices are light
switches, push-buttons and proximity switches, photoelectric sensors, Encoders

Push Button Switches

Push Button Switches consist of a simple electric switch mechanism which controls some aspect of a
machine or a process. Buttons are typically made out of hard material such as plastic or metal. The
surface is usually shaped to accommodate the human finger or hand, so the electronic switch can be
easily depressed or pushed.
Switches with the "push-to-make" (normally-open or NO) mechanism are a type of push button
electrical switch that operates by the switch making contact with the electronic system when the button
is pressed and breaks the current process when the button is released. An example of this is a keyboard
button.
A "push-to-break" (or normally-closed or NC) electronic switch, on the other hand, breaks contact
when the button is pressed and makes contact when it is released.

45
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

Proximity switches.
Proximity switches are use to detect the presence of an object without making contact with it.
There are a number of forms of such switches, some being only suitable for metallic objects.
1. Inductive proximity switch
This consists of a coil wound round a ferrous metallic core. When one end of this core is
placed near to a ferrous metal object there is effectively a change in the mount of metallic
core associated with the coil and so its inductance changes. Inductance change can be
measured by resonant circuit and can be made to activate a switching circuit.
2. Reed switch
It consists of 2 overlapping, but not touching strips of a springy ferromagnetic material
sealed in glass or plastic casing. When the magnet is brought close to the switch, the strips
become magnetized and are attracted to each other, causing the contacts to close.

Photoelectric sensors
Photoelectric switch devices can either operate as transmissive types where the object being detected
breaks a beam of light, usually infrared and stops it from reaching the detector or reflective types
where the object being detected reflects a beam of light onto the detector.

Encoders
This is the device that is used to provide a digital output as a result of angular or linear displacement.
Figure below shows the basic form of an incremental encoder. A beam of light passes through the slots
in a disc and is detected by a light sensor. When the disc is rotated the beam is alternately transmitted

46
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

and stopped thereby producing a pulsed output. The number of pulses is proportional to the angle
through which the disc has rotated.

Examples of discrete output devices are lights, relays, solenoid valves and motor starters.
Some specific real-world examples of discrete inputs to a PLC would be open or closed circuit
breakers, running or stopped generators, a conveyor belt position sensor, or a water tank level sensor.
Some specific applications of discrete outputs would be closing or opening circuit breakers, starting or
stopping generators, opening or closing water valves, or turning on and off alarm lights.

Types of PLCs
A programmable logic controller, or PLC, is a special type of computer that is commonly used in
commercial and industrial settings. PLCs are designed to run automated systems, such as robotics or
other machines, and use inputs and outputs to read and send data. Unlike consumer computers, PLCs
are designed to be very rugged and can be operated nearly nonstop.

Unitary
A unitary PLC is the more simple type of controller, and contains all of the basic system
components within a single housing, or box. These components typically include the processor,
which runs the software program, in addition to ports for input and output connections. Unitary PLCs
are typically attached directly to the device or application that is being controlled.

A commonly used example of a unitary PLC type is the Micrologix 1000, built by Allen Bradley. The
Micrologix 1000 includes on-board memory for storing programs, 32 digital input and output ports,
and a communications port used to program the unit. This setup is typical of many unitary systems.

Modular
A modular PLC contains several different modules that can be coupled together to build a
customized controller. Typically, a base module contains core functions such as electrical power
regulation, the computer processor, and input connections. Additional modules, including analog to
digital signal converters or additional outputs, can be added to this core unit as needed. This modular
design allows a PLC to be customized and changed easily.

47
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

The Allen Bradley Micrologix 1200 is a commonly used example of the modular PLC type. This unit
is able to handle between 23 and 40 inputs and outputs. The actual number of connections can be
expanded easily by adding modules. This provides a wide range of flexibility and is typical of a
modular PLC.

Rack mounting
The rack mounting type of PLC is similar to the modular concept, but is implemented differently.
Whereas each module in a modular PLC connects to the base unit directly, a rack mounting PLC
keeps each module separate. All extra modules are connected through a network, and modules are
held in organized racks. This approach allows for larger systems to be built without becoming overly
cluttered and complicated. Modules are well organized on the rack and can be removed and reinserted
as needed.
The commercial unit SLC 500 is an industry-standard example of the rack mounting PLC type. There
are essentially no limits on the number of modules that can be added to this system, each mounted on a
standard rack chassis. This setup allows large, scalable automation solutions to be built and is common
in factory settings.

PLC controller working modes

PROGRAM Mode
In Programming mode it accepts the downloaded program logic from the laptop or PC you would use
to write the controlling program. The CPU is then placed in run mode so that it can execute the
program and operate the desired process.

MONITOR Mode
In Monitor mode the CPU Unit is running. I/O is processed in the same way as in RUN mode. The
operating status of the CPU Unit can be monitored, bits can be force-set/reset, the set values and
present values of timer and counter instructions can be modified, and the present values of word data
can be modified. MONITOR mode is used for system adjustments during trial operation.

RUN Mode
In Run mode the PLC is in full operation, doing all its self checks and operating governed by the
program held in it. Reading the inputs and setting the outputs accordingly. Even conversing with other
units via the RS232, Profibus, Scada or CC-Link.

STOP mode
In Stop mode it's as it says, stopped. Now you might not think this is a mode as such but since some
programming can be done while running, while some PLC programming functions require it to be
stopped. Putting a PLC into Stop mode also turns off all the outputs. Handy for checking inputs with
causing anything to happen out of sequence.

48
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

RESET mode
In Reset mode is also as it says, it resets the PLC from operating conditions back to switch on
position. When this is done without resetting any data memory registers, this is called a warm reset. If
the reset performed is full, for example resetting all I/O and data registers, it's called a cold reset.

PLC Operation Steps

PLC uses four steps to operate and control the associated machine. These work in a repeating loop to
keep the right level of control. All machines use the same loop, starting with the input scan and
ending with housekeeping.
Step Process
Input Scan Detects the state of all input devices that are connected to the PLC
Program Scan Executes the user created program logic
Output Scan Energizes or de-energize all output devices that are connected to
the PLC.
Housekeeping This step includes communications with programming terminals,
internal diagnostics, etc...

The process of the PLC running throught its program is called scanning. Scanning speed depends on
the program size and execution time. The total time for a PLC to check the inputs, run the program
and update the outputs is called the cycle time (the amount of time it takes for the PLC to make
one scan cycle is called the scan time of the PLC). Typical cycle times are 10 ms to 100 ms. every
cycle the inputs are check and saved to memory.
Then the program is run using the status of the saved inputs. After the program is done the outputs are
updated and the cycle starts again. Exact details vary between manufacturers, but most PLCs follow a
'scan-cycle' format.

The scan is normally a continuous and sequential process of reading the status of inputs, evaluating
the control logic and updating the outputs.

49
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

PLC Sizes
1. SMALL - This covers units with up to 128 I/O’s and memories of up to 2 Kbytes. These PLC’s
are capable of providing simple to advance levels or machine controls.
2. MEDIUM - have up to 2048 I/O’s and memories of up to 32 Kbytes. In this range modular
construction predominates with plug-in modules on rack mounting system or Back Plane system. This
construction allows the simple upgrading or expansion of the
system by fitting additional I/O cards into the racks, since most rack systems have space for several
extra function cards.
3. LARGE - the most sophisticated units of the PLC family. They have up to 8192 I /O’s and
memories up to 750 Kbytes. - can control individual production processes or an
entire plant.
- Large PLC are designed for use in large plants or large machines requiring
continuous control.

-They are also employed as supervisory controllers to monitor and control

several other PLCs or intelligent machines, e.g. CNC tools.
Leading Brands
AMERICAN EUROPEAN JAPANESE
1. Allen Bradley 1. Siemens 1. Toshiba
2. Gould Modicon 2. Klockner & Mouller 2. Omron
3. Texas Instruments 3. Festo 3. Fanuc
4. General Electric 4. Telmechanique 4. Mitsubishi
5. Westinghouse
6. Cutter Hammer
7. Square D

50
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017
 AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017

Assignment 1.0
Explain the following with regard to PLCs
- Passive inputs
- Active inputs
- Active outputs

51
AketchescoBenz KENYA COAST POLYTECHNIC FEBRUARY.2017