Village Chicken

Production Handbook

April 2013

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

This manual is made possible by the generous support of the American people
through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) under Agreement
No. AID-663-A-11-0001. The contents of this manual are the sole responsibility of Save the
Children-ENGINE and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the United States
Government.

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PREFACE
Keeping chicken can make a substantial contribution to household nutrition and food security
throughout the developing world including Ethiopia. It helps diversify incomes and provides
quality food, energy, fertilizer and a renewable asset for the rural households.

Small-scale chicken producers are however constrained by poor access to markets, goods and
services; they have weak institutions and lack skills, knowledge and appropriate technologies.
The result is that both production and productivity remain well below potential and losses and
wastage can be high. However, adapted breeds, local feed resources and appropriate vaccines are
available, along with proven technologies that can substantially improve productivity and income
generation.

ENGINE recognizes the important contribution that chicken can make to human nutrition and
poverty alleviation and has program that support vulnerable rural households on improved
village chicken production for those interested in chicken rearing with the aim of household
nutrition improvement and economic opportunities.

ENGINE target the most vulnerable households at reproductive age group, have children under 5
and those economically in need, disabled and affected by HIV Aids to bring substantial change
on the prevailing under nutrition problem in Ethiopia.

This manual is based on existing knowledge on how to improve village chicken production
systems with relatively minimum inputs. It provides a comprehensive and valuable technical
guide for those in government service or aid agencies, wishing to provide a comprehensive and
practical training for village chicken producers in the rural areas aimed to improve the
livelihoods and nutrition of the rural poor.

The manual deals with improved free-range systems consisting of small flocks of local or
preferably cross-bred chickens. All aspects of small-scale chicken production are discussed in
this manual including basic introduction, management, housing, feed and feeding, marketing,
health and disease management.

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PREFACE 2

INTRODUCTION 5

1. BACKGROUND 5
1.1. CHARACTERISTICS OF VILLAGE CHICKEN 5
1.2. IMPORTANCE OF CHICKEN REARING 5
1.3. WHY DEMAND FOR CHICKEN REARING IS INCREASING? 6
1.4. CHALLENGES IN VILLAGE CHICKEN PRODUCTION SYSTEM 6
1.5. SOCIO-CULTURAL CONSTRAINTS TO CHICKEN PRODUCTION 6
1.6. GENDER AND VILLAGE CHICKEN 7
1.7. UNDERSTANDING CHICKEN BEHAVIOR 7
1.8. SIMPLE RULES FOR CHICKEN AND BREED SELECTION 8

FLOCK MANAGEMENT 10

2.1. KEEPING THE FLOCK HEALTHY AND PRODUCTIVE 10

2.2 GENERAL HYGIENE 10
2.3 FLOCK SIZE 12
2.4 LAYING, BROODING AND HATCHING 12
2.5 NATURAL INCUBATION AND HATCHING 13
2.6 TEN SIMPLE RULES FOR BETTER MANAGEMENT 14

HOUSING 15

3.1. BUILDING THE CHICKEN HOUSE 16

3.2. PERCHES 16
3.3. NESTS 17
3.4. TEN SIMPLE RULES FOR GOOD HOUSING 18

FEED AND FEEDING 19

4.1. SCAVENGING 19
4.2. SUPPLEMENTARY FEEDING 20
4.3. HOW MUCH TO FEED? 23
4.4. HOW MUCH TO DRINK? 23
4.5. SIMPLE FEED MIXING 24
4.6. MIXING AND FORMULATING FEEDS 24
4.7. FEEDERS AND DRINKERS 27
4.8. TWELVE SIMPLE RULES FOR FEED MANAGEMENT 29

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DISEASES AND HEALTH MANAGEMENT 30

5.1. HEALTHY AND UNHEALTHY BIRDS 30

5.2. CASE DEFINITION OF ECONOMICALLY IMPORTANT POULTRY DISEASES IN ETHIOPIA 31
5.3. MEDICATION AND VACCINATION 40

PROFITABILITY AND MARKETING OF PRODUCTS 43

6.1. CHICKEN FOR SALE 43

6.2. EGGS FOR SALE 43

ANNEX A: ADDITIONAL INFORMATION 47

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INTRODUCTION
1. Background

Ethiopian indigenous chickens have a variety of morphological appearances. They vary in

colour, comb type, body conformation and weight, and may or may not possess shank feather.
Eggs have thick shells and deep yellow coloured yolk. Indigenous chickens, however, have low
productivity - average annual egg production is estimated at 60 eggs (average 38 g); while the
carcass at 6 months of age is about 0.5 kg from a live bird of about 1.5kg. Low productivity is
also due to low hatchability at about 70% and high mortality. Estimated 40-60% of chicks die
during their first eight weeks mainly due to disease and predators. The low productivity of
indigenous chicken can also be part attributed to the fact that traditionally chickens receive little
care. At night they are sheltered in small hen houses or in a room of the family house, to protect
them from predators and bad weather. During the day, the chickens seek their food around the
house.

1.1. Characteristics of village chicken

comprise local genetic stock but rarely, interbred with improved stock
are raised extensively in relatively small numbers (between 1–50)
are not usually confined and obtain most of their diet from scavenging for food and water
around the home (including household wastes) and village
require minimal investment in inputs, with most if not all of the inputs generated around
the home
engage labour inputs that are not salaried but are drawn from the family, with women and
children commonly most responsible for their care
production is geared essentially toward home consumption and savings (a living bank)
for small expenses such as school fees and medicines

1.2. Importance of chicken Rearing

Chicken rearing has various nutritional, healths, economical and social benefits.

1.2. 1. Chicken egg and meat has nutrition and health benefit
Animal protein consumed in rural areas frequently comes from village chicken meat and
eggs
Chicken meat and eggs provide a readily available, high-quality source of proteins,
vitamins and micronutrients
Eggs are an excellent source of iron, zinc and vitamin A, all of which are essential to
health, growth and wellbeing
Chickens and eggs contribute to a nutritious, balanced diet, which is especially important
for children, nursing mothers and people who are ill
Chickens however are an important source of food for women post-birth; chickens are
payment to villagers for local health services

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1.2.2. Economic and Social benefit

Chickens can be sold or bartered to meet family needs such as medicines, clothes and
school fees
In this way, they act as a ready source of cash for emergencies and small purchases
Village chickens provide manure and play a role in pest control
They are also important for special festivals or to meet social events
They are generally owned and managed by women and children
Simple changes in management of village chickens can significantly improve production
and the living conditions of many rural families in terms of enhanced nutrition and
income generation through the sale of surplus chickens or eggs
Improved village chicken production is therefore a low-cost and important aspect of
rural development
Chickens are gifts to newly married couples; and chickens strengthen social networks
between women
In addition to these, the spiritual benefit of sacrifice of indigenous chicken types has also
an important place in the cultural, social and religious functions of the Ethiopian society

1.3. Why demand for chicken rearing is increasing?

Significant returns can be achieved from village chickens without the need for expensive
housing, complex technology and funding for the purchase of inputs not available locally
Chicken meat and eggs are a source of high-quality nutrients (e.g. proteins and
micronutrients) that are often otherwise unavailable to resource-poor families
Village chickens are often cared for by women and children and so programs that
improve production will simultaneously improve the income and knowledge of these
household members

1.4. Challenges in village chicken production system

high mortality rate which could reach as high as 80–90% within the first few weeks after
hatching, due to diseases and predation
Feed inadequacy in terms of both quantity and quality. Feed is below the requirement for
optimum egg production and the deficiency is more serious during the short rainy and dry
seasons
low productivity of local chicken
Inadequate extension services
inadequate credit facilities
lack of organized marketing system
seasonal fluctuation of price

1.5. Socio-cultural constraints to chicken production

The value placed upon chicken for use at ceremonies and festivals or even as a source of
income in times of need but not as a source of daily food nor as a regular source of
income

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 Some regard chickens as their pets or part of the family, thus it is only the arrival of an
important unexpected visitor that could allow their use as food, although they can be sold
without regret and the money utilized

1.6. Gender and Village Chicken

Knowing who is responsible for raising village chickens is of the utmost importance
when planning to improve production
The different members of the household can have different, even contradictory, interests
in livestock management
Men and women may have different interests in relation to animals they have access to
and control over
With the animals raised, each species plays a specific role and is owned and cared for by
different individuals in the household
Chicken products are among the few agricultural products directly accessible to women
in rural areas and hence increased food production from chickens will improve household
food security;
Village chicken production is not strongly associated with land resource, which is one of
the main production constraints among the disadvantaged members of the community
It was found that all gender groups are involved in chicken management
Construction of shelters was mainly done by men, or by men and children
Results also showed that, in Ethiopia, management of chickens was fully in the domain
of women and children
Women manage and prepare nests for laying and brooding, especially where fostering of
eggs or chicks was practiced

1.7. Understanding Chicken behavior

In the wild, chickens will form small flocks of 1-5 hens with one cock
Normally smallholder farmers will keep small flocks of 4-10 hens and one cock, but
flocks may vary from one up to around 30 adults and young growers, depending on the
feed resource base and disease level in the area
Up to this number they will still be able to recognize each other, which will help
minimize conflicts among the birds
If a low-ranking hen comes too close to a hen of higher rank, the latter may indicate this
by stretching her neck and turning her bill towards the intruder
Normally this will suffice for the other to retire. The ranking may change according to
age, brooding, and other factors
The system of more or less stable dominance is very practical, since the animals can be
free to concentrate on finding food and watch out for enemies once the pecking order is
established
A hen will often find a dark, quiet place for laying eggs and for brooding. After 21 days
of incubation, fertile eggs will hatch
Chicken have a very constant rhythm day in and day out
In the early morning and late afternoon they scavenge for food
Later in the morning the hens will often lay eggs, and at noon they will rest
When they sleep at night, they prefer to sit high in order not to be easy preys for
predators
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 Fig 1: Dust bathing is important for chicken to keep
clean
To protect against very high or low temperatures and to be fit to escape predators, it is
important for birds to have good feathers
They therefore spend much time cleaning and preening their feathers with their beaks
Further, at least once a day, they will dust bathe, which also protects them against
external parasites
The birds should always have access to a dry place for dust bathing
If they prefer a certain place, the farmer should add a little dry lime or ash to protect
them against parasites

1.8. Simple rules for chicken and breed selection

A breed is a group of Chicken with a characteristic body form and feather contours
Features such as the comb, colour of ear lobes and shank colours and length are usually
determined by breed
You should practice judging the external features of cocks, hens, growers and chicks

a b c

Fig. 2: Typical breeds producing eggs (a), meat (b) and both (c)

Always choose birds with a lively behavior

Always check whether the hens are in lay
Potentially good layer has a long straight back a broad bottom
Always check the belly and navel spot of newly hatched chicks
Keep new birds isolated for a few weeks before introducing them into the flock
The results of crossbreeding should always be monitored carefully

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Fig. 3: Hen in lay (a) and non-layer hen (b)

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 FLOCK MANAGEMENT
A village hen often weighs no more than 1.2 – 1.5 kg at the point of lay. A village cock weighs
maybe 1.4 – 2.0 kg at age of maturity. Poultry need a good supply of varied feed and of clean
water. Depending on the time of the year they will be able to find part of their feed by
scavenging in the surroundings of the household. But often they will need an extra supply of
nutrients in order to gain weight and for hens to lay a good quantity of eggs. Especially the small
chicks need good protein rich feeds such as balanced feeds or from simple supplementary
sources such as maggots, snails, termites etc.

2.1. Keeping the flock healthy and productive

Do not buy animals at the market from uncontrolled sources, especially not during
periods when outbreaks of diseases are common
They may introduce contagious diseases into your flock
Vaccinate all birds against Newcastle Disease and other prevailing diseases such as Fowl
Pox on a regular basis to prevent high mortality
Small chicks should be vaccinated against the common contagious diseases at the age of
2-3 weeks
Revaccination should always be performed according to the instructions (see Health and
Management Chapter)

2.2 General hygiene

In case of serious diseases you should slaughter the chickens (it can be eaten if cooked
well), call the veterinarian, or
Use drugs if you feel absolutely sure that you know the disease
If you do not kill sick chick (en) at once, it must be separated from the others
Sick birds (or parts from sick birds) should be burned or buried deep enough to avoid that
dogs and other animals dig them up and spread the disease
If you have many sick animals, do not introduce new birds, and do not vaccinate
Before introducing new birds to your flock, you should keep them isolated for one to two
weeks

Fig. 4: A separate shed may be necessary to isolate ill or newly purchased birds serving with feed and water

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In order to prevent internal as well as external parasites a good hygiene is a must
So every day the feeders and drinkers should be washed, and the house and the nests
must be cleaned for droppings and insects
Put fresh straw or hay in the nests weekly. Adding a little ash on top may help prevent
parasites
At least once a year, and always after serious outbreaks of diseases, the house, perches,
and nests should be disinfected by thorough cleaning and lime-washing
Alternative ways of disinfection, e.g. smoking, may be used but are less effective
The birds should always have access to a dry place for dust bathing. If they prefer a
certain place, you may add a little ash against the parasites
You may encounter problems with hens pecking each other, but mostly in flocks with
high density, or if you keep local birds inside during the day
Wounds from pecking should be treated immediately to avoid cannibalism in the flock
The drinker and feeder should be carefully cleaned early morning and late evening to
avoid spreading of diseases

Fig. 5: Pecking often occur if local birds are kept inside for days

It is very important to spend some time each day observing every chicken carefully
In this way early signs of disease, malnutrition, or other problems may be discovered,
and the necessary precautions taken
Knowing each hen will also help you choose eggs from the best hen for hatching, so that
the chicks may inherit her qualities

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 Fig.6: Careful observation of the flock on a daily basis is important

2.3 Flock size

For table egg production, you only need hens
However, some farmers keep one cock with the hens to watch for predators and to
facilitate the pecking order, thus minimizing conflicts within the flock
To produce fertile, hatchable eggs, you will need one cock for approximately 10-15 hens
When surplus cocks reach a marketable size, they should be sold, slaughtered, or given
away as presents, to prevent the cocks from eating the scarce feed resources, as well as
fighting and stressing the hens
You may easily recognize young cocks by their tail feathers, their comb, and their
general (aggressive) behavior and appearance in comparison to the hens
Always take into consideration that the size of the flock should match the size of the
house, the amount of feed you can afford to buy and the feed resources in the
environment (scavenging feed resource base)

2.4 Laying, brooding and hatching

Often a free-range hen will lay the first eggs at the age of 22-28 weeks and lay 3-4
clutches of 10-15 eggs a year, depending on season, and in particular availability of feeds
A hen will often find a dark, quiet place for laying eggs and for brooding
She does not want to be disturbed by the others, and she wants to feel safe from predators
and passers-by
Unfortunately, many eggs go bad before they are hatched, because of disturbance, lack of
nests, and annoying ecto-parasites making the hen leave the nest frequently, with
resulting low hatchability
After 21 days of incubation remaining eggs will hatch
Most free-range poultry keepers will let young chicks follow the mother hen immediately
after hatching

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 The result is very high chick mortality during the first weeks of age, mainly due to
predation by eagles and snakes, drowning, from road accidents and general chick
exhaustion

2.5 Natural incubation and hatching

For chickens it takes 21 days for eggs to hatch
Eggs should be fresh before incubation
The age of eggs should be no more than 10 days, when stored at temperatures below 20º
C
If the temperature is higher, the eggs should be no more than 5 days old
To obtain the best incubation result, the eggs selected for incubation should be of average
size and normal shape for the breed
Further, the eggs should have a smooth un-cracked shell. If there are cracks in the shell,
the loss of moisture from the egg can be too high and the embryo may die
There is also a risk of bacteria entering the egg, which may lead to unhealthy or dead
embryos
Store the eggs in a cool and humid place until incubation, for example in a box in a hole
in the floor of the coolest part of the house
Eggs for sale may also be stored in the same place. During incubation you should always
check, which eggs are fertile and which are non-fertile
Fertile eggs very quickly develop blood vessels, which may be seen against a sharp light
from a torch
A broody hen should be separated from the flock to prevent other hens from disturbing
her
Keep the hen in a separate nest with free access to fresh water and feed within a short
distance Provide the hen with a brooding nest or basket big enough to contain all her eggs
Put fresh hay or straw in the nest and add some ash to prevent parasites
In the dry and hot season, you may spray the breast of the hen with water to increase the
humidity around the eggs
The hen will do the work of hatching perfectly if she has the right conditions, for
example a clean and suitable nest and quiet surroundings
If only small quantities of chicks are to be hatched, a free-range hen is a better brooder
than an artificial incubator, as she will normally have a higher rate of hatching (80-100%)
than an incubator (60-80%)
After hatching and until the chicks are old enough to be on their own, usually around 4
weeks of age, the hen will directly protect the chickens from adverse weather conditions
and predators by covering them with her wings
Indirectly, the hen will protect the newly hatched chicks against diseases for the first two
weeks; and slowly transfer her natural behavior to the chicks
Natural behavior means knowing how to search for food and water; which feed to take
and which to avoid, how to avoid predators by hiding or seeking shelter in bushes and
trees, how to keep healthy by dust bathing,

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2.6 Ten simple rules for better management
Provide simple houses or shelters and perches inside houses
Use day shelters (basket) during day and night shelter (basket) during night;
Give unlimited access to clean water;
Separate young chicks from adults, when they are fed;
Control the birds’ health daily;
Apply vaccines regularly according to the advice of local vaccinators or veterinarians;
Isolate a bird when it becomes ill, - call the veterinary assistant or kill the bird;
Kill or sell non-productive birds, i.e. cockerels and old hens that have stopped laying;
Provide nests, and control nests for eggs two times a day;
Check the reproduction status of each hen once a month, and give extra care to hens that
are brooding

Scientific studies indicated that a simple management improvement on village poultry can
maximize production and productivity. Below (Table-1) shows how poultry egg production and
number of live bird increased along with management betterment.

Table 1: The effect of rural poultry improvement on production, reproduction and off-take per
hen/year

Production system N° of N° of year- N° of eggs for

eggs/hen/year old consumption and
chickens sale
Traditional 20 - 30 2-3 0
Step 0: Scavenging: no regular water or feed,
poor night shelter
Improved Traditional 40 - 60 4-8 10 - 20
Step 1: offered water and supplementary feed,
improved shelter, care in first weeks, ND
vaccination
Step 2: as in step 1 plus further feeding, 100 10 - 12 30 - 50
watering, housing; treatment for parasites,
additional vaccinations
Step 3: (semi-intensive) as in step 2 with 160 - 180 25 - 30 50 - 60
improved breeds and complete diets
Source: http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/y5169e/y5169e0b.htm

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 HOUSING
Housing is essential to protect against predators, thieves, rough weather (rain, sun, very cold
winds, dropping night temperatures) and to provide shelter for egg laying and broody hens. A
suitable or comfortable poultry house is also important for efficient production and convenience
of the poultry farmer.
Depending on availability of materials, weather, and tradition you will find different
types of poultry houses and shelters in tropical regions
Choice of chicken house should be built upon a rationale involving an estimate of the
costs, the durability, and immediate gain of using a house for the poultry

A B

C D

Fig. 7: Choice of chicken house: (A) night baskets kept in the stable during night; (B) day basket in the stable
during daytime; (C) fabricated-wooden, wire mesh and iron sheet made house containing day and night shelter
and (D) wood, wire mesh, mud and iron sheet made chicken house with day and night care shelter

15
When choosing the right site for chicken house construction, you should consider:
A shady and dry place on flat ground to keep the floor dry during the rainy season
It may be necessary to dig a drain around the house, or to raise the ground first
Alternatively the house can be elevated from the ground
A fertile well-drained soil is desired. The area must not get flooded during heavy rains
Furthermore it is very detrimental to have wet floors in a chicken house, it leads to many
diseases
Trees and bushes close to the houses provide shade and are therefore beneficial
Trees serve as a windbreak in the winter and for shade in the summer and protect from
flying predators
It is also for security reasons important to have the chicken house near the house
The orientation of a chicken house has to take into consideration the movement of the sun
and the dominating winds, making the house naturally shaded and ventilated at certain
times of the day

3.1. Building the chicken house

Always use cheap local materials like bamboo, wood, reeds, thatch grass, or clay bricks.
Remove the bark from the wood you use, as parasites often hide behind the bark
Chicken houses should have windows
A hole in the top of the house may ensure good ventilation
These measures will also give light, making it easier to work in the house. However,
make sure winds will ventilate the house without making chickens or hens cold
Placing perches and nests inside the house will safeguard against most predators
It will also help to keep the legs of the chickens and the eggs clean
Make the nests and perches easy to remove when cleaning
Houses or shelters may be sprayed or lime washed after cleaning to disinfect and kill
parasite eggs from the walls and cracks
You may put some ashes on the floor and in the nests to discourage parasites
Clear the grass and bushes for about 3 meters on all sides of the house to keep snakes and
rats away from your chickens
The house has to be so large that there is sufficient room for the birds, and so that the air
inside does not become too heavy with humidity and gasses
A round or square house of 1.5-2.0 m² will hold 10-12 adult birds

3.2. Perches

Perches are important for chickens to rest during night

Diseases and parasites may attack poultry resting on the floor, and perches often reduce
the risk of external parasites entering the feathers at night
Each one-meter perch may roost five adult birds. Perches are best made of bamboo or
round sticks to accommodate for the size and structure of the birds’ feet
If the sticks are too big or too small, the birds may fall

16
 To prevent attack of external parasites, the perches may be treated with oil or kerosene,
where the perch meets the wall

Fig. 9: Sticks should match the size of

the birds’ feet
Fig. 8: Avoid using either too big or to small sticks
as perches

3.3. Nests
In many villages, nests are not provided for the hens and eventually the hens will lay their
eggs on the ground, in high grass or in natural shelters, where they may be difficult to
find
Some poultry farmers build nests on the ground outside the chicken houses
This should be avoided, as eggs outside houses are more exposed to predators and thieves
Nests should be placed inside the chicken house and preferably above the ground. For
laying you may have a battery of nests where more hens can lay at a time

Fig. 10: Battery of nests’ for laying hens

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 There must be 1 nest for every 5 hens
Nests should be of the right size for the hen to feel comfortable. A nest box will typically
measure 30 x 30 x 30 cm
Don’t make them too big, as the hen will not feel comfortable
A healthy and attractive nest for the broody hen may be prepared by following three steps
1. Make sure that the pot or basket is clean and dry;
2. Fill sand mixed with ashes up to 1/3 of the depth;
3. Put clean, soft nesting material (hay or straw) on top up to 2/3 of the depth

Fig. 11: Three steps in preparing a nest

Nesting material should be changed at least once a week

Mixing ashes, tobacco leaves or other anti-parasitic substances with the nesting material
will keep out most external parasites
External parasites in nests may reduce the hatchability of eggs, as the hen will use too
much time and energy leaving the nest, cleaning and scratching her body, leaving the
eggs cold

3.4. Ten simple rules for good housing

Use baskets for night shelter and day shelter for small chicks to reduce costs and labour
involved;
Always use local materials to reduce costs;
In wooden houses, use slatted, raised floors to remove droppings and avoid predators;
In clay houses, use wire netting for the windows to keep out predators;
Place the perches and nests inside the house, and make them removable to facilitate
cleaning;
Make sure winds will ventilate the house without making chickens or hens cold;
Consider heavy rains and hot sun when placing the house or shelter.
Provide nests with clean straw, which are easy to access, clean an move.
Always house young chicks with their mother away from other adults.
Make sure that houses are easy to access and clean

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FEED AND FEEDING
Feeding is essential if you want to increase the production of meat and eggs from poultry. Even
small flocks will eventually starve during certain periods of the year, if they are fed only
leftovers and feed, they find by scavenging. Lack of feed or water will reduce the birds’
resistance to diseases and parasites, and subsequently increase flock mortality.

The composition and availability of feeds will vary, depending on the season, site location and
farming systems. In general, poultry, as other animals, need feed containing energy and protein,
as well as vitamins and minerals. The need for feed will change, depending on the age and status
(chicken, grower, egg layer, broody hen) of the bird. The cheapest – and also often the best –
way to supplement the diet of your poultry, is to use local resources.

If your production is based on improved breeds for egg production, different types of
commercial diets may be given: usually they are divided into three distinct categories, with
decreasing amount of protein, e.g:

1. A starters’ diet: high in protein; from hatch up to 4 to 6 weeks of age;

2. A growers’ diet: medium in protein; up to 20 weeks;
3. A layers’ diet: lower in protein; hens from 20 weeks

4.1. Scavenging
In a free-range or improved free-range poultry rearing system, adult hens and cocks
should always be given enough time and space for finding feed in the surroundings
(scavenging)
Small chicks should be kept in confinement for the first 4-6 weeks
The best time for scavenging is early morning and late afternoon, as there are most
insects and less heat
The best time for giving supplementary feed will be in the morning and in the evening,
when the birds come back to the house

Fig. 12: Supplementary feeding and water is essential to increase

production 19
 Drinker should always be filled with water so that chicken can consume as to their
choice (ad-libitum) during the day to avoid heat stress

4.2. Supplementary feeding

In general, poultry, like other animals, need feed containing energy and protein, as well
as vitamins and minerals
The need for feed will change, depending on the age and status of the bird (chicks,
growers, egg layers, brooding hens) and of the purpose of the production (meat or eggs)
Knowledge of the quality and source of different feedstuffs is thus important to reduce
the risk of inappropriate feeding
If the birds are fed fully on pre-mixed feed, feed should be available all day together with
free access to clean water
The feed will, depending on type, contain more or less energy and protein, as well as
vitamins and minerals

Fig. 13: Feed types split into sources of a) energy, b) proteins, c) minerals, d) vitamins

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4.2.1. Energy rich-feed
Normally, at least ¾ of a poultry diet consists of energy feeds
Energy feeds are the most important nutrient to maintain body temperature and exercise
levels of the birds
Cereals, grain, roots, and tubers are the most important energy feeds
Examples of energy feeds are cereals like maize (corn) and its by-products (bran),
sorghum, wheat and its by-products (bran, shorts, screenings), rice and its by-products
(bran, polishing), cassava root meal (farina, tapioca), yam meal, yucca meal, sweet potato
meal, plantain and banana meal
Roots and tubers should be soaked in water for 60 minutes or cooked before drying to
remove harmful substances, and the proportion in the diet in general must be kept below
1/10 (Example 1 kg out of 10kg feed)

4.2.2. Protein-rich feeds

Protein is needed for growth, egg production, and for keeping up a good health status
Normally no more than 1/5 of a diet is protein-rich feeds
Protein may come from either animal sources or plants
Examples of protein-rich local feeds are: maggots, termites, termite eggs, insects, worms,
meat scraps, fish scraps, fish meal, meat meal, bone meal, blood meal, leucaena, cassava
leaves, feather meal, peas, beans, and oil cakes from e.g. ground nuts, cotton seed cake
and sunflower cakes
Harmful substances are present in some protein-rich plants, e.g. beans and cotton seed
cakes (if not heat processed), and the proportion in the diet should thus be kept low
The level depends on the type of plant, and whether the feed is being treated before
feeding
Oil cakes may contain much fibre and oil and should therefore be given in limited
amounts to young chickens (less than 1/5-1/10 of the diet)

2.2.2.1. Simple techniques for growing maggots and termites

Maggots and termites are excellent and cheap sources of protein in the improved free-
range systems
However, they will only be a supplement to other feeds
Give the maggots or termites to the small chicks, as they have the biggest need for a good
protein source
Maggots may be grown by a simple technique and used to supplement the diet of the
young chicks
Blood, offal, and cow manure are mixed in a large open pot. The pot is filled with 1/3
water
Flies will lay their eggs in the mixture, and the maggots will feed on it
Leave the pot open during daytime and closed during the night
After 5-10 days (depending on temperature), when the maggots are ready to pupae, you
collect the maggots by gently pouring water into the pot
The maggots will float and you can then wash them, and feed them directly to the birds

21
 Remember to place the pot away from public places, as the smell at times may be
offensive

Fig. 15: Growing maggots

4.2.3 Mineral-rich feeds

Minerals are important for bone formation, eggshell formation, and for a good health
status
To produce strong shells for their eggs, laying hens need free access to calcium
(limestone or crushed shells)
Adult birds are usually able to balance their intake according to needs
If a phosphorous rich feed is added, it should be balanced with calcium, since too high
levels of one may cause deficiency of the other
Examples of sources for minerals are: bone meal, crushed oyster shells, snail shells, and
burned eggshells
Using bone meal or eggshells is a good way to supply calcium and phosphorus
Eggshells should always be scorched or cooked before re-use in diets to remove any
disease germs

4.2.4. Vitamin-rich feeds

Scavenging birds get vitamins by eating green grass, vegetables, fresh cow dung, and
through sunlight
Confined birds always need additional vitamins mixed into their feeds or as a minimum
given some green grass, vegetables and some fresh cow dung
Remember to place the pot away from public places, as the smell at times may be
offensive

22
4.3. How much to feed?
Depending on the season, chickens may find nearly all they need in the surroundings (e.g.
during harvest or rainy season) or close to nothing (during dry and lean season)
In the free-range systems, the economic advantage is based on the fact that the poultry
find most of their feeds when scavenging in the surroundings
This will give an idea of what the chickens should be supplemented with during a
particular season
Table 2: Supplement requirement and total feed requirement at different ages

Age, weeks Approximate amount Approximate amount of supplementary

required feed given to a scavenging bird per day
per day per confined (g. dry weight)
bird (g. dry weight)

Week 1 12-15 10 - 15
Week 2 15 – 21 15 – 20
Week 3 21 – 35 21 – 30
Week 4 to 7 35-50 30-40
Week 8 55-60 30-40
Weeks 9-27 (grower) 65-80 30-50
>28 weeks (Adult) 100-150 depending on 30-50
the size of the bird

From hatch to the age of 4 to 6 weeks, the small chicks should receive full feed according
to their needs
In general, from week 4-6 and onwards the farmer should give maximum 30-40
g/bird/day, gradually reducing the amount of supplementary feed, until they only get
between 1/3 and half of their needs as adults
It is advisable to make a semi-balanced diet for the small chicks from 0-6 weeks of age
Locally available ingredients should be dried in the shade (the sun may destroy important
vitamins) and grounded in a mortar before mixing

4.4. How much to drink?

Remember always to give free access to water
But for estimate of the chicken daily water consumption you can refer table 3 below
Table 3: Chicken daily water requirement
Age (weeks) Chicken water requirement/100 chicken
(liter/day)
0-2 4-5
2-5 7-10
5-10 15
10-20 18
Adult 20-30

23
4.5. Simple feed mixing
It is advisable to make a semi-balanced diet for the small chicks from 0-6 weeks of age
Locally available ingredients should be dried in the shade (the sun may destroy important
vitamins) and grounded in a mortar before mixing
Locally available containers such as tomato tins or matchboxes may be used for easy
quantification of the different ingredients
Grams or percentages should be transferred into local quantities for field practice (like a
tin of 1 liter almost equivalent to 1 kg of poultry feed)
Large ready-mixed quantities should only be stored, if adequate storage capacities are
assured
In general you should not store mixed feed not more than 3 months to avoid
contamination from mould, bacteria or rodents
You will need a well ventilated, cool, dry shed or similar to store mixed feed.
To prevent the feed from absorbing moisture, it should not be stored on a cold concrete
floor, even if it is a dry floor because it will absorb moisture from condensation
Using a wooden pallet is the preferred method of storing bags of feed but you can
improvise using some pieces of wood if you can't get hold of one. This allows air to
circulate underneath them and prevents the condensation problem
Rats and mice will soon eat their way through your precious supplies so if you can,
ensure rats cannot get into the storage area and if mice can get in, leave traps set nearby
and check them regularly

Table 3: Simple ration for supplementing local chicken age 0-6 weeks (total 930 g)
Ingredient Quantity

Crushed sorghum/millet grain or maize 1 tin can (1 kg tomato tin)

Wheat bran, sorghum bran or millet bran 1 tin can

Groundnut or sesame oil cake 2 match boxes

Sea shell or bone meal/salt mix 1 match box (1 salt with 13 bone meal)

Fish or blood meal 2 match boxes

Sesbania leaves 2 match boxes

4.6. Mixing and formulating feeds

Mixing and formulating poultry feeds may be based on simple assumptions about the
nutritional requirements of the birds and the content of the feedstuffs
Egg Layers (egg type breed) feed formulation (Table 4-6) and broilers (meat type) feed
formulation table 7 & 8 below

24
Table 4: Starter ration formulation options for egg laying chicken
Feed Source Starter feed (0-8 Weeks)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Maize 50 50 50 37 30 26 49 44 30
Wheat middling (Furshkelo) 25 29 29 18 19 27 9 10 20
Bone and meat 4 4 4 6 10 10 7 -- --
Nuag cake 20 -- -- 35 15 13 24 -- --
Rape seed cake -- 16 -- -- -- -- -- -- --
Cotton seed cake -- -- 16 -- -- -- -- -- --
Salt 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Vitamins and minerals premix 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Limestone -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 1
Bone meal -- -- -- 3 -- -- -- 2 2
Sorghum -- -- -- -- 25 23 -- -- 14
Brewery residue -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
Brewery malt byproduct -- -- -- -- -- -- 10 -- --
Alfalfa -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 5 5
Groundnut cake -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 20 20
Meat meal -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 4 4
Fish meal -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 3 3
Barely -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 10 --
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Table 5: Grower ration formulation options for egg laying chicken
Feed Source Growers feed (8-18 weeks)
1 2 3 4 5
Maize 48 42 49 42 32
Wheat middling (Furshkelo) 23 -- 10 16 22
Bone and meat 5 -- -- 5 --
Nuag cake 21 35 -- 33 --
Rape seed cake -- -- -- -- --
Cotton seed cake -- -- -- -- --
Salt 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Vitamins and minerals premix 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Limestone 2 2 -- 1 1
Bone meal -- -- 1 2 2
Sorghum -- -- 2 -- 15
Brewery residue -- 15 -- -- --
Brewery malt byproduct -- -- -- -- --
Alfalfa -- 5 5 -- 5
Groundnut cake -- -- 15 -- 15
Meat meal -- -- 4 -- 4
Fish meal -- -- 3 -- 3
Barely -- -- 10 -- --
Total 100 100 100 100 100

25
Table 6: Layers’ ration formulation options for egg laying chicken

Feed Source Starter feed (>18 Weeks)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Maize 40 37 40 45 48 40 25 36 51
Wheat middling (Furshkelo) -- 18 32 23 26 10 14 20 10
Bone and meat -- 9 5 8 5.5 10 7 -- --
Nuag cake 37 30 18. 18 15 11 20 -- 10
5
Rape seed cake -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
Cotton seed cake -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
Salt 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Vitamins and minerals premix 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Limestone 2 1 3.5 -- 4.5 3 3 3 3
Bone meal -- 4 -- 5 -- -- -- 3.5 3.5
Sorghum -- -- -- -- -- -- 30 16 --
Brewery residue 15 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
Brewery malt byproduct -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
Alfalfa 5 -- -- -- -- -- -- 4 4
Groundnut cake -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 10 --
Meat meal -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 3.5 4.5
Fish meal -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 3 3
Barely -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 10 10
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Table 7: Starter feed formulation option for broilers

Feed Source Starter feed (0-4 weeks)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Maize 44 40 29 45 47 47 45
Wheat middling (Furshkelo) 10 12 22 13 8 8 15
Bone and meat 13 14 12 12 6 -- 10
Nuag cake 32 -- -- -- 33.5 33.5 15
Rape seed cake -- -- -- 29 -- -- --
Cotton seed cake -- 33 -- -- -- -- --
Sunflower seed cake -- -- 36 -- -- -- --
Salt 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Vitamins and minerals premix 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 2 2 0.5
Blood meal -- -- -- -- 3 6 --
Bone meal -- -- -- -- -- 3 --
Wheat screenings - - - - - - 9
Fish meal - - - - - - 5
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

26
Table 8: Finisher feed formulation option for broilers
Feed Source Finisher feed (4-8 weeks)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Maize 53 53 45 55 64 65 50
Wheat middling (Furshkelo) 7 6 12 7 22.5 22.5 11
Bone and meat 10 10 10 10 5 2 10
Nuag cake 29 -- -- -- -- -- 18
Rape seed cake -- -- -- 27 -- -- --
Cotton seed cake -- 30 -- -- -- -- --
Sunflower seed cake -- -- 32 -- -- -- --
Salt 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Vitamins and minerals premix 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 2 2 0.5
Blood meal -- -- -- -- 3 6 --
Bone meal -- -- -- -- 3 2 --
Wheat screenings - - - - - 10
Fish meal - - - - - -
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

4.7. Feeders and drinkers

Feeders and drinkers should always be kept clean to prevent spread of diseases
They should be big enough for all birds of the same age to feed at the same time
One metre trough or a 35 cm (diameter) tube feeder is big enough for 20 adult birds to eat
and for 40 to drink

Table 9: Chicken feeder space requirement

Feeder design and feeding space requirement (cm)

Age (weeks)
Rectangular Round
0-6 4 1.5
6-18 8 3
>18 10 4

Feeders and drinkers may easily be produced out of local materials

Placed feeder and or drinker low enough for small birds to drink, but also high enough
for adult birds to dip their wattles to keep them cool during hot weather
Usually several waterers in different sizes should be applied
It is important that the feeders are constructed in such a way that feed waste is avoided
Also feed waste can be decreased if feeders are not filled to the top
It is better to fill feeders just half full and then check them regularly for refills

27
 Fig. 16: Simple drinker made of an old tin can and a plate

Fig. 17: Feeders and drinkers may also be made locally of wood, clay, or metal

28
4.8. Twelve simple rules for feed management
Before buying, mixing, and storing feeds, it is important to understand some underlying
principles of good feed management

It is crucial to:
1. Use local feed ingredients for local birds;
2. Know the quality or feed value, and changing prices of each feed ingredient;
3. Buy missing feed ingredients, such as vitamins or protein sources locally;
4. Change the feed formulation depending on availability, quality or feed value, and
changing prices
5. Reduce the flock size in free-range systems during lean seasons and if the feed becomes
too costly;
6. If you change feed and feeding level, always do it slow and gradual
7. Mix feed ingredients uniformly in relatively small quantities to avoid too long storage
time;
8. Use locally available materials such as tomato tins or matchboxes for quantifying the
different ingredients to be mixed. Grams or percentages do not work in practice;
9. Store mixed feed or feed ingredients separately upon a platform approx. 30 cm above the
floor;
10. Stop the entry of rats, pigeons, or other type of birds into the feed store room;
11. Make sufficient ventilation of air so that the feed ingredients are not wet due to humidity;
12. Be careful that feed ingredients, which are mouldy, discolored or from which pests have
eaten, are not used

29
DISEASES AND HEALTH MANAGEMENT
Diseases are everywhere and will attack birds at all ages, but careful management will prevent
many diseases. One sick hen is isolated in a small shelter away from the others. Birds are well
fed and characteristically healthy.

5.1. Healthy and unhealthy birds

It is very important for the farmer to learn how to detect an unhealthy or sick bird, so he can
initiate the right action
Healthy birds may be able to fight against the diseases themselves whereas unhealthy birds will
have difficulties in fighting diseases
It is important to isolate unhealthy or sick birds from the healthy flock in order to ensure a
minimum of loss

A B

Healthy birds (A) and unhealthy/sick birds (B)

Characteristics
Healthy Unhealthy
Alert and on guard Tired and lifeless
Bright eyes and comb Dull eyes and comb
Walk, run, stand, and scratch Sit or lie down
continuously Eat and drink less
Eat and drink normally Lay less or stop laying eggs
Lay eggs normally Ruffled and loose feathers
smooth and neat feathers Wet droppings with blood or worms,
Soft compact droppings diarrhea
Breathe quietly Cough, sneeze and breathe noisily
If you find an unhealthy or sick bird, isolate the animal and call for the veterinarian or
health assistant for disease identification and further advice
If the bird dies, burn it or bury it. You should remove dead birds, so that the germs are
not left on the ground to be passed on to the other birds

30
5.2. Case Definition of economically important poultry diseases in Ethiopia

5.2.1. Newcastle Disease (ND)

The disease is very common during dry seasons, and is often seen in young chicks, but also in
adults. The disease is a virus, so there is no treatment, but it may be prevented through
vaccination of all birds including chicks from two weeks of age.
Clinical case sample pictures Clinical Sign
Newcastle disease causes high
mortality with depression and death in
3 to 5 days as major signs
Affected chickens do not always
exhibit respiratory or nervous signs
Show heavy breathing, greenish
droppings, and sometimes bloody
diarrhea

Labored breathing with wheezing and

gurgling, accompanied by nervous
signs, such as paralysis or twisted necks
(torticollis) are the main signs

Egg production will decrease 30 to

50% or more, returning to normal
levels in about 2 weeks
Eggs may have thin shells and eggs
without shells may also be found
In well-vaccinated chicken flocks
clinical signs may be difficult to find
Inflamed tracheas, pneumonia, and/or
froth in the air sacs are the main lesions
Transmission Treatment and Control
Newcastle disease virus is highly
contagious through infected droppings There is no treatment for Newcastle
and respiratory discharge between birds disease
Spread between farms is by infected Vaccination against ND with live
equipment, trucks, personnel, wild and/or inactivated (killed) adjuvant
birds or air The incubation period is vaccines is the only reliable control
variable but usually about 3 to 6 days method

31
5.2.2. Fowl pox
Often it is seen in young chicks, but also in adults, and shows as pocks (small lumps) on wattles,
comb and face. High body temperature, tiredness followed by sudden death. The disease is
common during dry seasons, but may be found all year around. The disease is a virus, so there is
no treatment. Vaccine is available and highly effective.
Clinical case sample pictures Clinical Sign
The lesions of fowl pox can be external
(mainly on the head) or internal (“wet
pox”) in the mouth, oesophagus and/or
trachea, they can also be found on other
parts of the body (skin of legs, cloaca
etc.)
The lesions on the head, combs, and
wattles are usually wart-like in
appearance, yellow to dark brown in
color
The internal lesions in the mouth,
oesophagus and/or trachea are yellow-
white and cheesy in appearance
Affected birds will be depressed, lack
appetite and when “wet pox” is present
they breath laboriously
Transmission Treatment and Control
Introduction of infected or “carrier” It is difficult to treat affected birds
birds in a susceptible flock will cause Treatment of local lesions with
an outbreak by direct contact and water disinfectant
or feed transmission Preventive vaccination using a live
Mosquitoes and other flying insects can vaccine is by far the most successful
also transmit the virus from bird to bird control method
and also transmit the disease to nearby Even when an outbreak of fowl pox
flocks has been diagnosed, it is advisable to
The incubation period varies from 4 to vaccinate the flock immediately to stop
20 days further spread of the infection

32
5.2.3. Marek´s disease (MD)
Only seen in birds older than 16 weeks. Initially the birds may show paralysis of one or both
wings. Or one or both legs might be paralysed. The disease is a virus, so there is no treatment,
but commercial vaccines are available.
Clinical case sample pictures Clinical Sign

Infected birds show weight loss, or may

exhibit some form of paralysis

Mortality varies from 5 to 50 % in

unvaccinated birds
The classical form (paralysis) with leg
nerve involvement causes a bird to lie
on its side with one leg stretched
forward and the other backward
When the gizzard nerve is involved, the
birds will have a very small gizzard and
intestines and will waste away
Mortality usually occurs between 10
and 20 weeks of age

Nerve involvement, either grossly

(swelling of leg, wing or other nerves)
or microscopically, is typical of MD

Skin involvement (skin leucosis) often

consists of tumours of feather follicles
or in between follicles

Transmission Treatment and Control

Main transmission is by infected Vaccination of day-old chicks is an

premises, where day-old chicks will effective mean of control
become infected by the oral and It has been demonstrated that MD
respiratory routes vaccine only prevents the appearance of
Dander from feather follicles of MD- Marek’s disease tumours and paralysis
infected chickens can remain infectious It does not prevent the birds from
for more than a year becoming infected with MD-virus
Young chicks are particularly It is therefore of major importance to
susceptible to horizontal transmission maintain high hygienic and sanitary
Susceptibility decreases rapidly after measures by good management to
the first few days of age avoid early exposure of young chickens

33
5.2.4. Gumboro (Infectious Bursal Disease, IBD)
Gumboro is only seen in chicks younger than 6 weeks, and normally only in large flocks kept in
confinement. Not common in small-scale village based systems. Common symptom: Diarrhea.
The disease is a virus, so there is no treatment. Vaccine is available.
Clinical Case Sample Pictures Clinical Signs

Clinical IBD occurs usually between 4

and 8 weeks of age
Affected birds are listless and
depressed, pale and huddling
Mortality varies. Usually new cases of
IBD have a mortality rate of about 5
to10% but can be as high as 60%
depending on the severity of the strain
involved
In subsequent infection on the same
IBD infected chicken (right farm, mortality is lower and eventually,
with successive attacks, there is no
mortality noted
The subclinical form caused by the
immunosuppressive effect of the IBD
virus is now of more economic
importance in that
the immune system of the bird is
damaged Gumboro disease related
diseases such as inclusion body
hepatitis are more frequent in these
birds
In broilers this form of the disease
results in bad performance with lower
weight gains and higher feed
conversion ratios
Enlargement of the affected Bursa
Transmission Treatment and Control

IBD virus is very infectious and No treatment is available for IBD

spreads easily from bird to bird by way Vaccination of parent breeders and/or
of droppings young chicks is the best means of
Infected clothing and equipment are control
means of transmission between farms The induction of a high maternal
immunity in the progeny of vaccinated
breeders, together with the vaccination
of the
offspring is the most effective approach
to successful IBD control

34
5.2.5. Infectious Bronchitis (IB)
Corona-virus is the causal agent. Several different serotypes of IB virus are known to exist. Only
chickens are susceptible to IB virus.
Clinical Case Sample Pictures Clinical Signs
In young chicks IB virus infection
causes a unpleasant exudates in the
bifurcation of the bronchi, thereby
causing suffocation, preceded by severe
respiratory distress (“pump handle”
breathing)
In older birds IB does not cause
mortality
Egg production will decrease
dramatically, deformed eggs with
wrinkled shells will often be laid
Mucus and redness in tracheas, froth in
airsacs in older chickens
In young chicks a yellow cheesy plug at
the tracheal bifurcation is indicative of
IB infection
Transmission Treatment and Control
The virus is transmitted from bird to
bird through the airborne route There is no specific treatment for
The virus can also be transmitted via infectious bronchitis. Antibiotics given
the air for 3-5 days may aid in combating
between chicken houses and even from
secondary bacterial infections
farm to farm
Baby chicks can be encouraged to eat
by using a warm, moist mash.

As IB infection tends to persist on a

farm, depopulation is strongly
recommended, followed by disinfection
and resting of the pens

An effective vaccination program

should be introduced with the arrival of
the next batch of chicks

35
5.2.6. Infectious Coryza
The bacterium causing this disease is Hemophilus paragallinarum. Chickens appear to be the
only natural hosts of the bacteria.
Clinical Case Sample Pictures Clinical Sign

The main signs of the disease are

inflammation of eyes and nose with
foul-smelling discharges
Conjunctivitis, sneezing and facial
swellings
Feed and water intake is reduced,
leading to loss of weight
Egg production in laying birds will
drop
Mortality will vary with the virulence
of the infection but is generally low

Typical facial edema

Transmission Treatment and Control

The disease spreads from bird to bird Treatment with antibiotics can be given
and flock to flock by contact and to subdue clinical infection, but
airborne infected dust particles and via eradication and prevention are the most
the drinking water desirable means of control of coryza
Spread by equipment and personnel has Vaccines have been developed, but are
also been reported only used in areas where the disease is
The incubation period varies from 1 to endemic and cannot be eradicated
3 days

36
5.2.7. Coccidiosis (internal parasites)
Coccidiosis is caused by protozoa, unicellular parasites. Chickens have their own specific
coccidiosis types which do not cross-infect other bird species. The disease may occur at any time
at all ages, but can be prevented by regular and careful cleaning of troughs and poultry houses. If
the chicks survive, they will remain thin and be late in laying. Avoid different age groups of
birds in the same house, as the disease may spread from adults to young chicks.
Clinical case Sample Picture Clinical Sign
Coccidiosis can be divided into 2
groups:
The caecum is involved (Caecal
coccidiosis)
Mainly caused by E. tenella in chickens
up to 12 weeks
Mortality may run as high as 50 %.
Infected birds are listless, have bloody
droppings, a pale comb and show a lack
of appetite
Laboratory examination will show
haemorrhages in the caecal wall
After severe bleeding a core will be
formed in
the lumen
The small intestine is involved (small
intestinal coccidiosis)
May affect birds of any age
Birds infected show loss of weight,
combs may be shriveled and a drop or
even cessation of egg production in
layers may be seen

Transmission Treatment and Control

The well established principles of good
Infected droppings, containing oocysts management and husbandry are of
of coccidia are the main means of basic importance
transmission, between birds It is common practice to include low
The incubation period is 4 to 6 days levels of chemotherapeutics in the feed
of birds
Treatment of infected flocks may be
carried out by the administration of
coccidiostats at a higher therapeutic
level to the affected birds

37
5.2.8. Internal Parasites (Endoparasites)
Worms living in the intestines of chickens fall.

Clinical Case Sample Pictures Clinical Signs

Mature roundworms are not a major

cause of the disease, but the larvae can
damage the intestinal lining, causing
enteritis, anaemia, decreased egg
Left round worms and right hair worms production and at times eggs with pale
yolks
Cause more damage to the intestinal
lining and can cause enteritis and
anaemia with decreased egg production
and the appearance of pale egg yolks
(“platinum yolks”)
Caecal worms are found in the caeca
and do not cause serious damage,
except that their eggs can transmit
blackhead
Tape worms are infrequently found and
do not cause serious damage, except
Tapeworm that they use the nutrients of the host

Transmission Treatment and Control

Internal parasites as found in the faeces Internal parasites are very common in
and transmitted via contaminated feed, all ages in the village based production
water and premises systems
These parasites will cause poor health,
weight loss, drop in egg production,
and bloody diarrhea
The best treatment is adding
anthelmintics in the drinking water
once or twice a year, at best two weeks
before vaccination against
ND

Careful hygiene may prevent heavy

infection

38
5.2.9. External parasites
Attacks all ages any time, but occurs more frequently in humid chicken houses with bad
hygiene.. Lice can be seen around eyes and nose.
External Parasite Sample Pictures Clinical Sign
Adult birds are clearly disturbed and
spend a lot of time pecking and
polishing feathers Young chicks may
die from anemia
Flee If not treated, mites, lice, fleas, ticks
will cause weight loss and possibly loss
Tick
Lice of feathers due to the parasites sucking
blood and to skin irritation
Fleas can be seen on the belly
Transmission Treatment
Direct contact among chicken Spray or dust with pesticides, ashes,
Contaminated premises and oil
Ashes and sulphur powder may be used
where the hens do dust bathing
Nests may be protected by putting a
few tobacco leaves mixed with ashes in
the nests

39
5.3. Medication and vaccination

5.3.1. Medication
Some diseases may be cured by drugs
Parasitic diseases, such as lice, tick and fleas or worms can be cured by use of anti-
parasitic drugs or by applying pesticides or simple methods such as baths in oil
Bacterial diseases causing respiratory disorders or diarrhoea, can be cured with
antibiotics
For viral diseases there is no treatment
But the viral diseases may often be prevented by vaccination

5.3.2. Vaccination
All poultry should be vaccinated against the most common viral disease (s) in the area
Vaccination schemes at village level should cover Newcastle Disease and Fowl Pox
Other viral diseases such as Gumboro and Marek’s disease may be covered by
vaccination, but they are often less important at village level
A bacterial disease such as Fowl cholera may also be prevented by vaccination
Poultry should be vaccinated when they are very young, and before they have begun to
lay eggs
Most young birds that have not been vaccinated do not resist diseases, and often die
Vaccines should only be given to healthy birds. If you vaccinate a sick bird you may kill
the bird
Anti-parasitic drugs against internal parasites should be given two weeks before
vaccination, to improve the effect of the vaccine
For scavenging poultry, you should avoid mixing vaccines with drinking water or feed, as
it is difficult to give the right dose
A too high dose of a live vaccine may kill a young chick, whereas a too low dose will not
give adequate protection

5.3.3. Disease prevention calendar

It is important to prevent and treat diseases according to the occurrence of diseases
Vaccination campaigns against Newcastle Disease (ND) or Fowl Pox should be
implemented before the onset of the disease, as the vaccine otherwise may kill already
sick birds
To plan vaccination and medication, it is advisable to use a so called “disease prevention
calendar”, where veterinarians, farmers and extension workers together identify the
periods, where diseases should be prevented or treated

40
 The figures in table below shows “disease prevention calendar” indicating how chickens
at different ages are vaccinated against ND and Fowl Pox and treated against internal
parasites (worms) and external parasites following the annual cropping cycle and
festivals
Jan Feb Mar April May
Vet service along
cropping calendar
Disease
type

ND

Internal parasite

Fowl pox

External
parasite

41
Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

5.3.4. Ten simple rules for disease prevention

1. Give access to the right feed and clean water, in particular for small chicks;
2. Build shelters against wind and rain;
3. Clean houses regularly and apply lime wash on the floor and the walls;
4. If necessary, provide dry litter regularly;
5. Do not put too many birds together;
6. Different species of poultry, for example hens, turkeys, pigeons, ducks and guinea fowls
should be kept separate;
7. Separate chicks from adult birds except from the mother hen;
8. Vaccinate chicks against the most important diseases and revaccinate if necessary;
9. Isolate and treat sick birds – if medication is not available then kill the sick birds;
10. Burn or bury dead birds

42
PROFITABILITY AND MARKETING OF PRODUCTS
Before starting any production, it is important to know the market situation, the investment costs,
running costs, and expected revenue for the different products. In general the economic outcome
as well as the need for investments and the risk involved in the production, will be very different
for improved free range systems (relatively low risk) and small-scale confined systems (higher
risk).

6.1. Chicken for sale

Cockerels should be sold as soon as they fetch a good price, as one cock to 10-15 hens is
sufficient to produce fertile eggs
In some cases, you may also want to sell a cock, if it is not doing a good job in mating
At the age of 6 months and a weight of approximately 1 kg, cocks are usually big enough
to be sold at the market
Chickens should always be sold alive in the markets, but do not return live chickens
from the market, if you does do not mix with others and keep separately for same days ,
as this is a major cause of transfer of diseases
Old hens, which are no longer laying should also be sold
When you want to catch the birds, you catch them in the house in the late evening during
sleep, or attract them with feed

6.2. Eggs for sale

Eggs should be collected and marketed while fresh, in particular if not cooled
Collect eggs from the nesting boxes at least once, but rather two times a day, and store
them in a dark and cool place
Eggs should normally not be cleaned, but kept clean in the nests
If they are dirty, clean the eggs with a clean, dry sponge or cloth, and sell the eggs
immediately Cleaning eggs with water may disturb the natural protection of the shell and
introduce infections to the egg
Pack eggs in boxes, egg trays, or other suitable package, e.g. banana leaves
Sell eggs in the market two to three times a week, so you get a good name for selling
fresh eggs
If profitable, grade your eggs according to size
Always keep records of your production and sale, as explained below.

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Table 10: Record keeping for small-scale chicken production: Animals

Production Record Week/Day:

Name of farmer: Family:
Record Number Price Comments
1. Hens Health status, in lay?
2. Cocks Health status,
3. Growers Health status, age, weight
4. Chickens Health status, age, weight
5. Dead birds Cause of death
6. Eggs laid
7. Fertile eggs incubated
8. Chickens hatched
9. Cocks sold Where and to whom?
10. Hens sold
11. Growers sold
12. Chicks sold
13. Eggs sold To whom?
14. Eggs/Poultry consumed
15. Poultry given as gifts
16. Hens and Cocks vaccinated What treatment/vaccine
17. Growers/cockerels and how?
vaccinated
18. Chickens vaccinated
19. Birds given medicine

Table 11: Record keeping for small-scale chicken production

Materials and feed
Name: Day:
Record Numbers Price Comments
Materials
a. Baskets
b. Shelters
c. Chicken houses
d. Nests
e. Feeders
f. Drinkers
g. Other materials Type, quantity
Feed Type, quantity
h. Feed stuffs
i. Formulated feeds
j. Vitamins, minerals 44
k. Medicine
6.3. Cost benefit calculation
In order to calculate the profit in your enterprise, you should estimate costs and revenues on an
annual basis. Tables 12 & 13 show examples of the information you need to make a simple cost-
benefit analysis.
Table 12: Example of small-scale free-range system, 52 weeks plan
Flock size Numbers
Local hens laying and brooding 3
Local hens laying eggs, not broody 2
Cocks 1
Surviving chickens/hen/batch* 8
Growers. Weeks 4-24 24
Total Flock size 30
Feed consumption: 1 Kg /bird/4 week =35 g/bird/day Kg
Adults feed: 1 kg x 6 birds x 52/4 weeks 78
Chicken/growers feed: 1 kg x 24 birds x 46 /4 weeks 276
Egg Production: Numbers
Local broody hens. 72 eggs/bird/year 216
Local hens not going broody. 104 eggs/bird/year 208
Eggs for hatching. 3 hens x 12 eggs x two batches /year -72
Home consumption, 1.5 egg/week -82
Saleable birds: 3 batches x 8 growers Numbers
Cockerels. 22 weeks of age 24
Pullets for sale. 24 weeks of age 24
*(12 eggs laid=10 eggs hatched=8 chicks surviving after 6 months)
Table 13: Cost-benefit analysis based on example in table 12
Cost-benefit Analysis Text Cost/Unit Cash flow
Costs ETB* ETB
5 hens and 1 cock 5 x 130 + 1 x 130 -780
Baskets, 3 night + 3 day baskets 6 baskets 40 -240
Low cost homemade feed 354 Kg 1750 -1750
Vaccine (ND)+medicine (Coc+anti-worm) 60 Doses/year 5 -180
Miscellaneous -50
Cash out-flow -3000
Income (Benefit)
Sale of Eggs 424 – 154 = 270 3 810
Sale of cockerels, 22 weeks 24 100 2400
Sale of pullets, 24 weeks 24 100 2400
Total cash in-flow 5610
Net cash flow 2611
Key: Fixed costs of land and housing materials and labor as operating cost not included since
it varies from place to place

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6.4. Ten simple rules for marketing and financial analysis
Analyze the market situation, demand for products, investment costs, running costs, and
expected revenue for different types of poultry production before starting
Make a thorough calculation of expected costs and revenues for different production
systems
Always keep records of your production and sale
Keep your flock size manageable size to assure a feed resource in the environment
Estimate the production of eggs and birds over the year
Plan beforehand when and how you want to sell your birds
Never introduce birds from the market directly to your flock
Sell birds, if feed costs are too high or there are high risk of diseases or dwindling market
prices
Remember that costs involve investments, running costs, labour, losses, and maybe loan
repayment and interest on loans
Judge the risks involved in each type of production system before starting

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ANNEX A: ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
Fisseha Moges, Azage Tegegne and Tadelle Dessie. 2010. Indigenous chicken
production and marketing systems in Ethiopia: Characteristics and opportunities
for market-oriented development. IPMS (Improving Productivity and Market
Success) of Ethiopian Farmers Project Working Paper 24. Nairobi, Kenya, ILRI
Network for Smallholder Poultry Development: Keeping Village Poultry. A

Technical Manual on Small-Scale Poultry Production

The Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (2009): Improving

Village Chicken Production: A manual for Field Workers and Trainers

Intervet International by the Netherlands (2009): Important Poultry Diseases

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