2019 Köykkä Et Al (Diacronismo)

Precambrian Research 331 (2019) 105364
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Precambrian Research
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/precamres
Provenance evolution of the Paleoproterozoic metasedimentary cover T

sequences in northern Fennoscandia: Age distribution, geochemistry, and
zircon morphology
J. Köykkäa, , R. Lahtinenb, H. Huhmab
⁎
a
Geological Survey of Finland, P.O. Box 77, FI-96101 Rovaniemi, Finland
b
Geological Survey of Finland, P.O. Box 96, FI-02151 Espoo, Finland
ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT
Keywords: The metasedimentary basin-fill successions of the Central Lapland belt, Peräpohja belt, and Kuusamo belt form
Basin an important part of the northern Fennoscandia Shield. They each record ca. 600 Ma (2.5–1.9 Ga) of sedi-
Detrital zircon geochronology mentation history and tectonic evolution, providing important information about past depositional conditions
Geochemistry and tectonic settings. Detrital zircon geochronology shows that Archean age populations between 3.00 and
Fennoscandia
2.70 Ga have provenances from the surrounding basement complexes of granitoid/TTG rocks, whereas the
Provenance
Sedimentary rock
Paleoproterozoic age populations (≤2.25–1.86 Ga) can be linked to the surrounding granitoids in northern
Finland and Sweden. Zircon morphology studies indicate that basin sedimentation and/or provenance area(s)
were likely influenced by eolian processes ca. 2.3–2.1 (or possible earlier). Major and trace element geochem-
istry indicates minor to moderate weathering trends, closely resembling Archean-Proterozoic sandstones and
shales. Provenance signatures of tectonic settings vary from rift to arc and collisional. We propose five basin
evolution stages for the Central Lapland belt, Peräpohja belt, and Kuusamo belt: a rifting stage from 2.5 to 2.1 Ga
including (i) initial rifting/early syn-rift, (ii) syn-rift, and (iii) syn-rift to early post-rift; (iv) a passive margin
(post-rift) stage from 2.1 to 1.94–1.92 Ga; and (v) a foreland basin system 1.94–1.92 to 1.88 Ga. The rifting stage
includes bimodal subaerial to subaqueous volcanism with continental to marine sedimentation, and the initial
accumulation of carbonate and evaporate successions, indicating later local tectonic stability and restricted
hydrological circulation. The early development of an epeiric sea setting was followed by a passive margin stage
and the development of aulacogens, controlled by cyclic sea-level fluctuations superimposed on long-term
thermal subsidence. This stage was characterized by the accumulation of hemipelagic deposits together with
gravity-driven sandstone deposits and associated subaqueous volcanism. The foreland basin system comprises an
initial compressional stage with the development of forebulge and foredeep depozones and magmatic arc col-
lision. This was followed by the main compressional stage, where basin inversion resulted in a foreland fold-
thrust belt. The foreland basin system includes syn- and post-orogenic deposystems and a transition from un-
derfilled marine sedimentation to overfilled non-marine deposits.
1. Introduction the structural development of sedimentary basins and provenance sources

can be achieved by studying basin-fill history and their characteristics. In
Precambrian metasedimentary rocks provide important information particular, zircon is a resistant mineral and is especially important for
about past orogenic conditions and settings, and may reveal information Precambrian basin research, because it usually survives multiple erosion-
related to sedimentary environments. Therefore, identifying ancient transport processes and metamorphic events in a poly-deformed bedrock
provenance areas and depositional settings is fundamental for the pa- (e.g. Lahtinen et al., 2010; Lamminen and Köykkä, 2010; Cawood et al.,
leogeographic reconstruction of Precambrian basin evolution. Tectonic 2012). In addition a heavy mineral morphology, such as that of zircon,
regimes, which control the formation and evolution of sedimentary ba- can be used as an aid for studying the transportation and depositional
sins, were more erratic during the pre-vegetation landscapes (e.g. history of the metasedimentary rocks (e.g. Dill, 2007; Dill and Klosa,
Eriksson et al., 2005, 2007; Bose et al., 2012). A broad understanding of 2011; Dill et al., 2012; Zoleikhaei et al., 2016).
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: juha.koykka@gtk.fi (J. Köykkä).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2019.105364
Received 22 March 2019; Received in revised form 1 June 2019; Accepted 3 June 2019
Available online 04 June 2019
0301-9268/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
J. Köykkä, et al. Precambrian Research 331 (2019) 105364
Study of the crustal architecture and basin evolution of the the lithostratigraphic and lithodemic units in northern Finland are
Precambrian bedrock in northern Finland is important because of the currently treated as informal units (see Strand et al., 2010; Luukas
presence of large mineral deposits and it is a major region of current et al., 2017). The degree of metamorphism in the studied areas varies
explorations (see e.g. Hanski, 2015). Previous studies are mostly related from greenschist to amphibolite facies (Hölttä and Heilimo, 2017).
to its geochronology, magmatic evolution, and the structural history of
bedrock in northern Fennoscandia (e.g. Perttunen and Vaasjoki, 2001; 3.1. Central Lapland belt (CLB)
Rastas et al., 2001; Räsänen and Huhma, 2001; Räsänen and Vaasjoki,
2001; Hanski and Huhma, 2005; Huhma et al., 2018; Lahtinen et al., The CLB consist mostly of Paleoproterozoic supracrustal rocks in-
2015a, 2015b, 2018, 2019; Ranta et al., 2015; Nironen, 2017; Piippo truded by 2.44–2.05 Ga mafic–ultramafic intrusive rocks, 1.92–1.88 Ga
et al., 2019; Skyttä et al., 2019), however comprehensive models re- felsic porphyritic/lamprophyric rocks, and 1.88 Ga syn- to 1.80 Ga post-
garding tectonic-sedimentary basin evolution are lacking. orogenic granitoids (Fig. 1 and Fig. 1 in App. A). The Paleoproterozoic
This study focus on depositional age, provenance evolution, and evolution began with an eruption of mantle plume-related, komatiitic
sedimentary-tectonic evolution of the Paleoproterozoic metasedimen- to rhyolitic lavas on the Archean cratonic basement ca. 2.44 Ga. It also
tary cover sequences in northern Fennoscandia. A total of 45 selected included the emplacement of large layered mafic intrusions and was
age determined detrital zircon samples and over 200 whole-rock ana- followed by the deposition of thick metasedimentary successions with
lyses were used for revealing provenance evolution and sedimentation variable volcanism (Hanski and Huhma, 2005). The supracrustal rock
systems during the evolving tectonics. This study comprises three dif- sequence was completed by the thrust belt development with 1.88 Ga
ferent volcanic-sedimentary successions: (i) Central Lapland belt, (ii) synorogenic felsic plutonism (Hanski and Huhma, 2005). A total of 19
Peräpohja belt, and (iii) Kuusamo belt. They each record ca. 600 million samples for detrital zircon studies (Fig. 1 in App. A and App. B) and 114
years (2.5–1.9 Ga) of sedimentation history and tectonic evolution whole-rock samples (App. C) are derived from the CLB.
during the Paleoproterozoic Era. Although the Precambrian bedrock of
northern Finland has been deformed multiple times it shows a good 3.1.1. Lithostratigraphic units
preservational potential with a wide lateral continuum of the strati- The ca. 2.52–2.44 Ga Salla group comprises a succession of varying
graphic units. Ultimately, the tectonic evolution of the studied belts can thickness, formed from intermediate and acid volcanic rocks (Hanski
be linked to global events such as the breakup of the Kenorland su- and Huhma, 2005), which occurs N of the Sodankylä area (Fig. 1 and
percontinent ca. 2.5–2.1 Ga (Aspler and Chiarenzelli, 1998), the tec- Fig. 1 in App A). The overlying Kuusamo group covers a wide area
tono-magmatic lull/shutdown ca. 2.3–2.2 Ga (Spencer et al., 2018), and extending from Kuusamo to Salla and still further to Kittilä. It is
the amalgamation of the Columbia/Hudsonia/Nuna supercontinents ca. dominated by subaerial to subaqueous mafic volcanic rocks. The max-
2.1–1.8 Ga (Zhao et al., 2002). imum depositional age is given by samples from three separated por-
phyry pebbles, providing an age of 2405 ± 6 Ma. A mafic dike yielded
2. Geological setting an age of 2383 ± 33 Ma giving the minimum age of the volcanic pile
(Hanski and Huhma, 2005; Huhma et al., 2018).
The Fennoscandian Shield is the northern part of the (proto)Baltica The Sodankylä group covers large areas in the CLB (Fig. 1 and Fig. 1
or the East European Craton (EEC) (review in Gorbatschev and in App. A) and includes several formations composed mainly of meta-
Bogdanova, 1993; Bogdanova et al., 2008). It is composed of an Ar- sedimentary successions with mafic volcanics of the Kuusivaara for-
chean core in the NE, and progressively younger Proterozoic crustal mation. The group is penetrated by 2.2 Ga, Haaskalehto-type differ-
domains towards the SW. The EEC was formed between 2.0 and 1.7 Ga entiated sills (e.g. Huhma et al., 2018), giving the minimum
by the successive collision of three once autonomous crustal segments depositional age. Samples A521 (arkose quartzite), A2119 (arkose
or blocks (e.g., Bogdanova et al., 2008). These segments or blocks are quartzite; Fig. 1A in App. D), and A2120 (mudstone) are from the Or-
Fennoscandia to the NW, Sarmatia to the S and Volgo-Uralia to the E, akoski formation (Fig. 1; Fig. 1 in App. A). It is composed mainly of
each of which comprises Archean and Proterozoic crusts (Fig. 1 insert). clast- to matrix-supported conglomerate, arkose quartzite with mud-
The Archean evolution of Fennoscandia can be traced back to ca. stone interbeds, forming a quite thick sequence above the Kuusamo
3.5–3.2 Ga, when a continental core was created in the present SE part. group. Samples A660 and A968 (paraschists) are from the Honkavaraa
Between 3.1 and 2.7 Ga several accretion events formed the larger formation, which is located on the SE-side of Kittilä village (Fig. 1;
Fenno-Karelian protocontinent, while minor continental blocks of that Fig. 1 in App. A). This formation is composed mostly of albitized
age occur farther NE (Bogdanova et al., 2008). From 2.5 to 2.1 Ga, the quartzite, siltstone, and paraschist.
Archean craton was rifted and disturbed, and eventually a wide passive The Savukoski group overlies the metasediments of the Sodankylä
margin developed along the present SW and S edges of the former group (Fig. 1; Fig. 1 in App. A). It consists of black schist and greywacke
craton (Lahtinen et al., 2005; Bogdanova et al., 2008). The formation of deposits in its bottom part, and ultramafic volcanics to mafic tuffite in
continental crust in present northern Fennoscandia took place during upper part of the unit. A minimum depositional age of 2.05 Ga is ob-
several episodes of accretion between ca. 1.95 and 1.88 Ga (e.g. tained from crosscutting diabase dikes (Huhma et al., 2018). The
Lahtinen et al., 2005). The main Paleoproterozoic orogenic evolution of 2.05 Ga Keivitsa layered intrusion (Mutanen, 1997) and the 2.15 Ga
Fennoscandia has been divided into the Lapland-Kola (1.94–1.86 Ga) Rantavaara gabbro were also emplaced into metasediments of the Sa-
and the composite Svecofennian (1.92–1.79 Ga) orogenies (Lahtinen vukoski group (Tyrväinen, 1983). The topmost unit, the Kumpu group,
et al., 2018). is composed mainly of conglomerate-quartzite associations and syn-
genetic felsic metavolcanics (Fig. 1 and Fig. 1. in App. A). Sample
3. Regional stratigraphy and samples A1573 (quartzite) is from the Pyhätunturi formation, which is mainly
composed of polymictic matrix-supported conglomerate with a mica-
The bedrock of northern Finland mainly contains the 3.5–2.5 Ga rich arkosic matrix (Fig. 1; Fig. 1 in App. A).
Archean basement and 2.5–1.9 Ga Paleoproterozoic supracrustal cover
(Fig. 1). The Paleoproterozoic cover can be divided into three different 3.1.2. Lithodemic units
volcanic-sedimentary successions: (i) the Central Lapland belt, (ii) the Samples A2333 and A2433 (arkose gneisses; Fig. 1B in App. D) are
Peräpohja belt, and (iii) the Kuusamo belt, which mainly form the rim from the Räväsjärvi suite (Fig. 1; Fig. 1 in App. A). The suite constitutes
of the Paleoproterozoic Central Lapland granitoid complex (CLGC) and an incoherent NE trending zone within the CLGC surrounded by gran-
several different Archean granitoid and tonalite-trondhjemite-grano- itoids. It is composed of migmatitic supracrustal rocks of mica/arkose
diorite (TTG) complexes intruded by 2.44 Ga intrusions (Fig. 1). All of gneiss, quartzite, and minor amphibolite. Samples A537 (arkose
2
Fig. 1. Simplified geological map of northern Finland. Detrital zircon sample locations are marked. CLB = Central Lapland belt, PB = Peräpohja belt, KB = Kuusamo
belt, CLGC = Central Lapland granitoid complex, LGB = Lapland granulite belt, 4 = Tuntsa suite, 5 = Ristivuoma, 6 = Nilipää granite suite, 7 = Sieppijärvi suite,
8 = Hosiojoki suite, 9 = Rovajärvi suite, 10 = Oikarila suite, 11 = Paskavaara suite, 12 = Pyhätunturi fm. 1–3 in figure legend. Insert (Baltica/East European
Craton): TESZ = Trans-European Suture Zone. Modified from the Bedrock of Finland – DigiKP (2019).
3
quartzite; Fig. 1C in App. D) and A1894 (quartzite) are from the Hai- formation, which is situated stratigraphically in the middle part of the
sujupukka suite, which rim the Sieppijärvi suite, CLGC and younger Kivalo group (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 in App. A), and it is mainly composed of
intrusives (Fig. 1; Fig. 1 in App. A). The lower part of the Haisujupukka mudstone/siltstone rocks, albite schist, and carbonate rocks. The for-
suite consists of arkose gneiss, which grade upwards into quartzite with mation is intruded by a ca. 2.14 Ga Kuusivaara mafic dyke, which
cross-bedding structures. provides its minimum depositional age (Huhma et al., 2018). The
Samples A194/A195 (mica-schist; Fig. 1D in App. D) and A1021 overlying continental flood basalts (Jouttiaapa formation) are dated
(sericite quartzite; Fig. 1E in App. D) are from the Vuojärvi suite, which roughly to 2103 ± 50 Ma (Huhma et al., 1990; Hanski, 2012). The
is situated between the CLGC in the S and the Sodankylä group in the N upper part of the Kivalo group is composed of the quartzite-rich
(Fig. 1; Fig. 1 in App. A). It is compose mainly from fuchsite-bearing Kvartsimaa formation, mafic tuffite units (Tikanmaa, Tuorevaara, and
quartzite and mica-schist with clearly visible planar-cross bedding and Hirsimaa formations), and the dolomitic and carbonate-bearing Ran-
occasional bi-polar cross-bedding sedimentary structures. Samples tamaa and Poikkimaa formations. Samples A1105 and A1106 (quart-
A961 (arkose quartzite) and A973 (paraschist) are from the Virttiövaara zites) are from the Kvartsimaa formation, whereas sample A2311
suite, which occurs in the area between the Sodankylä and Kittilä as an (quartzite) is from the Rantamaa formation, and A1108 (quartzite) from
E-W trending unit (Fig. 1; Fig. 1 in App. A). It is composed mostly of the Poikkimaa formation (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 in App. A). The associated
alternating beds of cross-bedded quartzite and ripple-marked to lami- tuffite unit (Hirsimaa formation) has been dated to 2106 ± 8 Ma
nated mudstone beds with a fining-upward sequence (Nikula, 1988). (Karhu et al., 2007) and gives a minimum age for the underlying units.
The Kittilä suite represents one of the largest accumulations of mafic Sample A720 (greywacke; Fig. 2B in App. D) is from the Karunki for-
metavolcanic rocks in the Fennoscandian Shield. It is cut by several pre- mation (Paakkola group) and it is composed almost exclusively of
thrusting felsic porphyries with an age of 2.01 Ga, and by 1.92 Ga post- greywacke and phyllitic rocks (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 in App. A).
thrusting granodioritic rocks (Huhma et al., 2018). Samples A2001
(sericite quartzite) and A2094 (paraschist) from the Pyhäjärvi and 3.2.2. Lithodemic units
Seurukarkea lithodemes form a narrow rim at the W and E side of the Sample A1992 (paragneiss; Fig. 2C in App. D) is from the Heraselkä
Kittilä suite (Fig. 1 and Fig. 1 in App. A). The Pyhäjärvi lithodeme suite, which is mainly composed of quartzite and paragneiss rocks
mostly comprises graphite-bearing phyllite, mica schist, and sericite (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 in App. A). Samples A2165 (paraschist) and A2166
quartzite, whereas the Seurukarkea lithodeme is mostly composed of (quartzite; Fig. 2D in App. D) are from the Mellajoki suite, which is
graphite-bearing paraschist. Samples A1996 and A1997 (arkose quart- located in the northern margin of the PB (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 in App. A).
zites; Fig. 1F in App. D) are from the Sieppijärvi suite (Fig. 1 and Fig. 1 The Mellajoki suite is composed mainly of quartzite, mica schist, and
in App. A). Lahtinen et al. (2015b) considered it as part of the Rova- partly mylonitic quartz-feldspar gneiss (e.g. Ranta et al., 2015).
niemi supersuite. It covers a large area W of the CLB, bordered by ca. The Martimo suite is divided into three main lithodemic units
1.88 Ga intrusive granitoid suites in the N, and Archean suites in the N- (Liekopalo, Väystäjä, and Kaskimaa), which are considered to be au-
E. It consists of a variety of migmatitic rocks and paleosomes that are tochthonous-parautochthonous (Lahtinen et al., 2015a, 2019; Fig. 1
mainly metasedimentary gneiss in origin. and Fig. 2 in App. A). Sample A2134 (conglomerate matrix) is from the
graphite- and Fe-sulfide-bearing Liekopalo lithodeme, which represent
3.2. Peräpohja belt (PB) the lowermost part of the Martimo suite. The overlying bimodal
Väystäjä lithodeme is mostly composed of pillowed tholeiitic basalt
The PB is located between the Archean basement complex, which accompanied with minor tuffite. It is intruded by a 2.08 Ga mafic dyke
lies to the SE, and the CLGC, which lies to the N-NE, and forms a tri- (Huhma et al., 2018) and by 2.05 Ga felsic porphyry (Perttunen and
angular belt of well-preserved volcanic-sedimentary successions (Fig. 1 Vaasjoki, 2001), giving the upper age limit for the surrounding volcanic
and Fig. 2 in App. A). The western margin of the belt is defined by an N- rocks. In addition, the Väystäjä is associated with a small amount of
S-trending Pajala shear zone (Kärki et al., 1993; Lahtinen et al., 2015b). sedimentary rock, including dolomites with a normal 13C composition
The maximum depositional age for the PB is ca. 2.44 Ga, constrained by favoring a depositional age of < 2.06 Ga (Ranta et al., 2015 and ref.
the mafic layered intrusions in the boundary between the Archean therein). Sample A1571 (greywacke; Fig. 2E in App. D) is from the
complex and PB succession, while its minimum age is determined by Kaskimaa lithodeme (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 in App. A), which has tradi-
the 1.88 Ga synorogenic granitoids (Perttunen and Vaasjoki, 2001; tionally been correlated with the Karunki formation, but the current
Ranta et al., 2015). Kyläkoski et al. (2012) established the most recent interpretation separates these rock associations from each other
lithostratigraphic frame for the Kivalo group. Since then, Lahtinen et al. (Lahtinen et al., 2015b and ref. therein; this study).
(2015a, 2015b, 2019), and Ranta et al. (2015) have discussed the The rocks assigned to the Rovaniemi supersuite cover a large area in
stratigraphic position of the lithodemic units in the area. A total of 20 the western and central part of Lapland (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 in App. A),
detrital zircon samples (Fig. 2 in App. A and App. B) and 85 whole-rock which are partly bimodal volcanic and partly epiclastic in origin (cf.
samples (App. C) are derived from the PB. Hanski et al., 2005). Sample A2030 (paragneiss) is from the Hosiojoki
suite, sample A1569 (arkose gneiss) from the Rovajärvi suite, and
3.2.1. Lithostratigraphic units samples A1570 (paraschist) and A1438 (arkose quartzite) from the
The Kivalo group is composed of diverse 2.38–2.10 Ga supracrustal Oikarila suite, which are all part of the Rovaniemi supersuite (Fig. 1).
formations including abundant metasedimentary associations, and Sample A2167 (greywacke; Fig. 2F in App. D) is from the Uusivirka
some mafic volcanics intruded by 2.22 Ga, 2.14 Ga, 2.13 Ga mafic sills suite (Ristivuoma), which comprises a quite large area of greywacke
and dykes (Kyläkoski et al., 2012; Huhma et al., 2018). Basal con- and phyllitic deposits bordered mostly by the Martimo and Mellajoki
glomerates of the Sompujärvi formation lie on the Archean basement suites (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 in App. A).
complex and locally on remnants of the 2.44 Ga mafic-ultramafic
layered intrusion. The overlying subaerial basalts have a minimum age 3.3. Kuusamo belt (KB)
of ca. 2.25 Ga (Huhma et al., 1990), which are in turn overlain by the
Palokivalo formation. Samples A1103 (Fig. 2A in App. D), A1104, The KB is situated in eastern Finland, between the Archean base-
A1107, and A2168 (quartzites) are from this unit (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 in ment complexes in the S and granitoids of the CLGC in the NW (Fig. 1
App. A). The quartzite dominated Palokivalo formation is intruded by and Fig. 3 in App. A). A total of 6 detrital zircon samples (Fig. 2 in App.
ca. 2.22 Ga mafic sills (Perttunen and Vaasjoki, 2001; Hanski et al., A and App. B) and 16 whole-rock samples (App. C) are derived from the
2010), which gives the minimum depositional age for the unit. KB.
Sample A2089 (sericite quartzite) is from the Petäjäskoski The stratigraphy of the KB has been mainly established by
4
Silvennoinen (1972), which has been later modified by others e.g. recycled zircons from old sedimentary rocks. For example, the Pu-
Huhma et al. (2018). The stratigraphy is best known along its SE-SW dasjärvi and Lentua complexes (Fig. 1) are characterized by ages from
margin where the volcanic-sedimentary sequence starts with the Posio 2.95 to 2.73 Ga (Hölttä et al., 2012). The Jergul gneiss-granitoid com-
suite quartzites and paragneisses. Samples A2043, A2045, A2046 plex in northern Norway, which is interpreted to be an extension of the
(sericite quartzite; Fig. 3A in App. D) and A2047 (paraschist; Fig. 3B in Hetta complex in northern Finland, is dated between ca. 2.97 and
App. D) are from the Posio suite (Fig. 1 and Fig. 3 in App. A). The Salla 2.77 Ga (Bingen et al., 2015), (Fig. 1). In the northern Fennoscandian
group felsic volcanics occurs as a narrow NE trending rim, or a thicker Shield, the only known provenances related into Archean mafic-ultra-
accumulation of felsic volcanics in the eastern side of the KB (Fig. 1 and mafic source rocks are 2.90–2.80 Ga ultramafic komatiites and Fe- and
Fig. 3 in App. A). Sample A906 (paraschist) is from the Sirniö forma- Mg-tholeiitic basalts of the Tulppio suite (Fig. 1) and Goldenvárri
tion, which is the topmost unit of the Salla group in the KB (Fig. 1 and greenstone-schist formation, in N Norway, with an age bracketed be-
Fig. 3 in App. A). The formation is mainly composed of volcanic tween 2.86 and 2.80 Ga (Bingen et al., 2015).
breccia-conglomerates and felsic-intermediate volcanics. The overlying Mafic dykes (2.3–2.1 Ga) are common in the Archean granitoid-
Kuusamo group starts with a polymictic breccia conglomerates and gneiss complexes, however extrusive rocks are not observed at current
associated mafic volcanic rocks. The U-Pb age of 2405 ± 6 Ma age erosion levels (Bedrock of Finland – DigiKP, 2019). This indicates that
(Huhma et al., 2018 and ref. therein) from the volcanic conglomerate the present erosion level of granitoid-gneiss complexes often represents
clast gives the maximum sedimentation age for the Kuusamo group. The deeper parts of the crust at that time period and that Archean sedi-
Sodankylä group consists of similar rock associations to the CLB, which mentary rocks and possible Paleoproterozoic flood basalts could have
are cut by a 2.2 Ga mafic dyke. The Sodankylä group is overlain by been important source rocks for the age period 2.3–2.1 Ga. For ex-
black schists, mafic tuffs, and carbonate rocks of the Savukoski group. ample, the Kaskimaa lithodeme and Räväsjärvi suite have both a large
Sample 4/190KL91 (conglomerate clast) is from the Himmerkinlahti Paleoproterozoic mafic source component based on Sm-Nd (Kaskimaa
(Kumpu group), which is a very small area of outcrop within the KB A1571, Lahtinen et al., 2019; Räväsjärvi A2433, Lahtinen unpublished
(Fig. 1 and Fig. 3 in App. A). It is composed of conglomerate-sandstone data) and geochemical data (this study). Neoarchean collisional crustal
associations and forms the topmost unit in the KB. stacking at around 2.73–2.68 Ga and metamorphism at 2.70–2.60 Ga
(Hölttä et al., 2012) could then represent sources for the 2.70–2.63 Ga
4. Methods of analysis and results detrital zircons and collisional type detritus through recycling of the
Archean granite-migmatite belts.
The U-Pb analysis were performed at the GTK using a Nu Plasma HR
multicollector ICPMS combined with a New Wave UP193 or Photon 4.1.2. Paleoproterozoic ages
Machine Analyte G2 laser microprobe and Nu Plasma AttoM single 2.25–2.22 Ga: The population aged 2.25–2.22 Ga is rare and can be
collector ICPMS connected to a Photon Machine Excite laser ablation only found from the Kumpu group in the CLB and KB (Figs. 2 and 4).
system. TIMS U-Pb data were obtained using the multi-grain ID-TIMS The widespread 2.25–2.22 Ga magmatism in northern Finland is mainly
method and U-Th-Pb analyses of zircons in sample 4/190KL91 were related to 2.22 Ga layered mafic-ultramafic sills and intrusions, which
done using the Cameca IMS 1280 ion-microprobe (NORDSIM). Major often lie parallel to related metasedimentary units (e.g.; Huhma et al.,
and trace element analysis were performed on selected samples in the 1990, 2018; Vuollo and Huhma, 2005; Hanski et al., 2010). According
laboratories of the Labtium Oy, by using the XRF from pressed bri- to Huhma et al. (2018), the age of the lowermost volcanic unit in the PB
quettes and ICPMS methods from solution. Detrital zircon morphology (Runkaus formation) is between 2.44 and 2.25 Ga and possible similar
from the selected age determined samples was studied by using the ages could also be found in the Kuusamo group mafic rocks. However,
scanning electron microscope (SEM) and analyzing back-scattered considering the trace element geochemistry and felsic source rock
electron images (BSE). A detailed description of the geochemical ana- nature for the Kumpu group deposits (discussed later), it is possible that
lyses and zircon morphology studies is given in App. E. coeval felsic magmatism occurred in the northern Fennoscandian
Shield, providing the sources for the sedimentary deposits. The global
4.1. Detrital zircon geochronology and provenances geological record ca. 2.3–2.2 Ga demonstrates a tectono-magmatic lull
or shutdown, which was characterized by the decreasing activity of
U-Pb geochronology data is based on new data on new sampling, global-scale continental magmatism and orogenic activity (Spencer
new ICPMS data on existing samples and a compilation of existing data et al., 2018). The absence of 2.30–2.20 Ga detrital zircons is notable in
(see App. B). U-Pb geochronology data and probability plots from the the CLB, PB, and KB before the onset of thrust belt development at ca.
45 metasedimentary samples (Fig. 1 and App. B) are presented in 1.92–1.88 Ga (discussed later). This can be seen as population peaks ca.
Table 1 and Figs. 2–4, and in supplementary App. F, G, and H. All the 2.30–2.20 in the Kumpu group (CLB and KB), the Paakkola group (PB),
zircon grains that contained high levels of common lead were excluded and the Uusivirka suite (PB) deposits (Figs. 2–4).
from the calculations. Table 1 summarizes the analytical results based 2.13–2.10 Ga: Populations aged between 2.13 and 2.10 Ga can be
on 207Pb/206Pb data and provides the population age range, major age found in the Pyhätunturi (CLB) and Poikkimaa formations (PB) (Figs. 2
peaks, and maximum depositional ages for each sample and unit. and 4). In the Pyhätunturi formation the majority of the population
analyzed (∼64%) are of this age. Considering the felsic source rock
4.1.1. Archean ages nature, it is likely that intrusion of voluminous 2.13–2.10 Ga Nilipää
The Archean population ages are commonly clustered between 3.00 suite granites, inside the CLGC, played an important role in the pro-
and 2.70 Ga, where the 2.75– 2.70 and 2.86–2.80 Ga ages form a major venance of both units (Fig. 1).
population peaks in all studied belts (Figs. 2–4). The range of 2.05–2.00 Ga: Populations aged between 2.05 and 2.00 Ga forms
3.00–2.70 Ga ages corresponds to a major global crustal building period the majority of the population for the Seurukarkea and Pyhäjärvi li-
in the northern Fennoscandian Shield and Superior and North Atlantic thodemes (Fig. 2). Based on trace element geochemistry (this study),
cratons (Corfu and Stott, 1993; Hölttä et al., 2008). In particular, both units represents multicomponent sources (felsic-mafic). Coeval
Neoarchean igneous rocks of 2.75–2.65 Ga dominate the Fennoscandian magmatism of felsic porphyries and mafic intrusions with an age group
Shield (Hölttä et al., 2008). of 2.05–2.00 Ga does exist, particularly within the Kittilä suite and
Considering the geochemistry (discussed later) and bedrock of the Savukoski group (Fig. 1; Rastas et al., 2001; Räsänen & Huhma 2001;
northern Fennoscandian Shield, it can be estimated that the majority of Huhma et al., 2018). Therefore, it is possible that both of these units
the Archean age populations are derived from complexes of granitoid/ derived material from local sources.
TTG rocks (Fig. 1), including igneous first-cycle zircons and multiply 1.99–1.97 Ga: The Rovaniemi supersuite in the CLB and PB is
5
Table 1
J. Köykkä, et al.
Analytical results of detrital zircon samples from the CLB, PB and KB with a population age range, major age peaks and maximum depositional ages based on 207Pb/206Pb data. < 10% discord. = number of grains/total
grains within < 10% central discordance; MaxDepAge = Maximum depositional age inferred from the probability density plots. Rss = Rovaniemi supersuite. TIMS data provides an upper intercept age from the sample.
Sample Geological unit < 10% disc. Age range Age peak(s) (Ga) MaxDep Age Note
Central Lapland belt

A2333 Räväsjärvi suite 49/86 2.90–2.57 Ga 2.77, 2.70, 2.65 2.57 Ga
A2433 Räväsjärvi suite 32/46 2.96–2.53 Ga 2.81, 2.70 2.53 Ga
A1894 Haisujupukka suite 44/50 3.16–2.63 Ga 2.83, 2.70 2.63 Ga
A537 Haisujupukka suite 41/41 2.99–2.71 Ga 2.83, 2.71 2.71 Ga
A194 Vuojärvi suite 36/39 2.88–2.70 Ga 2.85, 2.63 2.70 Ga A194 (TIMS) = 2774 ± 29 Ma (MSWD = 16, n = 4); A195 (TIMS) = 2834 ± 95 Ma (MSWD = 35, n = 5)
A1021 Vuojärvi suite 46/47 3.25–2.66 Ga 2.90, 2.85, 2.76 2.66 Ga
A961 Virttiövaara suite 41/43 2.95–2.73 Ga 2.87, 2.80, 2.76 2.73 Ga A961 (TIMS) = 2799 ± 12 Ma (MSWD = 58, n = 7)
A973 Virttiövaara suite 48/50 3.03–2.59 Ga 2,75, 2.71, 2.67 2.59 Ga A973 (TIMS) = 2988 ± 260 Ma (MSWD = 4.8, n = 6)
A521 Sodankylä gp/Orakoski fm 45/50 3.17–2.33 Ga 2.86, 2.76, 2.72 2.33 Ga
A2119 Sodankylä gp/Orakoski fm 41/49 2.86–2.74 Ga 2.86, 2.74 2.74 Ga
A2120 Sodankylä gp/Orakoski fm 36/43 3.12–2.64 Ga 2.79, 2.74 2.64 Ga
A660 Sodankylä gp/Honkavaara fm 90/100 3.52–2.35 Ga 2.70 2.35 Ga A660 (TIMS) = 2721 ± 3.6 Ma (MSWD = 2.4, n = 5)
A968 Sodankylä gp/Honkavaara fm 30/36 3.23–2.65 Ga 2.84, 2.71, 2.65 2.65 Ga A968 (TIMS) = 2723 ± 8 Ma (MSWD = 2.5, n = 3)
A2001 Kittilä suite/Pyhäjärvi 55/59 2.80–2.01 Ga 2.76, 2.04 2.01 Ga
A2094 Kittilä suite/Seurukarkea 34/36 3.63–2.03 Ga 2.03 2.03 Ga Metamorphic over-growths and domains ca. 1.90 Ga
A1996 Rss/Sieppijärvi suite 23/24 1.99 Ga 1.99 1.99 Ga Dominated by one population
A1997 Rss/Sieppijärvi suite 54/59 3.53–1.99 Ga 1.99 1.99 Ga Metamorphic over-growths and domains ca. 1.90 Ga; Four analyses ca. 1.90 Ga ages with-out clear connection to overgrowths
A1573 Kumpu gp/Pyhätunturi fm 47/47 2.98–2.13 Ga 2.13 2.13 Ga Metamorphic over-growths and domains ca. 1.90 Ga
Peräpohja belt
6
A1992 Heraselkä suite 40/46 3.10–2.58 Ga 2.81, 2.71 2.58 Ga
A1104 Kivalo gp/Palokivalo fm 46/50 3.41–2.67 Ga 2.73 2.67 Ga A1104 (TIMS) = 2797 ± 3 Ma (MSWD = 2.9, n = 3)
A1107 Kivalo gp/Palokivalo fm 23/30 3.25–2.65 Ga 2.96, 2.74 2.65 Ga
A2168 Kivalo gp/Palokivalo fm 49/49 3.63–2.68 Ga 2.73, 2.68 2.68 Ga
A2165 Mellajoki suite 43/48 2.85–2.36 Ga 2.72, 2.68, 2.64 2.36 Ga
A2166 Mellajoki suite 61/61 3.35–2.62 Ga 3.10, 2.90, 2.72 2.62 Ga
A2089 Kivalo gp/Petäjäskoski fm 43/44 3.48–2.72 Ga 3.00, 2.72 2.72 Ga
A1105 Kivalo gp/Kvartsimaa fm 22/32 3.53–2.66 Ga 2.71, 2.66 2.66 Ga
A1106 Kivalo gp/Kvartsimaa fm 89/91 3.67–2.65 Ga 2.72, 2.65 2.65 Ga
A2311 Kivalo gp/Rantamaa fm 24/24 3.19–2.65 Ga 2.75, 2.72, 2.65 2.65 Ga
A1108 Kivalo gp/Poikkimaa fm 82/83 3.68–2.13 Ga 2.65, 2.13 2.13 Ga A1108 (TIMS) = 2894 ± 130 Ma (MSWD = 31, n = 3)
A2134 Martimo suite/Liekopalo 59/60 3.53–2.66 Ga 2.72, 2.66 2.66 Ga
A1571 Martimo suite/Kaskimaa 21/21 2.99–1.99 Ga 2.70 1.99 Ga Only one grain with age of 1.99 Ga (2.70 Ga?)
A2030 Rss/Hosiojoki suite 21/24 1.98 Ga 1.98 1.98 Ga Dominated by one population
A1569 Rss/Rovajärvi suite 21/25 1.99 Ga 1.99 1.99 Ga Dominated by one population
A1438 Rss/Oikarila suite 28/30 1.97 Ga 1.97 1.97 Ga Dominated by one population; Metamorphic over-growths and domains ca. 1.90 Ga
A1570 Rss/Oikarila suite 19/20 1.98 Ga 1.98 1.98 Ga Dominated by one population; Metamorphic over-growths and domains ca. 1.90 Ga
A720 Paakkola gp/Karunki fm 35/36 3.46–1.94 Ga 2.74, 2.10, 1.94 1.94 Ga
A2167 Uusivirka suite/Ristivuoma 43/45 3.07–1.92 Ga 2.71, 2.08, 1.92 1.92 Ga
Kuusamo belt
A2043 Posio suite 53/58 3.32–2.64 Ga 2.69 2.64 Ga
A2045 Posio suite 40/41 2.99–2.65 Ga 2.90, 2.69, 2.65 2.65 Ga
A2046 Posio suite 43/47 3.34–2.67 Ga 2.83, 2.67 2.67 Ga
A2047 Posio suite 30/32 3.63–2.60 Ga 2.74 2.60 Ga
A906 Salla gp/Sirniö fm 31/41 2.97–2.73 Ga 2.73 2.73 Ga A906 (TIMS) = 2796 ± 14 Ma (MSWD = 16, n = 6)
4/190KL91 Kumpu gp/Himmerkinlahti 13/13 2.91–1.87 Ga 2.74, 2.23, 1.90 1.87 Ga
Fig. 2. Probability plots based on detrital zircons 207Pb/206Pb ages from the CLB (A-H). GTM LULL = Global tectono-magmatic shutdown (2.2–2.3 Ga). Zircon grains
with < 10% central discordancy were accepted for the probability density diagrams. Pie charts represents age group distribution of the analytical results in %, which
are divided into < 1.88, 1.88–1.91, 1.91–1.96, 1.96–2.50, and > 2.50 Ga.
7
207
Fig. 3. Probability plots based on detrital zircons Pb/206Pb ages from the PB (A–H).
8
207
Fig. 4. Probability plots based on detrital zircons Pb/206Pb ages from the KB (A–C).
composed almost solely of a population aged between 1.99 and 1.97 Ga A total of 13 samples and 485 zircon grains were studied from the
(Figs. 2 and 3). Lahtinen et al. (2015a) suggested either a volcanic or a CLB, six samples and 305 zircon grains from the PB and five samples
hypabyssal origin, and possibly a single source for metasedimentary and 183 zircon grains from the KB. Results of the zircon morphology
rocks of the Rovaniemi supersuite. It is likely that granitoid rocks of the studies are summarized in Table 2 and in App. I. Based on the presented
CLGC played an important role for this provenance area (Fig. 1). Ranta data it seems that clearly rounded zircon grains are mainly Archean in
et al. (2015) reported that the ca. 1.99 Ga Kierovaara granite pluton age, whereas angular grains are notably mainly Paleoproterozoic in age
(within the CLGC) represents the first example of felsic plutonism of (Table 2 and Fig. 1A–L in App. D). The age range of rounded grains is
this age in northern Finland. mainly clustered between 3.0 and 2.7 Ga and for angular grains it
1.93–1.92 Ga: Populations aged between 1.93 and 1.92 Ga can be mainly varies from 2.9 to 2.7 and 2.2 to 1.9 Ga. Especially in the first-
found from the Karunki formation and Ristivuoma lithodeme in the PB, cycle sediments of the alluvial systems, detrital zircon grains tend to
and Himmerkinlahti (Kumpu group) in the KB. These ages can be preserve their original morphology, whereas highly rounded detrital
commonly found in the granitoids and related felsic rocks within or zircon grains have undergone either extreme alluvial or eolian re-
near the LGB (Fig. 1). 1.93–1.92 Ga felsic magmatism in the LGB is working, and have been recycled multiple times (e.g. Dill, 2007; Shao
probably related to felsic dikes and granodioritic plutons within the et al., 2016; Zoleikhaei et al., 2016). More angular zircon grains imply
Kittilä suite (Rastas et al., 2001; Hanski and Huhma, 2005). limited transport from their source region (e.g. Shao et al., 2016).
1.90–1.86 Ga: The majority of the populations of the
Himmerkinlahti (Kumpu group) in the KB have ages clustered around 4.3. Whole-rock geochemistry
1.90–1.86 Ga (Fig. 4) and this age frame has matching sources all
around northern Fennoscandia. In NE Sweden voluminous plutonic The geochemical composition of metasedimentary rocks is a com-
rocks intruded at ca 1.90–1.87 Ga (e.g. Bergman et al., 2002, 2006). plex system driven primarily by tectonic setting. It has been successfully
Bingen et al. (2015) reported 1.88–1.86 Ga felsic magmatism of grani- used for paleoweathering evaluation, paleotectonic reconstruction, and
toid complexes and granitoid plutons from the Finnmarksvidda (N provenance studies of recent and ancient sedimentary basins (e.g.
Norway). Lahtinen et al. (2018) reported ≤ 1.88 Ga granitoids from the Cullers et al., 1988; Mclennan et al., 1993; Cullers, 2000; Kasanzu et al.,
Aalistunturi granite suite (also age of the Haaparanta suite) within the 2008; Köykkä, 2011; Verma and Armstrong-Altrin, 2013. The analytical
CLGB, and ca. 1.90–1.88 Ga ages from the granite-diorite rocks within results from the samples are given in App. C.
the LGB (Fig. 1).
4.3.1. Major elements
4.2. Detrital zircon morphology Selected average and range variation of major element ratios is
given in Table 3. Samples from the CLB have mainly intermediate to
For robust and resistant minerals, such as zircon, the roundness relatively high average levels of SiO2 (69–73%), intermediate average
morphology index (RI) from various sedimentary environments (e.g. values of Al2O3 (12–15%), low to intermediate average levels of
alluvial-marine-eolian) of different ages can be used to study their CaO + K2O + Na2O (1.6–10.9%), and low to intermediate average le-
physical transportation processes (e.g. Pupin, 1980; Dill, 2007; Dill and vels of ferromagnesian elements (2.3–13.4%). Notably for the CLB the
Klosa, 2011; Dill et al., 2012; Gärtner et al., 2013; Shao et al., 2016; average SiO2 content in samples from the Seurukarkea and Pyhäjärvi
Zoleikhaei et al., 2016). Thus, the RI can be seen as a function of au- lithodemes is ∼62–63%, whereas samples from the Pyhätunturi for-
togenic and allogenic systems in a basin evolution, such as transpor- mation have an average value of 92%. A relatively high average value
tation, deposition, and the recycling processes of the sedimentary en- of the CaO + K2O + Na2O (∼11%) in the Honkavaraa formation in-
vironment. In this study our focus is on clearly rounded and angular dicates increasing Ca content due to carbonates and Na content
detrital zircon grains (Fig. 1A–L in App. E). (8.6–9.2%) probably due to albitization of the paraschist samples.
9
Table 2
Zircon morphology studies from the CLB, PB and KB based on SEM and BSE images of the age determined zircon grains. Zircon grains with < 10% central dis-
cordancy were accepted for the studies. Rss = Rovaniemi supersuite. ang. = angular; rnd. = rounded.
Sample(s) Geological unit n = grains tot. ang. grains Main ang. ages tot. rnd. grains Main rnd. ages
Central Lapland belt

A2333, A2433 Räväsjärvi suite 73 4% 2.70–2.90 Ga 27% 2.60–2.90 Ga
A537 Haisujupukka suite 41 none 17% 2.80–3.00 Ga
A1021 Vuojärvi suite 47 9% 2.70–2.90 Ga 23% 2.70–3.10 Ga
A961 Virttiövaara suite 31 16% 2.70–2.80 Ga 36% 2.70–3.00 Ga
A521, A2119, A2120 Sodankylä gp/Orakoski fm 124 30% 2.60–2.90 Ga 6% 2.70–3.15 Ga
A968 Sodankylä gp/Honkavaara fm 17 6% 2.80 Ga none
A2001 Kittilä suite/Pyhäjärvi 39 39% 2.00–2.05 Ga, 2.70–2.85 Ga 6% 2.50 Ga, 2.80 Ga
A2094 Kittilä suite/Seurukarkea 33 36% 2.00–2.30 Ga, 2.70–2.90 Ga 12% 2.45 Ga, 2.75–2.85 Ga
A1997 Rss/Sieppijärvi suite 47 17% 1.97–2.00 Ga,2.30–2.55 Ga none
A1573 Kumpu gp/Pyhätunturi fm 33 28% 2.10–2.25 Ga 4% 2.90 Ga
Peräpohja belt
A1104, A1107 Kivalo gp/Palokivalo fm 69 none 42% 2.70–3.10 Ga, 3.45 Ga
A2089 Kivalo gp/Petäjäskoski fm 41 17% 2.70–2.80 Ga, 2.95 Ga 27% 2.70–3.45 Ga
A1106 Kivalo gp/Kvartsimaa fm 89 2% 2.75 Ga 47% 2.70–3.70 Ga
A2311 Kivalo gp/Rantamaa fm 24 29% 2.65–2.75 Ga 17% 2.85–3.20 Ga
A1108 Kivalo gp/Poikkimaa fm 82 2% 2.75 Ga 47% 2.70–3.00 Ga, 3.45–3.55 Ga
Kuusamo belt
A2043, A2045, A2046, A2047 Posio suite 155 1% 2.60–2.65 Ga 29% 2.65–3.35 Ga
A906 Salla gp/Sirniö fm 28 14% 2.70–2.80 Ga none
Samples from the PB have mainly relatively high average levels of SiO2 plagioclase (Kasanzu et al., 2008; Köykkä, 2011). According to Kasanzu
(70–86%), intermediate average values of Al2O3 (8–15%), low to in- et al. (2008) and Köykkä (2011), a negative Sr anomaly is also sug-
termediate average levels of CaO + K2O + Na2O (0.1–9.7%), and low gestive of recycled environments. The Palokivalo formation, the Hos-
to relatively high average levels of ferromagnesian elements iojoki and the Rovajärvi suite (PB) are clearly depleted in Cr, Ni, Co and
(0.4–18.3%). Exceptions are the Kvartsimaa and Poikkimaa formations, V, which could indicate lesser amounts of Al2O3 and probably felsic
which have an average SiO2 content of 97–98%. Average SiO2 content detritus from the provenance sources (Kasanzu et al., 2008). In sedi-
in samples from the Petäjäskoski and Karunki formations, and Uusi- mentary rocks, Cr and Ni constitute clay minerals and also occur in
virka (Ristivuoma) and Oikarila suites is generally lower than other chlorite and ferromagnesian minerals, which can be seen as enrichment
units in the PB (60–64%). It is also reflected in intermediate average in some of the samples and units. Variations and depletion in contents
levels of Al2O3 (13–15%), intermediate average values of especially of Rb, Ba, Zn, Co, Nb, Ta, Sc, U, and La-Nd indicate a me-
CaO + K2O + Na2O (6–10%), and high average values of ferromagne- tamorphic/diagenetic fluid alteration of the rock and/or recycling of
sian elements (12–18%). Samples from the KB (Posio suite and Sirniö the material, variations in grain-size fractions, and hydraulic sorting. A
formation) have intermediate average levels of SiO2 (72–78%), and minor enrichment of Cu in the Vuojärvi and Virttiövaara suites (CLB)
intermediate average values of Al2O3 (11–15%), CaO + K2O + Na2O possibly reflects a more mafic detritus. The V content in some samples
(6.2–7.1%), and ferromagnesian elements (4.5–6.0%). from the Orakoski and Pyhäjärvi formations, and Vuojärvi, Virttiö-
vaara, Sieppijärvi suites (CLB) and from the Petäjäskoski formation,
4.3.2. Trace elements Oikarila suite, and Kaskimaa and Ristivuoma lithodemes (PB) is relative
The elemental ratios of La/Sc, Th/Sc, La/Co, Th/Co, and Cr/Th can high (> 200 ppm), which reflects the abundance of clay minerals and
be used to evaluate source rock composition of the metasedimentary the presence of hydrous oxides of Fe and Mn (Fernandes et al., 2016).
rocks, which are shown as elemental ratio variations based on the felsic Comparing the total average values as chondrite normalized REE
and mafic sources (e.g. Cullers et al., 1988; Condie, 1993; Cullers, 2000; patterns (Fig. 5C, D), the distribution mainly shows a slope of LREE
Cullers and Podkovyrov, 2000; McLennan, 2001). Selected average and enrichment (La-Gd), flat HREE (Tb-Lu) and negative Eu anomalies. This
range variation of trace element ratios are given in Table 3. indicates that LREE have a low-medium fractionation, whereas HREE
In the CLB, the average ΣREE contents falls mainly between 127 and indicates weak fractionation. REE patterns suggest derivation from an
359 ppm, with ΣLREE/ΣHREE (light rare-earth elements/heavy rare- UCC composed chiefly of felsic components, which is typical for sedi-
earth elements) giving average values of 3.5–7.6 ppm. The Honkavaara mentary rocks (e.g. Fernandes et al., 2016). Excluding the clearly de-
and Pyhätunturi formations are depleted in ΣREE (average < 72 ppm), pleted elements, the trend lines fall between the Archean-Proterozoic
and the Honkavaara formation has a quite low average ΣREE/ΣHREE sandstones and shales (Condie, 1993; Fig. 5A–D).
value of 1.62. In the PB, the average ΣREE contents falls mainly be-
tween 119 and 328 ppm, with ΣLREE/ΣHREE average values of 4.3.3. Weathering trends
2.7–4.8 ppm, except for the Palokivalo formation, which is depleted in The indications of possible source weathering are crucial to un-
ΣREE (56 ppm). For the KB, the average ΣREE contents falls between derstand the evolution of Precambrian sedimentary successions.
134 and 113 ppm, with ΣLREE/ΣHREE average values of 4.0–7.2 ppm. However, caution is needed when interpreting geochemical data from
Considering the relatively high SiO2 contents of the Pyhätunturi for- metamorphic rocks, because of post-depositional alteration processes.
mation (CLB) (avg. 91.50%) and the Palokivalo formation (PB) (avg. The Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) by Nesbitt and Young (1982)
83.47%), the low ΣREE contents can be attributed to quartz dilution has been used for evaluating source area paleoweathering and paleo-
(Taylor and McLennan, 1985), whereas for the Honkavaraa formation climate (Fig. 6A, B) and it has been successfully used to Precambrian
(CLB) low ΣREE contents probably reflect rock alteration. metamorphosed rocks (e.g. Kasanzu et al., 2008; Cullers and
Compared to the Upper Continental Crust (UCC) (Fig. 5A, B), Podkovyrov, 2000; Köykkä, 2011). The CIA index is calculated using
average total values show a depletion in Sr, which suggest depletion by the formula: CIA = 100 × [Al2O3/(Al2O3 + CaO* + Na2O + K2O)].
parent rock weathering and/or that the source rock was poor in CaO* is the form of Ca present in the silicate fraction only, after
10
Table 3
Selected average and range variation of element ratios from studied units in the CLB, PB, and KB (major elements and CIA in %; trace elements in ppm). Maf. suggest mafic source rocks, whereas fel. suggest felsic source
rocks (modified from Condie, 1993; Cullers et al., 1998; Cullers, 2000; Cullers and Podkovyrov, 2000; McLennan, 2001). Number of analyzed samples in App. C. a. = average value; r. = minimum and maximum value.
J. Köykkä, et al.
Unit CLB Räväsjärvi suite Haisujupukka suite Vuojärvi Virtitövaara Sodankylä gp Sodankylä gp Kittilä suite Kittilä suite Sieppijärvi suite Kumpu gp
suite suite Orakoski Honkavaara Seurukarkea Pyhäjärvi Pyhätunturi
SiO2 a. 73.63 73.26 67.95 68.78 74.13 69.98 63.28 61.88 69.95 91.50
SiO2 r. 57.00–81.10 58.30–91.20 43.30–90.80 36.63–87.20 52.30–96.50 60.43–88.00 54.00–77.20 47.30–77.71 56.20–87.50 90.70–92.30
Al2O3 a. 13.11 12.63 14.61 12.29 13.38 12.11 16.47 13.51 12.58 4.07
Al2O3 r. 9.07–20.80 4.71–21.10 3.45–21.90 6.98–21.00 1.61–24.90 6.59–15.28 11.00–21.10 10.36–18.60 6.49–15.70 3.83–4.31
CIA a. 64.01 64.31 69.81 64.14 70.85 54.75 68.43 61.29 57.06 72.62
CIA r. 60.52–72.27 60.62–71.77 53.35–81.08 36.74–79.00 59.79–83.40 47.77–62.58 59.73–72.73 49.45–74.45 29.65–62.04 68.09–77.16
La/Sc a. 3.80 (fel.) 6.90 (fel.) 15.60 (fel.) 9.40 (fel.) 39.80 (fel.) 0.60 (maf.) 2.60 (fel.) 2.30 (fel.) 12.30 (fel.) 3.50 (fel.)
La/Sc r. 1.43–3.83 1.80–6.85 0.89–15.64 2.35–9.41 0.67–39.77 0.24–0.64 0.85–2.56 0.09–2.32 0.45–12.26 3.07–3.46
Th/Sc a. 0.46 (maf.) 1.01 (fel.) 1.38 (fel.) 1.42 (fel.) 3.17 (fel.) 1.44 (fel.) 0.93 (fel.) 0.35 (maf.) 2.99 (fel.) 1.19 (fel.)
Th/Sc r. 0.07–0.73 0.62–1.63 0.32–5.43 0.58–3.09 0.46–7.70 0.94–1.94 0.68–1.70 0.01–0.67 0.11–8.15 0.99–1.40
La/Co a. 2.91 (fel.) 2.58 (fel.) 8.58 (fel.) 2.53 (fel.) 2.90 (fel.) 1.10 (fel.) 2.08 (fel.) 1.32 (fel.) 6.62 (fel.) 4.58 (fel.)
La/Co r. 1.07–5.83 0.90–3.52 0.64–68.53 1.23–3.38 0.39–9.06 0.48–1.72 0.87–2.61 0.09–2.85 0.54–20.81
Th/Co a. 0.91 (maf.) 0.81 (maf.) 2.67 (fel.) 0.92 (maf.) 1.09 (maf.) 3.52 (fel.) 0.95 (maf.) 0.40 (maf.) 3.69 (fel.) 1.31 (maf.)
Th/Co r. 0.05–2.16 0.31–1.24 0.14–23.78 0.53–1.61 0.29–3.07 1.84–5.20 0.73–1.74 0.01–0.80 0.13–16.46
Cr/Th a. 69.42 (maf.) 27.14 (maf.) 24.35 (maf.) 16.15 (fel.) 25.61 (maf.) 13.35 (fel.) 3.72 (fel.) 10.19 (fel.) 15.63 (fel.) 8.35 (fel.)
Cr/Th r. 13.13–279.41 6.81–108.06 5.97–86.83 10.71–39.59 9.36–59.64 10.24–19.05 0.87–5.26 9.96–10.42 0.18–104.57 5.86–10.84
ΣREE a. 145.1 190.11 359.4 187.3 127.0 50.3 198.9 148.8 269.5 71.7
ΣREE r. 56.7–284.1 116.8–341.7 94.9–1698.0 39.1–339.0 27.8–285.2 23.8–78.7 88.4–265.2 86.8–232.8 70.4–447.2 71.0–72.5
ΣLREE a. 119.8 149.1 278.7 147.7 101.4 26.9 149.0 100.4 199.5 54.7
ΣLREE r. 52.4–222.7 98.8–278.4 65.6–1337.0 29.7–275.0 21.3–230.3 15.6–45.1 54.1–201.3 29.3–178.8 63.2–366.5 52.4–57.0
ΣHREE a. 15.8 29.2 61.4 29.3 17.6 16.6 33.5 22.3 57.1 13.4
ΣHREE r. 4.3–40.0 6.9–45.5 13.3–342.3 5.3–55.2 6.0–30.2 8.2–26.9 19.40–42.33 7.9–35.7 7.2–104.5 12.2–14.7
11
Unit PB + KB Heraselkä suite Mellajoki suite Kivalo gp Kivalo gp Kivalo gp Kivalo gp Martimo s. Hosiojoki Oikarila suite Rovajärvi Paakkola gp Uusivirka s. Posio suite Salla
Palokivalo Petäjäskoski Kvartsimaa Poikkimaa Kaskimaa suite suite Karunki Ristivuoma gp
Sirniö
SiO2 a. 70.43 75.41 83.47 59.93 97.08 97.95 62.98 75.53 64.30 72.03 62.73 60.91 77.51 71.88
SiO2 r. 65.80–82.30 53.20–90.20 78.20–91.60 52.24–74.16 96.49–97.66 59.80–67.30 74.00–77.50 47.60–80.10 67.80–74.60 58.60–70.30 56.00–70.30 66.50–95.30
Al2O3 a. 14.61 11.26 7.79 15.06 0.88 0.30 12.60 12.47 15.16 13.40 15.19 14.61 10.58 14.62
Al2O3 r. 9.41–17.20 4.69–20.10 3.15–12.20 9.69–19.52 0.39–1.36 10.40–13.80 12.10–12.90 10.30–20.00 13.10–13.80 10.90–17.00 11.80–17.60 1.85–16.30
CIA a. 64.58 62.84 62.24 70.77 72.68 70.26 68.05 60.08 67.32 57.90 72.03 67.85 63.51 67.25
CIA r. 61.97–69.14 53.50–80.63 27.30–74.24 67.94–72.48 71.56–73.79 64.14–71.47 56.36–66.58 50.46–79.05 56.81–59.97 66.30–75.45 56.55–80.08 51.23–79.29
La/Sc a. 16.30 (fel.) 14.80 (fel.) 36.40 (fel.) 0.90 (maf.) 2.30 (fel.) 3.10 (fel.) 31.80 (fel.) 11.20 (fel.) 25.10 (fel.) 1.60 (fel.) 2.50 (fel.) 23.20 (fel.) 2.50
(fel.)
La/Sc r. 1.47–16.29 0.68–14.82 2.36–36.40 0.49–0.91 2.29–2.29 0.43–3.07 8.74–31.78 0.44–11.22 4.28–25.13 0.89–1.57 0.56–2.53 1.36–23.24
Th/Sc a. 1.71 (fel.) 4.24 (fel.) 7.35 (fel.) 0.28 (maf.) 1.57 (fel.) 0.36 (maf.) 7.75 (fel.) 1.96 (fel.) 7.62 (fel.) 0.35 (maf.) 0.53 (fel.) 1.81 (fel.) 1.27
(fel.)
Th/Sc r. 0.56–5.29 0.42–11.48 1.31–18.12 0.16–0.40 0.12–0.82 4.30–14.44 0.05–5.74 1.35–11.19 0.25–0.50 0.20–0.82 0.42–9.49
La/Co a. 1.97 (fel.) 4.91 (fel.) 5.05 (fel.) 0.82 (maf.) 2.00 (fel.) 0.51 (maf.) 36.28 (fel.) 5.34 (fel.) 16.31 (fel.) 0.94 (maf.) 0.74 (maf.) 5.54 (fel.) 1.22
(fel.)
La/Co r. 0.89–6.16 0.54–10.87 1.07–11.76 0.51–1.39 0.32–0.84 30.11–42.46 0.23–36.94 9.52–28.71 0.71–1.29 0.27–1.38 0.54–32.66
Th/Co a. 0.82 (maf.) 3.56 (fel.) 2.24 (fel.) 0.31 (maf.) 1.00 (maf.) 0.14 (maf.) 14.93 (fel.) 2.54 (fel.) 7.90 (fel.) 0.30 (maf.) 0.30 (maf.) 2.00 (fel.) 0.63
(maf.)
Th/Co r. 0.38–3.03 0.34–7.27 0.53–4.37 0.18–0.51 0.09–0.21 13.68–16.17 0.03–16.75 3.34–12.79 0.20–0.44 0.17–0.47 0.18–13.33
Cr/Th a. 12.97 (fel.) 37.55 (maf.) 7.97 (fel.) 20.09 (maf.) 51.95 (maf.) 23.53 (maf.) 82.98 (maf.) 0.98 (fel.) 112.40 (maf.) 1.77 (fel.) 27.43 (maf.) 34.87 (maf.) 27.05 (maf.) 12.39
(fel.)
Cr/Th r. 8.40–20.29 0.68–224.72 2.76–11.30 14.81–29.23 18.18–85.71 49.21–126.30 0.37–1.59 0.38–996.77 1.77–1.77 15.65–40.03 22.12–59.64 10.69–94.88
ΣREE a. 136.4 150.7 56.0 177.1 118.5 325.9 203.3 328.3 169.9 157.1 133.6 112.5
ΣREE r. 58.9–345.8 36.9–387.8 21.8–127.9 113.0–232.5 97.8–150.9 230.3–394.6 59.1–330.8 112.6–432.2 114.4–243.1 121.6–196.9 42.0–439.1
ΣLREE a. 106.3 117.7 43.3 106.2 73.8 253.1 151.1 253.6 114.9 109.5 102.9 90.9
ΣLREE r. 48.7–260.9 29.6–318.0 13.1–109.9 60.9–158.4 52.4–98.8 192.0–304.6 27.6–253.2 100.5–322.4 73.3–172.6 74.3–151.2 30.2–332.8
ΣHREE a. 22.8 24.6 12.4 39.4 27.3 68.3 40.1 68.6 31.4 31.4 25.5 12.7
ΣHREE r. 9.5–77.3 6.8–54.6 5.9–22.2 33.1–46.6 21.6–31.8 32.6–88.4 6.0–72.4 9.7–106.6 24.0–44.4 24.1–37.4 6.1–103.0
Fig. 5. UCC and Chondrite normalized spider diagrams for metasedimentary samples of the selected study units (A–D). UCC values after Rudnick and Gao (2003).
Chrondrite values after McDonough and Sun (1995). Average values of the Archean-Proterozoic shales and sandstones after Condie (1993).
correction for the Ca contained in carbonate. The higher values re- 4.3.4. Provenance signatures of tectonic settings
present more intensive weathering of the rocks, i.e. residual clays may Verma and Armstrong-Altrin (2013) proposed a new multi-dimen-
have values > 95, and unweathered fresh rocks usually have va- sional diagram for tectonic discrimination of siliciclastic sediments and
lues < 55 (Nesbitt and Young, 1982, 1984). The average CIA values for studied their application to Precambrian basins. Their discriminant-
samples from the CLB range from 55 to 77%, from the PB 58 to 73%, function-based major-element diagrams are constructed for the tectonic
and from the KB 64 to 67%, suggesting moderate to minor weathering discrimination of high-silica rocks [(SiO2)adj = 63–95%] and low-silica
(Table 3 and Fig. 6A–B). Some of the samples from the Vuojärvi suite rocks [(SiO2)adj = 35–63%]. (SiO2)adj refers to the SiO2 value ob-
and Orakoski formation in the CLB, and samples from the Mellajoki tained after volatile-free adjustment of the ten major-elements to
suite and from the Ristivuoma in the PB, shows a slightly elevated CIA 100 wt%. Both diagrams are proven to be robust against large chemical
value of ∼80–83%. Comparing the results to the ideal weathering trend changes, which might result from weathering, sediment transport, re-
of different source rocks, it can be estimated that that most of the cycling, or post-depositional processes etc. They proposed three main
samples follow the ideal weathering trend of andesites and granitoid tectonic provenance settings: (i) island or continental arc, (ii) con-
rocks (Fig. 6A, B). A few samples from the CLB (Räväsjärvi, Vuojärvi, tinental rift (and passive margin), and (iii) collision, which are based on
and Sieppijäri suites, Orakoski formation and Pyhäjärvi), as well as equations DF1–DF4 (Fig. 7 and App. E).
samples from the PB (Kaskimaa lithodeme) are clustered around the In the high-silica diagram, the data from the CLB is clustered mostly
ideal weathering trend of basalt (Fig. 6A, B). Some samples cluster to- around continental rift and collisional settings (Fig. 7A). Average values
wards illite and muscovite, suggests that post-depositional K metaso- from all of the units (except for the Orakoski formation and Seur-
matism has affected the samples. This is likely caused either by the ukarkea lithodeme) clearly plot in the field of continental rift. The
alteration of plagioclase to K feldspar and/or the conversion of alumi- Orakoski formation and Seurukarkea lithodeme shows a clustering in
nous clay minerals to illite (e.g. Köykkä, 2011). Samples that cluster the arc field. Samples from the Virttiövaara suite are distributed in all of
near the Ca + Na apex probably suggest its higher abundance of calc- the fields, however with an average of a continental rift setting. In the
silicates or rock alteration (albitization). Virttiövaara suite, samples clustering towards a collisional setting
12
settings. In the high-silica diagram, samples from the Mellajoki suite

and Petäjäskoski formation are scattered in all fields, but in the low-
silica diagram they are plotted in the field of a continental rift setting.
Average values from the Rovaniemi supersuite (Oikarila, Rovajärvi, and
Hosiojoki suites) plot in the field of continental rift, whereas average
values from the Ristivuoma lithodeme and Karunki formation are
plotted near the fields of arc and collisional settings. Most notably, all of
the samples from the Palokivalo formation, which consists solely of
Archean zircon ages, plot in the collisional field. It is likely that the
Palokivalo formation indicates a strong sediment recycling and a large
amount of rounded zircons, or that the dominant source was Archean
sedimentary rocks with a collisional origin. In high-silica diagram for
the KB (Fig. 7C), samples from the Sirniö formation are harder to in-
terpret due to a lack of data for coherent interpretation. However, the
average value from the Posio suite plots in the line between rift setting
and collisional settings.
5. Discussion
5.1. Basin evolution and regional correlations
In previous studies, the basin evolution of the CLB, PB and KB has

been interpreted to be related to rifting of the basement and thrust belt
development (e.g. Hanski et al., 2005; Hanski and Huhma, 2005;
Laajoki and Huhma, 2006; Kyläkoski et al., 2012; Lahtinen et al.,
2015a, 2015b; Nironen, 2017). Lahtinen et al. (2015b) proposed the
formation of a failed arm of a triple junction (aulacogen) during the
rifting stage. Recently Skyttä et al. (2019) questioned previous inter-
pretations and suggested the development of strike-slip faults during
the active rifting and pull-apart basin for the PB, and possibly for the
CLB and KB as well.
Based on basin-fill geochronological data, whole-rock geochemistry,
sedimentation patterns, zircon morphology, and field work by authors,
we propose five basin evolution stages for the CLB, PB, and KB between
ca. 2.5 and 1.88 Ga (Fig. 8): (i) initial rifting/early syn-rift; (ii) syn-rift;
(iii) syn-rift to early post-rift; (iv) passive margin (post rift); (v) foreland
system. Each stage is characterized by unique sedimentation patterns
with coeval volcanism, which can be regionally correlated to all units of
the studied belts (Fig. 9). Although the CLB, PB and KB basins are
generally shallow (5–10 km in total thickness), they represent re-
positories for the accumulation of a succession of sedimentary and
volcanic rocks, the fill of which has a somewhat significantly preserved
surface area and total thickness.
5.1.1. Rift basin stage

The rift basin stage between ca 2.5 and 2.1 Ga includes evolution from
the (i) initial rifting/early syn-rift (ii) syn-rift, (iii) syn-rift to early post-
rift (Figs. 8 and 9). The extensional rifting created a mechanical sub-
sidence regime, with episodic pulses of extension that cause space se-
diment to accumulate, which can be linked globally to the breakup of
the Kenorland supercontinent ca. 2.5–2.1 Ga (e.g. Aspler and
Chiarenzelli, 1998).
(i) Initial rifting/early syn-rift: Initial and early rift-related bimodal

Fig. 6. Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) diagrams for metasedimentary magmatism upon the Archean complexes has been observed within
samples of the selected study units: A) CLB, B) PB and KB. Ideal weathering the NE margin of the CLB and KB and along the S-W margin of the
trend (black arrows) data from the Fedo et al., 1995. Ba = Basalts, PB, which started due to the trapping of heat beneath the con-
Gra = Granodiorite, Gr = Granite, An = Andesite, P-Gr = Potassic granite. tinental crust and consequent expansion of mantle. This is marked
by the initial development of triple-junction rifts and incipient
probably reflect the enrichment of CaO (carbonates) + NaO (albitiza- subsidence over the Archean basement. The Räväsjärvi suite in the
tion). In the low-silica diagram (Fig. 7B), the average values from the CLB, the Heraselkä suite in the PB, and the Posio suite and Sirniö
Pyhäjärvi and Virttiövaara and Sieppijärvi suites are plotted in the arc formation in the KB are composed totally of Archean zircon po-
field. The average values from the Räväsjärvi and Vuojärvi suites, and pulations with maximum depositional ages between ca. 2.63 and
the Orakoski formation are plotted in the field of continental rift. 2.53 Ga. Although their stratigraphic position is problematic, the
In high- and low-silica diagrams for the PB (Fig. 7C, D), samples lack of Paleoproteroic zircon ages and occurrence in vicinity of the
from the Heraselkä suite are clustered around continental rift and arc Archean basement indicates that the basement was exposed and
13
Fig. 7. Discriminant-function multi-dimensional diagrams for high-silica and low-silica clastic sediments from three tectonic settings after Verma and Armstrong-
Altrin (2013). A, B) CLB, C, D) PB and KB. See App. E for DF1-4 formula.
the rock associations formed during these events are related to (ii) Syn-rift: The syn-rift stage sediments were deposited in a zone that
shield-wide extension (Figs. 8 and 9). The provenance sources in- thickens toward active faults along the rift margin, driven by
cluded mostly felsic granitoids with a mafic component related subsidence related to ongoing fault activity. This stage includes
mostly to a rift setting, deposited in alluvial to shallow marine deposition from the following units: lower parts of the Sodankylä
settings including subaerial to subaqueous volcanism. This stage group (CLB and KB), and the Vuojärvi and Virttiövaara suites
includes also mafic volcanism of the Kuusamo group and its basal (CLB); lower parts of the Kivalo group clastic sedimentary units
immature conglomerates of the Koskimaa and Unikumpu forma- and lower parts of the Mellajoki suite (PB) (Figs. 8 and 9). The
tions (CLB and KB), which correlate with the Sompujärvi formation maximum depositional age for these units is between 2.66 and
(Kivalo group) in the PB (Fig. 9). Lauri et al. (2003) suggested that, 2.33 Ga. Ranta et al. (2015) suggested that the Mellajoki suite and
the Kuusamo group basal conglomerates most probably represents Palokivalo formation represent the same stage of sedimentation in
a talus accumulations deposited in a rift graben, which is probably the PB, however the zircon populations (Fig. 3B and C) and the
suggestive also for the Sompujärvi formation. occurrence of carbonate rocks in the upper parts of the Mellajoki
14
Fig. 8. Schematic summary of tectonic-sedimentary basin evolution in the northern Finland during the Archean-Proterozoic. Tectonism and sedimentation is sub-
divided into five different stages, including summarized probability density plots (207Pb/206Pb ages) and RI = zircon morphylogy plots (black marks). Zircon grains
with < 10% central discordancy were accepted for plots. Figure not to scale (modified from Koesoemadinata et al., 2008; Lamminen and Köykkä, 2010). See text for
discussion.
15
16
Fig. 9. Summarized stratigraphic columns of the CLB, PB and KB with the main lithologies, depositional systems, and tectonic settings based on this study.
Stratigraphic positions of the detrital zircon samples are marked in the column. Magmatic intrusive ages from Huhma et al. (2018) and references therein. Maximum
depositional ages from this study. TSC = Tectonic Stage Correlation; SK/PH = Seurukarkea/Pyhäjärvi lithodemes.
suite indicate that the accumulation of sediments probably lasted fluvial shallow marine strandline, or evaporite deposits in a rift-
longer than the sedimentation of the Palokivalo formation (Fig. 9). related tectonic setting has been reported by e.g. Eriksson et al.
Lahtinen et al. (2015b) considered the stratigraphic position of the (1998 and ref. therein). In addition, Chakraborty and Sensarma
Vuojärvi suite (CLB) as problematic, however sedimentary features (2008) described of Neoarchean-Paleoproterozoic alternating eo-
indicate that the Vuojärvi suite correlates with the Paleoproter- lian and foreshore aqueous deposits related to coastal environ-
ozoic tidally influenced the shallow marine Virttiövaara suite ments in a rifted continental setting. The units related into this
(Fig. 9; see Nikula, 1988). Overall, this basin stage was char- stage (and earlier) are also commonly albitized and affected by Na
acterized by mafic volcanism and shallow marine sedimentation metasomatism, during the post-depositional hydrothermal altera-
(foreshore-shoreface) in an axial part of the basin and alluvial se- tion process. The source of salts in the hydrothermal fluids is likely
dimentation with flood-dominated fluvio systems near the basin linked to evaporate deposits, which were remobilized and largely
flank, and basin subsidence driven by tectonics was higher than dissolved during orogenic, magmatic, and metamorphic processes
sediment supply (Fig. 8). The Archean basement was exposed, (e.g. Ranta et al., 2018). It is possible that hematite-bearing silt-
providing a constant movement of detrital material into alluvial stones of the Vaimojärvi formation (CLB and KB) represent a si-
systems with debris flows. Based on geochemistry, source rocks milar sedimentation system to the Peräjäskoski formation (PB) in a
included mostly felsic granitoid sources with a minor mafic com- different regime (Fig. 9). Considering that deep water carbonate
ponent related mostly to the provenance of rift and arc settings sedimentation is only significant in the post-Jurassic time period
(Table 3 and Fig. 7). (e.g. Kendall, 1992), a muddy peritidal flat and shallow water
(iii) Syn-rift to early post-rift: This stage was characterized by the for- setting (beach barrier?) with restricted hydrological circulation is
mation of thick carbonate successions, and evaporate sedimenta- suggestive for the Vaimojärvi formation in the CLB and KB, and
tion/precipitation including environments with a restricted supply also for the Petäjäskoski, Rantamaa and Poikkimaa formations in
of terrigenous clastic and volcanic material and a supply of calcium the PB (Fig. 9). During the deposition of these formations, in situ
carbonate (Fig. 8). This stage includes the deposition of upper parts carbonate precipitation indicates a gradual depletion of the over-
of the Sodankylä group in the CLB and KB, and upper parts of the saturated Paleoproterozoic seawater during the basin highstand. In
Kivalo group in the PB (Fig. 9). In the PB, the transition from the addition, the occurrence of halite and a high content of MgO in the
underlying syn-rift deposits is marked by the Petäjäskoski fault Petäjäskoski formation (Kyläkoski et al., 2012), suggests the in-
zone (see Piippo et al., 2019). Kyläkoski et al. (2012) concluded fluence of hydrothermal fluids, either as the source of evaporates
that the PB had passed the equator during the time interval when or as a substantially modifying seawater source (Hardie 1986;
the Petäjäskoski formation was deposited, and the associated red- Kendall, 1992). It is evident that the formation of carbonates and
beds (hematite) typically require hot tropical, humid to arid cli- evaporates suggest local tectonic stability with a restricted system.
mates prevailing at near-equatorial latitudes. A shallow tidal in- Skyttä et al. (2019) proposed a pull-apart basin and strike-slip
fluenced setting with evaporitic precipitation was proposed for the model for the tectonic evolution of the PB and possible of the KB
Petäjäskoski formation (Kyläkoski et al., 2012). In addition, Ranta and CLB as well. Pull-apart basins are usually characterized by
et al. (2018) proposed the possibility of basin-wide lacustrine rapid basin subsidence and high clastic sedimentation rates,
conditions during this time. However, the discrimination of Pre- abundant syn-sedimentary slumping and deformation, sparse ig-
cambrian lacustrine deposits from shallow marine sediments is neous activity and extreme lateral facies variations (e.g. Reading,
problematic due to the absence of preserved paleontological evi- 1980; Christie-Blick and Biddle, 1985; Speksnijder, 1985; Lee and
dence (e.g. Bose et al., 2012). The close occurrence of siliciclastic Chough, 1999). However, it is evident that the formation of thick
deposits with the carbonates indicates a fluctuation of sea level, carbonate and evaporate successions in the PB, KB and CLB suggest
which changed the local hydraulic regimes and occasionally sub- local tectonic stability with a restricted system, which does not
jected environments to higher energies. The stratabound collapse support pull-apart setting and strike-slip tectonics and therefore it
type breccias, described from the Petäjäskoski formation in PB and is unlikely.
from the Vaimojärvi, Petäjävaara, and Hukkavaa formations in KB
(Vanhanen, 2001; Kyläkoski et al., 2012), are likely formed as a 5.1.2. Passive margin basin (post-rift)
result of karst processes in evaporitic successions (see Friedman, A large-scale plume event initiated at 2.15–2.10 Ga (Hanski and
1997). When anhydrite and/or gypsum are dissolved the overlying Huhma, 2005; Vuollo and Huhma, 2005), and was followed by con-
continuous strata of carbonate rocks collapse, generating collapse tinental breakup at 2.10–2.05 Ga (Fig. 8). During the breakup, a failed
breccia composed of carbonate clasts. In summary, this basin stage arm of a triple junction formed, seen today as the CLGC, an uplifted root
marks the early development of an epeiric sea setting with shallow of an aulacogen (Lahtinen et al., 2015b). In this stage, basin sedi-
nearshore and tidal influenced clastic, carbonate and evaporate mentation was mainly controlled by cyclic-sea level fluctuations su-
sedimentation/precipitation (Fig. 8). Slower basin subsidence rates perimposed on long-term thermal subsidence (Fig. 8). It was dominated
led to a balance between the sediment supply. The units deposited by hemi-pelagic deposits together with gravity-driven sandstone de-
at this stage have a maximum depositional age of between ca. 2.72 posits and associated subaqueous volcanism. Overall, this stage in-
and 2.13 Ga (Figs. 8 and 9). Sample A1108 from the Poikkimaa cludes the sedimentary-volcanic deposits of the Rovaniemi supersuite in
formation (PB) has a maximum depositional age of ca. 2.13 Ga and the CLB and PB, the Savukoski group in the CLB and KB, and the Kittilä
in this study is considered as a topmost unit of the syn-rift to early and Martimo suites in the CLB and PB (Figs. 8 and 9). This basin stage
post-rift stage, or it already represents the newly formed passive corresponds globally with the termination of tectono-magmatic quies-
margin deposits. Based on zircon morphology, basin sedimentation cence at 2.3–2.2 Ga (Spencer et al., 2018), which eventually led to the
and/or provenance area(s) were likely influenced by eolian pro- amalgamation of the Columbia/Hudsonia/Nuna supercontinents ca.
cesses ca. 2.3–2.1 (or possible earlier). Eolian processes and de- 2.1–1.8 Ga (Zhao et al., 2002).
posits are common in all pre-Devonian continental or coastal en- Sediments of this stage indicate a deepening of the basin, where the
vironments, and association of ancient eolian deposits with either available accommodation space was larger than sediment input. It
17
contains the first graphite-sulfide and black schist deposits followed by accumulations suggest a falling base level, in which the rate of silici-
greywackes in the Precambrian of northern Finland. The hemipelagic clastic sedimentation was enchased due to the increased delivery of
setting sedimentation of the Matarakoski formation (CLB), Liekopalo sediment to the basin.
lithodeme (PB), and Siulionpalo formation (KB) represent likely coeval
ages of deposition during a period of high CO2 levels in the atmo- 5.1.3. Foreland basin system
sphere–ocean system (Fig. 9). These deposits can be linked globally The foreland basin system comprises initial compressional collision
with mantle superplume events that introduced large amounts of CO2 starting at ca. 1.94 Ga with a development of forebulge and foredeep
into the atmosphere–ocean system and increased black shale deposition depozones and the Kittilä arc collision (Fig. 8). This was followed by a
starting during the Rhyacian period due to a combination of increased main compressional stage ca. 1.92–1.88 Ga, where basin inversion
oceanic hydrothermal fluxes, anoxia driven onto continental shelves, during the Svecofennian orogeny resulted in a foreland fold-thrust belt,
and disrupted ocean currents (Condie et al., 2001). with coeval thrusting from NE and W–SW (Fig. 8).
In the CLB, the early passive margin basin stage was followed by the The Karunki formation has a maximum depositional age of ca.
development of a magmatic arc (Kittilä suite) at ca. 2.0 Ga above a 1.94 Ga and Lahtinen et al. (2015b, 2018) considered it to be older than
subduction (Fig. 8) with abundant coeval boninites extruded in the rocks from the Uusivirka suite (Figs. 8 and 9). Lahtinen et al. (2019)
fore-arc (see Hanski and Huhma, 2005; Lahtinen et al., 2015b). The suggested that the Ristivuoma rocks are syn-collisional and derived
stratigraphic position of the Seurukarkea and Pyhäjärvi lithodemes from a recycled and thoroughly mixed source. The geochemistry sug-
straddles the boundary between the Kittilä suite and Rovaniemi su- gest derivation from the multicomponent rift-collisional settings
persuite with a maximum depositional age of ca. ≤2.03 Ga (Fig. 9). (Table 3 and Fig. 7). Overall the foreland basin system was character-
Lahtinen et al. (2015b) suggested that Pyhäjärvi represents early fore- ized by syn- and post-orogenic deposystems, showing a transition from
deep deposits during the initial stage of the continent-arc collision be- early marine sedimentation into non-marine sedimentation. In the
tween the stretched Archean continent and the Kittilä island arc, or model presented here (Fig. 8), the early phase was dominated by flex-
earlier deposition during the passive margin stage. Based on geo- ural tectonics and an under-filled foredeep and forebulge above base
chemistry, the material forming these units is derived from multi level. It is plausible that fine-grained phyllites of the Ristivuoma li-
component sources related into arc and rift to passive margin settings thodeme in the PB (Fig. 9), represent this stage of foreland system with
(Table 3 and Fig. 7). Although our basin model supports the nearshore a maximum depositional age of ca. 1.92 Ga, whereas the Karunki for-
foredeep deposits and deposition between the early frontal dip of the mation could be from an earlier stage. The later stage was dominated by
orogenic wedge and the forebulge (Fig. 8), an alternative hypothesis for overfilled alluvial sedimentation, represented by coarse-grained de-
the Pyhäjärvi and Seurukarkea is also possible. For example, geo- posits of the Kumpu group (CLB and KB) with a maximum depositional
chemistry indicating partly arc-related detrital sources and a lack of age of 1.88 Ga (Fig. 9). The Kumpu group sediments were derived
cross-cutting younger dykes suggests possible later foreland system mainly from the fold-thrust belt and craton, controlled by flexural
deposits, where the mafic detritus is derived from the Kittilä suite (arc). subsidence. It is likely that tectonic compressional stress caused a de-
Lahtinen et al. (2019) considered Liekopalo lithodeme to be auto- velopment of intra-basinal strike-slip faults, which controlled the ac-
chthonous-parautochthonous, and the Väystäjä and Kaskimaa units as cumulation of thick conglomerate successions of the Kumpu group.
allochthonous (PB) (Fig. 9). The Väystäjä bimodal volcanic rocks are However, if we consider the Pyhätunturi formation (CLB) as a part
plume-related EMORB-OIB rocks formed during a continental breakup of the Kumpu group, its maximum depositional age of 2.13 Ga is pro-
ca. 2.09–2.05 Ga and represent a more or less similar age of volcanism blematic (Fig. 2). It could represent either a totally local granitic source,
(2.15–2.05 Ga) to the Savukoski group (CLB and KB) and Kittilä suite or a much earlier deposition (syn-rift to early post-rift stage). In addi-
(CLB) (Fig. 9). The associated Kaskimaa lithodeme is inferred to re- tion, the geochemistry of the Pyhätunturi formation supports a rift-re-
present turbiditic sedimentation in a deepening basin of the continental lated provenance (Table 3 and Fig. 7). On the other hand, abundant
margin. Relatively thin-bedded (< 1 m) turbidities in the Kaskimaa can angular zircon grains reflect relatively short transport distances and
be related either to deeper submarine channels (Hansen et al., 2015) or limited processes, possibly from the local felsic sources.
storm surges with relatively shallow water depths (100–200 m) (Fenton
and Wilson, 1985). There is only one Paleoproterozoic zircon grain in 6. Conclusions
the Kaskimaa lithodeme, and if we consider it to be sufficient evidence,
it provides a maximum depositional age of 1.99 Ga with a clearly mafic Archean zircon populations have ages mainly clustered between
arc source rock component (Table 2 and Fig. 9). In this case, it is pos- 3.00 and 2.70 Ga, suggesting sources from surrounding basement
sible that the Kittilä suite (arc), in the CLB, already provided some of complexes of granitoid/TTG rocks. The Paleoproterozoic-aged popula-
the mafic detrital material for the Kaskimaa sedimentation system. tions (≤2.25–1.86) can be linked to surrounding granitoids in northern
The maximum depositional age for the Rovaniemi supersuite Finland, or possible NE Sweden, however the absence of 2.30–2.20 Ga
marine deposystem is between 1.99 and 1.97 Ga (Fig. 9), and so far no detrital zircons is notable in northern Fennoscandia before the onset of
correlative units can be found from the KB. Overall, the Rovaniemi thrust belt development at ca. 1.92–1.88 Ga. REE patterns indicate
supersuite is considered partly bimodal volcanic and epiclastic origin derivation from a UCC composed chiefly of felsic components and the
(Hanski et al., 2005). The Hosiojoki suite felsic rocks with A-type affi- trend lines mainly fall between the Archean-Proterozoic sandstones and
nity and Kierovaara suite granites (2.00–1.98 Ga) are considered to be shales. Selected elemental ratios suggest felsic to multi-component
cogenetic, but not comagmatic (Lahtinen et al., 2019). Lahtinen et al. sources for most of the studied units, whereas the Kaskimaa and
(2015b) concluded that the large areal extent lacking or with only Ristivuoma lithodemes and the Petäjäskoski and Karunki formations
minor material from the Archean basement and the sedimentary cover (PB) are dominated by mafic source rocks. Average weathering trends
favors rapid and large extrusion of bimodal volcanism followed by re- suggest minor to moderate weathering for the metasedimentary rocks
deposition of the Rovaniemi supersuite material at ca. < 1.99 Ga. Based of the CLB, PB, and KB.
on geochemistry, the provenance source is dominated by quite mono- The rift basin stage between ca 2.5 and 2.1 Ga, corresponds with the
tonous felsic components derived from the rift-passive margin setting breakup of the Kenorland supercontinent. The initial rifting/early syn-
(Table 3 and Fig. 7). Considering the zircon morphology for the rift stage includes the deposition of the Räväsjärvi (CLB), Haisujupukka
1.99–1.97 Ga ages (Fig. 8), it is possible that the presence of angular (CLB), Heraselkä (PB), and Posio (KB) suites, the Salla and Kuusamo
grains without any evidence of rounded ones indicate short transport groups (CLB, KB), and the lowermost mafic rocks of the Kivalo group
distances and relatively rapid sedimentation processes for the Rova- (PB). The depositional systems included mostly bimodal subaerial
niemi supersuite rocks. In addition, the lack of carbonate rock eruptions and subaqueous volcanism with continental to shallow
18
marine clastic sedimentation. The provenance sources included 0738(98)00028-1.

Archean felsic granitoid sources with a mafic component. The following Bedrock of Finland – DigiKP, 2019. Digital Map Database [Electronic Resource/Referred
1.3.2019]. Geol. Surv. Finl.
syn-rift stage includes volcanism and sedimentation from the following Bergman, S., Persson, P.-O., Kübler, L., 2002. U-Pb titanite and zircon ages of the Lina
units: lower parts of the Sodankylä group (CLB, KB), and Vuojärvi and granite at the type locality NW of Gällivare, northern Sweden. In Bergman,S. (Ed.),
Virttiövaara suites (CLB); lower parts of the Kivalo group clastic sedi- Radiometric Dating Results 5. SGU C 834, 12–17.
Bergman, S., Billström, K., Persson, P.-O., Skiöld, T., Evins, P., 2006. U-Pb age evidence
mentary units (PB), and lower parts of the Mellajoki suite (PB). This for repeated Palaeoproterozoic metamorphism and deformation near the Pajala shear
stage was characterized by mafic volcanism and shallow marine sedi- zone in the northern Fennoscandian shield. GFF 128, 7–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/
mentation in an axial part of the basin, as well as alluvial sedimentation 11035890601281007.
Bingen, B., Solli, A., Viola, G., Torgensen, E., Sandstadt, J.S., Whitehouse, M.J., Røhr,
near the basin flanks. The Archean basement was exposed, supplying T.S., Ganerød, M., Nasuti, A., 2015. Geochronology of the Palaeoproterozoic
material mostly from felsic granitoid sources with a minor mafic com- Kautokeino Greenstone Belt, Finnmark, Norway: tectonic implications in a
ponent related mostly to the provenance of rift-arc related settings. The Fennoscandia context. Nor. Geol. Tidsskr. 95 (3/4), 365–396. https://doi.org/10.
17850/njg95-3-09.
syn-rift to early post-rift stage includes the deposition of upper parts of
Bogdanova, S.V., Bingen, B., Gorbatschev, R., Kheraskova, T.N., Kozlov, V.I., Puchkov,
the Sodankylä group (CLB, KB) and upper parts of the Kivalo group and V.N., Volozh, Y.U.A., 2008. The east European Craton (Baltica) before and during the
Mellajoki suite (PB). This stage was characterized by the deposition of assembly of Rodinia. Precambr. Res. 160, 23–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
thick carbonate and evaporate successions together with clastic rocks. precamres.2007.04.024.
Bose, P.K., Eriksson, P.G., Sarkar, S., Wright, D.T., Samanta, P., Mykhopadhyay, S.,
Sedimentation patterns suggest a muddy peritidal flat and shallow Mandal, S., Banerjee, S., Altermann, W., 2012. Sedimentation patterns during the
water setting (beach barrier?) with local tectonic stability and a re- Precambrian: a unique record? Mar. Pet. Geol. 33 (1), 34–68. https://doi.org/10.
stricted hydrological circulation. Based on zircon morphology, basin 1016/j.marpetgeo.2010.11.002.
Cawood, P.A., Hawkesworth, C.J., Dhuime, B., 2012. Detrital zircon record and tectonic
sedimentation and/or provenance area(s) were likely influenced by setting. Geology 40 (10), 875–878. https://doi.org/10.1130/G32945.1.
eolian processes ca. 2.3 to 2.1 (or possible earlier). Chakraborty, T., Sensarma, S., 2008. Shallow marine and coastal eolian quartz arenites in
The passive margin stage (post-rift) from ca. 2.1 to 1.92 Ga corre- the Neoarchean-Palaeoproterozoic Karutola Formation, Dongargarh Volcano-sedi-
mentary succession, central India. Preambr. Res. 162, 284–330. https://doi.org/10.
sponds globally with the termination of tectono-magmatic quiescence 1016/j.precamres.2007.07.024.
and includes the sedimentary-volcanic deposits of the Rovaniemi su- Christie-Blick, N., Biddle, K.T., 1985. Deformation and basin formation along strike-slip
persuite (CLB, PB), Savukoski group (CLB, KB), and Kittilä and Martimo faults. In: In: Biddle, K.T., Christie-Blick, N. (Eds.), Strike-Slip Deformation, Basin
Formation, and Sedimentation 37. SEPM Spec. Publ., pp. 1–34 https://doi.org/
suites (CLB, PB). This stage marks a development of aulacogens and 10.2110/pec.85.37.0001.
deepening of the basin, controlled by cyclic-sea level fluctuations su- Condie, K.C., 1993. Chemical composition and evolution of the upper continental crust:
perimposed on long-term thermal subsidence. This stage is character- contrasting results from surface samples and shales. Chem. Geol. 104, 1–37. https://
doi.org/10.1016/0009-2541(93)90140-E.
ized by gravity-driven sandstone deposits and associated subaqueous
Condie, K.C., Des Marais, D.J., Abbott, D., 2001. Precambrian superplumes and super-
volcanism, and hemi-pelagic sedimentation. The hemipelagic sedi- continens: a record in black shales, carbon isotopes and paleoclimates? Precambr.
mentation can be linked globally into mantle superplume events that Res. 106, 239–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00097-8.
introduced large amounts of CO2 into the atmosphere-ocean system Corfu, F., Stott, G., 1993. Age and petrogenesis of two late Archean magmatic suites,
northwestern Superior province, Canada: zircon U-Pb and Lu-Hf isotopic relations. J.
during the Rhyacian period. The source rock populations are mostly Petrol. 34, 817–838. https://doi.org/10.1093/petrology/34.4.817.
Paleoproterozoic (2.1–1.99 Ga) in age and related to rift and arc tec- Cullers, R.L., 2000. The geochemistry of shales, siltstones and sandstones of
tonic settings. The rates of siliciclastic sedimentation were enchased Pennsylvanian-Permian age, Colorado, USA: Implications for provenance and meta-
morphic studies. Lithos 51, 181–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0024-4937(99)
due to the increased delivery of sediment to a basin before the onset of 00063-8.
initial compression, which can be seen as the marine deposits of the Cullers, R.L., Podkovyrov, V.N., 2000. Geochemistry of the Mesoproterozoic Lakhanda
Rovaniemi supersuite (CLB, PB). shales in southeastern Yakutia, Russia: implications for mineralogical and prove-
nance control, and recycling. Precambr. Res. 104, 77–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/
The initial compressional collision started at ca. 1.94 Ga with the S0301-9268(00)00090-5.
development of the Kittilä arc collision (CLB), which was followed by Cullers, R.L., Basu, A., Suttner, L.J., 1988. Geochemical signature of provenance in sand-
the main compressional stage ca. 1.92–1.88 Ga and the development of size material in soils and stream sediments near the Tobacco Root batholith,
Montana, USA. Chem. Geol. 70, 335–348. https://doi.org/10.1016/0009-2541(88)
the foreland fold-thrust belt. Overall the foreland basin system was
90123-4.
combined with syn- and post-orogenic deposystems. Fine-grained Dill, H.G., 2007. Grain morphology of heavy minerals from marine and continental placer
phyllites of the Ristivuoma lithodeme (PB) likely represent an under- deposits, with special reference to Fe-Ti oxides. Sediment. Geol. 198, 1–27. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2006.11.002.
filled phase of the foreland system, whereas the Ga Karunki formation
Dill, H.G., Klosa, D., 2011. Heavy-mineral–based provenance analysis of Mesozoic con-
(PB) could be from an earlier stage. The overfilled stage was char- tinental-marine sediments at the western edge of the Bohemian Massif, SE Germany:
acterized by alluvial dominated sedimentation of the Kumpu group with special reference to Fe-Ti minerals and crystal morphology of heavy minerals.
(CLB, KB), controlled by intra-basinal strike-slip faults. Int. J. Earth Sci. 100, 1497–1513. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-010-0567-5.
Dill, H.G., Weber, B., Klosa, D., 2012. Morphology and mineral chemistry of monzazite-
zircon-bearing stream sediments of continental placer deposits (SE Germany): ore
Acknowledgements guide and provenance marker. J. Geochem. Explor. 112, 322–346. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.gexplo.2011.10.006.
Eriksson, P.G., Condie, K.C., Tirsgaad, H., Mueller, W.U., Altermann, W., Miall, A.D.,
Dr. T. Karinen is thanked for the U-Pb data of sample A2094 and Aspler, L.B., Catuneanu, O., Chiarenzelli, J.R., 1998. Precambrian clastic sedi-
selected geochemical data from the Virttiövaara and Kittilä suites. Dr. L. mentation systems. Sed. Geo. 120, 5–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0037-0738(98)
Lauri is thanked for the U-Pb data of samples A2043, A2045, A2046 and 00026-8.
Eriksson, P.G., Catuneanu, O., Sarkar, S., Tirsgaad, H., 2005. Patterns of sedimentation in
A2047. Dr. B. Bingen and an anonymous reviewer are thanked for the Precambrian. Sed. Geo. 176, 17–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2005.01.
critical reviews of the manuscript and their constructive comments and 003.
improvements. Eriksson, P.G., Banerjee, S., Catuneanu, O., Sarkar, S., Bumby, A.J., Mtimkulu, M.N.,
2007. Prime controls on archean-paleoproterozoic sedimentation: change over time.
Gondwana Res. 12, 550–559. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2007.04.004.
Appendix A. Supplementary data Fedo, C.M., Nesbitt, H.W., Young, G.M., 1995. Unravelling the effects of potassium me-
tasomatism in sedimentary rocks and paleosols, with implication for paleoweathering
conditions and provenance. Geology 23, 921–924. https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
7613(1995) 023<0921:UTEOPM>2.3.CO;2.
doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2019.105364. Fenton, M.W., Wilson, C.J.L., 1985. Shallow-water turbidites: an example from the
Mallcoota beds, Australia. Sediment. Geol. 45, 231–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/
References 0037-0738(85)90004-1.
Fernandes, G.Q., Iyer, S.D., Kotha, M., 2016. The origin and tectonic setting of
Precambrian greywacke of Ribandar-Chimbel, Goa, India: petrological and geo-
Aspler, L.B., Chiarenzelli, J.R., 1998. Two Neoarchean supercontinents? Evidence from chemical evidence. Acta Geol. Sin. 90 (6), 2036–2048. https://doi.org/10.1111/
the Paleoproterozoic. Sediment. Geol. 120, 75–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0037- 1755-6724.13020.
19
Friedman, G.M., 1997. Dissolution-collapse breccias and paleokarst resulting from dis- evolution of Northern Fennoscandia. Precambr. Res. 270, 22–38. https://doi.org/10.
solution of evaporite rocks, especially sulfates. Carbonates Evaporites 12, 53–63. 1016/j.precamres.2015.09.003.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03175802. Lahtinen, R., Huhma, H., Lahaye, Y., Jonsson, E., Manninen, T., Lauri, L.S., Bergman, S.,
Gorbatschev, R., Bogdanova, S., 1993. Frontiers in the Baltic shield. Precambr. Res. 64, Hellström, F., Niiranen, T., Nironen, M., 2015b. New geochronological and Sm-Nd
3–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/0301-9268(93)90066-B. constrains across the Pajala shear zone of northern Fennoscandian: reactivation of a
Gärtner, A., Linnemann, U., Sagawe, A., Hofmann, M., Ullrich, B., Kleber, A., 2013. Paleoproterozoic suture. Precambr. Res. 256, 102–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Morphology of zircon crystal grains in sediments – characteristics, classifications, precamres.2014.11.006.
definitions. Geol. Sax. 59, 65–73. Lahtinen, R., Huhma, H., Sayab, M., Lauri, L., Hölttä, P., 2018. Age and structural con-
Hansen, L.A.S., Gallow, R.H.T., Kane, I.A., Gamberi, F., Rovere, M., Cronin, B.T., Kneller, straints on the tectonic evolution of the Paleoproterozoic Central Lapland Granitoid
B., 2015. Genesis and character of thin-bedded turbidities associated with submarine Complex in the Fennoscandian Shield. Tectonophysics 745, 305–325. https://doi.
channels. Mar. Pet. Geol. 67, 852–879. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2015. org/10.1016/j.tecto.2018.08.016.
06.007. Lahtinen R., Huhma H., Lauri L.S. and Sayab M., 2019. Geochemical and U-Pb and Sm-Nd
Hanski, E.J., 2012. Evolution of the Palaeoproterozoic (2.50–1.95 Ga) Non–orogenic isotopic constraints on the evolution of the Paleoproterozoic Ylitornio nappe com-
Magmatism in the Eastern Part of the Fennoscandian Shield. In: Melezhik, V.A., plex, northern Fennoscandia. Bull. of the Geo. Soc. of Finland, Published online 21
Prave, A.R., Hanski, E.J., Fallick, A.E., Lepland, A., Kump, L.R., Srauss, H. (Eds.), January 2019, 31–56.
Reading the archive of Earth’s oxygenation. Vol. 1: the Palaeoproterozoic of Lamminen, J., Köykkä, J., 2010. The provenance and evolution of the Rjukan Rift Basin,
Fennoscandia as context for the Fennoscandian arctic Russia. Drilling Early Earth Telemark, south Norway: the shift from a rift basin to an epicontinental sea along a
Project, 179–245. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-29682-6_6. Mesoproterozoic supercontinent. Precambr. Res. 181, 129–149. https://doi.org/10.
Hanski, E., 2015. In: Mineral Deposits of Finland. Elsevier, pp. 39–71. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.precamres.2010.05.017.
1016/B978-0-12-410438-9.00002-9. Lauri, L.S., Karinen, T., Räsänen, J., 2003. The earliest Paleoproterozoic supracrustal
Hanski, E., Huhma, H., 2005. Central Lapland Greenstone Belt. In: Lehtinen, M., Nurmi, rocks in Koillismaa, northern Finland – their petrographic and geochemical char-
P.A., Rämö, O.T. (Eds.), Precambrian Geology of Finland – Key to the Evolution of the acteristics and lithostratigraphy. Bull. Geol. Soc. Finl. 78, 29–50. https://doi.org/10.
Fennoscandian Shield. Dev. Prec. Geol. 14, 139–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/ 17741/bgsf/75.1-2.003.
S0166-2635(05)80005-2. Elsevier. Lee, S.H., Chough, S.K., 1999. Progressive changes in sedimentary facies and stratal
Hanski, E., Huhma, H., Perttunen, V., 2005. SIMS U-Pb, Sm-Nd isotope and geochemical patterns along the strike-slip margin, northeastern Jinan Basin (Cretaceous), south-
study of an arkosite-amphibolite suite, Peräpohja Schist Belt: evidence for ca. 1.98 Ga west Korea: implications for differential subsidence. Sediment. Geol. 123 1(2),
A–type felsic magmatism in northern Finland. Bull. Geol. Soc. Finl. 77, 5–29. https:// 81–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0037-0738(98)00087-6.
doi.org/10.17741/bgsf/77.1.001. Luukas, J., Kousa, J., Nironen, M., Vuollo, J., 2017. Major stratigraphic units in the
Hanski, E., Huhma, H., Vuollo, J., 2010. SIMS zircon ages and Nd isotope systematics of bedrock of Finland, and approach to tectonostratigraphic division. In: Nironen, M.
the 2.2 Ga mafic intrusions in northern and eastern Finland. Bull. Geol. Soc. Finl. 82, (Ed.) Bedrock of Finland at the scale 1:1 000 000 – Major stratigraphic units, me-
31–62. https://doi.org/10.17741/bgsf/82.1.002. tamorphism and tectonic evolution. Geol. Surv. of Finland, Spec. Pap. 60, 9–240.
Hardie, L.A., 1986. Stratigraphic models for carbonate tidal-flat deposition. In: Hardie, L. McDonough, W.F., Sun, S.-S., 1995. Composition of the Earth. Chem. Geol. 120, 223–253.
A, Shinn, E.A. (Eds.), Carbonate depositional environments, Part 3: Tidal flats: Col. https://doi.org/10.1016/0009-2541(94)00140-4.
Sch. Mines Quar. 81, 59–73. McLennan, S.M., 2001. Relationships between the trace element composition of sedi-
Huhma, H., Cliff, R.A., Perttunen, V., Sakko, M., 1990. Sm-Nd and Pb isotopic study of mentary rocks and upper continental crust. Geochemistry, Geophys. Geosystems 2
mafic rocks associated with early Proterozoic continental rifting: the Peräpohja schist (4). https://doi.org/10.1029/2000GC000109.
belt in northern Finland. Contrib. Mineral. Petrol. 104, 369–379. https://doi.org/10. McLennan, S.M., Hemming, S., McDaniel, D.K., Hanson, G.N., 1993. Geochemical ap-
1007/BF00321491. proaches to sedimentation, provenance and tectonics. Processes controlling the
Huhma, H., Hanski, E., Kontinen, A., Vuollo, J., Mänttäri, I., Lahaye, Y., 2018. Sm-Nd and Composition of Clastic Sediments 285, 21–40. https://doi.org/10.1130/SPE284-p21.
U-Pb isotope geochemistry of the Palaeoproterozoic mafic magmatism in eastern and Mutanen, T., 1997. Geology and petrology of the Akanvaara and Koitelainen mafic
northern Finland. Geol. Surv. Finl., Bull. 405, 150. layered intrusions and the Keivitsa-Satovaara layered complex, northeastern Finland.
Hölttä, P., Heilimo, E., 2017. Metamorphic map of Finland. In: Nironen, M. (Ed.), Bedrock Bull. Geol. Surv. Finl. 395, 233.
of Finland at the scale 1:1 000 000 – Major stratigraphic units. Metamorphism and Nesbitt, H.W., Young, G.M., 1982. Early Proterozoic climates and plate motions inferred
tectonic evolution. Geol. Surv. Finl., Spec. Pap. 60, 77–128. from major element chemistry of lutites. Nature 299, 715–717. https://doi.org/10.
Hölttä, P., Balagansky, V., Garde, A., Mertanen, S., Peltonen, P., Slabunov, A., Sorjonen- 1038/299715a0.
Ward, P., Whitehouse, M., 2008. Archean of Greenland and Fennoscandia. Episodes Nesbitt, H.W., Young, G.M., 1984. Prediction of some weathering trends of plutonic and
31, 13–19. volcanic rocks based on thermodynamic and kinetic considerations. Geochim.
Hölttä, P., Heilimo, E., Huhma, H., Juopperi, H., Kontinen, A., Konnunaho, H., Lauri, L., Cosmochim. Acta 48, 1523–1534. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(84)90408-3.
Mikkola, P., Paavola, J., Sorjonen-Ward, P., 2012. Archaean complexes of the Karelia Nikula, R., 1988. Paleosedimentology of Precambrian tidal Virttiövaara and fluvial
Province in Finland. Geol. Surv. Finl 54, 9–20 Spec. Pap. Värttiövaara quartzite formations in Sodankylä, northern Finland. In: Laajoki, K.,
Karhu, J., Kortelainen, N. M., Huhma, H., Perttunen, V., Sergeev, S. 2007. New time Paakkola, J. (Eds.), Sedimentology of the Precambrian formations in eastern and
constraints for the end of the Paleoproterozoic carbon isotope excursion. In 7th northern Finland. Geol. Surv. Finl., Spec. Pap. 5, 177–189.
International Symposium on Applied Isotope Geochemistry, 10th–14th Sept., 2007, Nironen, M., 2017. Structural interpretation of the Peräpohja and Kuusamo belts and
Stellenbosch, S Africa, 76–77. Central Lapland, and a tectonic model for northern Finland. Geol. Surv. Finl. Rep. Inv.
Kasanzu, C., Maboko, M.A.-H., Manya, S., 2008. Geochemistry of fine-grained clastic 234, 53.
sedimentary rocks of the Neoproterozoic Ikorongo Group, NE Tanzania: Implications Perttunen, V., Vaasjoki, M. 2001. U-Pb geochronology of the Peräpohja Schist Belt,
for provenance and source rock weathering. Precambr. Res. 164, 201–213. https:// northwestern Finland. In: Vaasjoki, M. (Ed.), Radiometric age determinations from
doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2008.04.007. Finnish Lapland and their bearing on the timing of Precambrian volcano-sedimentary
Kendall, A.C., 1992. Evaporites. In: Walker, R.G., Noel, P.J. (Eds.), Facies Models: sequences. Geol. Surv. Finl., Spec. Pap. 33, 45–84.
Response to Sea Level Change. Geol. Assoc. Can., pp. 375–409 https://doi.org/ Piippo, S., Skyttä, P., Kloppenburg, A., 2019. Linkage of crustal deformation between the
10.1002/gj.3350290317. Archaean basement and the Proterozoic cover in the Peräpohja Area, northern
Koesoemadinata, A., Banik, N., Agarwal, V., Sing, S. Durrani, J., 2008. A global acoustic Fennoscandia. Precambr. Res. 324, 303–323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.
impedance inversion for porosity and lithology prediction in northern Gulf of Mexico. 2019.02.003.
In: Stark T.J. (Ed.), SEG Tech. Prog. Exp. Abs., 1885–1889. https://doi.org/10.1190/ Pupin, J–P., 1980. Zircon and granite petrology. Contrib. to Mineral. Petrol. 73, pp.
1.3059268. 207–220. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00381441.
Kyläkoski, M., Hanski, E., Huhma, H., 2012. The Petäjäskoski Formation, a new lithos- Ranta, J.-P., Lauri, L.S., Hanski, E., Huhma, H., Lahaye, Y., Vanhanen, E., 2015. U-Pb and
tratigraphic unit in the Paleoproterozoic Peräpohja Belt, northern Finland. Bull. Geol. Sm-Nd isotopic constraints on the evolution of the Paleoproterozoic Peräpohja Belt,
Soc. Finl. 84, 85–120. https://doi.org/10.17741/bgsf/84.2.001. northern Finland. Precambr. Res. 266, 246–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Köykkä, J., 2011. Precambrian alluvial fan and braidplain sedimentation patterns: ex- precamres.2015.05.018.
ample from the Mesoproterozoic Rjukan Rift Basin, southern Norway. Sediment. Ranta, J.-P., Molnar, F., Hanski, E., Cook, N., 2018. Epigenetic gold occurence in a
Geol. 234, 89–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2010.12.004. Paleoproterozoic meta-evaporitic sequence in the Rompas-Rajapalot Au system,
Kärki, A., Laajoki, K., Luukas, J., 1993. Major Palaeoproterozoic shear zones of the central Peräpohja belt, northern Finland. Bull. Geol. Soc. Finl. 90, 69–108. https://doi.org/
Fennoscandian Shield. Precambr. Res. 64, 207–223. https://doi.org/10.1016/0301- 10.17741/bgsf/90.1.004.
9268(93)90077-F. Rastas, P, Huhma, H., Hanski, E., Lehtonen, M.I., Härkönen, I., Kortelainen, V., Mänttäri,
Laajoki, K., Huhma, H., 2006. Detrital zircon dating of the Paleoproterozoic I., Paakkola, J. 2001. U-Pb isotopic studies on the Kittilä greenstone area, central
Himmerkinlahti member, Posio, northern Finland; lithostratigraphic implications. Lapland, Finland. In: Vaasjoki, M. (Ed.), Radiometric age determinations from
Bull. Geol. Soc. Finl. 78, 177–182. https://doi.org/10.17741/bgsf/78.2.004. Finnish Lapland and their bearing on the timing of Precambrian volcano-sedimentary
Lahtinen, R., Korja, A.-K., Nironen, M., 2005. In: Precambrian Geology of Finland – Key to sequences. Geol. Surv. Finl., Spec. Pap. 33, 95–141.
Evolution of the Fennoscandian Shield. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 481–532. https:// Reading, H.G., 1980. Characteristics and recognition of strike-slip fault systems. In:
doi.org/10.1016/S0166-2635(05)80012-X. Balance, P.F., Reading, H.G. (Eds.), Sedimentation in Oblique–Slip Mobile Zones. Int.
Lahtinen, R., Huhma, H., Kontinen, A., Kohonen, J., Sorjonen-Ward, P., 2010. New Assoc. Sedim. Blackwell Science, Oxford. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444303735.
constraints for the source characteristics, deposition and age of the 2.1–1.9 Ga me- ch2. Spec. Publ. 4.
tasedimentary cover at the western margin of the Karelian Province. Precambr. Res. Rudnick, R.L., Gao, S., 2003. The Composition of the continental crust. In: In: Rudnick,
176 (1/4), 77–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2009.10.001. R.L. (Ed.), The Crust, Treatise on Geochemistry 3. Elsevier–Pergamon, Oxford, pp.
Lahtinen, R., Sayab, M., Karell, F., 2015a. Near–orthogonal deformation successions in 1–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/b0-08-043751-6/03016-4.
the poly–deformed Paleoproterozoic Martimo belt: implications for the tectonic Räsänen. J., Huhma, H., 2001. U-Pb datings in the Sodankylä schist area, central Finnish
20
Lapland. In: Vaasjoki, M. (Ed.), Radiometric age determinations from Finnish Lapland Precambrian Geo. Units in Finland. Stratigraphic Commission of Finland:
and their bearing on the timing of Precambrian volcano-sedimentary sequences. Precambrian Sub–Commission. Geol. Surv. Finl., Guide 55, 41.
Geol. Surv. Finl., Spec. Pap. 33, 153–188. Taylor, S.R., McLennan, S.M., 1985. The Continental Crust: Its Composition and
Räsänen, J., Vaasjoki, M. 2001. The U-Pb age of a felsic gneiss in the Kuusamo schist area: Evolution. Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 312 https://doi.org/10.1002/gj.3350210116.
reappraisal of local lithostratigraphy and possible regional correlations. In: Vaasjoki, Tyrväinen A., 1983. Sodankylän ja Sattasen kartta-alueiden kallioperä (in Finnish).
M. (Ed.), Radiometric age determinations from Finnish Lapland and their bearing on Summary: Pre–Quaternary rocks of the Sodankylä and Sattanen map-sheet areas.
the timing of Precambrian volcano-sedimentary sequences. Geol. Surv. Finl., Spec. Suomen geologinen kartta 1:100 000: kallioperäkarttojen selitykset lehdet 3713,
Pap. 33, 143–152. 3714. Espoo: Geol. Surv. Finl. 59.
Shao, T., Cheng, N., Song, M., 2016. Provenance and tectonic–paleogeographic evolution: Vanhanen, E., 2001. Geology, mineralogy and geochemistry of the Fe–Co–Au–(U) de-
Constrains from detrital zircon U-Pb ages of Late Triassic-Early Jurassic deposits in posits in the Paleoproterozoic Kuusamo Schist Belt, northeastern Finland. Geol. Surv.
the northern Sichuan basin, central China. J. Asian Earth Sci. 127, 12–31. https://doi. Finl. Bull. 399, 287.
org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2016.05.027. Verma, S.P., Armstrong-Altrin, J.S., 2013. New multi-dimensional diagrams for tectonic
Silvennoinen, A., 1972. On the stratigraphic and structural geology of the Rukatunturi discrimination of siliciclastic sediments and their application to Precambrian basins.
area, northeastern, Finland. Geol. Surv. Finl., Bull. 257, 48. Chem. Geo. 355, 117–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2013.07.014.
Skyttä, P., Piippo, S., Kloppenburg, A., Corti, G., 2019. 2. 45 Ga break–up of the Archaean Vuollo, J., Huhma, H., 2005. Paleoproterozoic mafic dikes in NE Finland. In: Lehtinen,
continent in Northern Fennoscandia: Rifting dynamics and the role of inherited M., Nurmi, P.A. & Rämö, O.T. (Eds.), Precambrian Geology of Finland: Key to the
structures within the Archaean basement. Precambr. Res. 324, 303–323. https://doi. evolution of the Fennoscandian Shield. Dev. Precambrian Geol. 14, 195–236. https://
org/10.1016/j.precamres.2019.02.004. doi.org/10.1016/S0166-2635(05)80006-4.
Speksnijder, A., 1985. Anatomy of a strike-slip fault controlled sedimentary basin, Zhao, G., Cawood, P.A., Wilde, S.A., Sun, M., 2002. Review of global 2.1–1.8 Ga colli-
Permian of the Southern Pyrenees, Spain. Sediment. Geol. 44 (3–4), 179–223. sional orogens and accreted cratons: a pre–Rodinia supercontinent? Earth-Sci. Rev.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0037-0738(85)90014-4. 59, 125–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0012-8252(02)00073-9.
Spencer, C.J., Murphy, J.B., Kirkland, C.L., Liu, Y., Mitchell, R.N., 2018. A Zoleikhaei, Y., Frei, D., Morton, A., Zamanzadeh, S.M., 2016. Roundness of heavy mi-
Palaeoproterozoic tectono–magmatic lull as a potential trigger for the supercontinent nerals (zircon and apatite) as provenance tool for unraveling recycling: a case study
cycle. Nat. Geosci. 11, 97–101. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-017-0051-y. from the Sefiddrud and Sarbaz rivers in N and SE Iran. Sediment. Geol. 342, 106–117.
Strand, K., Köykkä, J., Kohonen, J. (Eds.), 2010. Guidelines and Procedures for Naming https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2016.06.016.
21

2019 Köykkä Et Al (Diacronismo)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

2019 Köykkä Et Al (Diacronismo)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

2019 Köykkä Et Al (Diacronismo)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Precambrian Research 331 (2019) 105364

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Provenance evolution of the Paleoproterozoic metasedimentary cover T

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

1. Introduction the structural development of sedimentary basins and provenance sources

Central Lapland belt

Central Lapland belt

settings. In the high-silica diagram, samples from the Mellajoki suite

5.1. Basin evolution and regional correlations

In previous studies, the basin evolution of the CLB, PB and KB has

5.1.1. Rift basin stage

(i) Initial rifting/early syn-rift: Initial and early rift-related bimodal

marine clastic sedimentation. The provenance sources included 0738(98)00028-1.

You might also like

Pfad - The Proxy pFad of © 2024 Garber Painting. All rights reserved.