Geoscience Frontiers: J. Gregory Shellnutt

Geoscience Frontiers 5 (2014) 369e394
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China University of Geosciences (Beijing)
Geoscience Frontiers
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/gsf
Focus paper
The Emeishan large igneous province: A synthesis

J. Gregory Shellnutt*
National Taiwan Normal University, Department of Earth Science, 88 Tingzhou Road Section 4, Taipei 11677, Taiwan
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: The late Permian Emeishan large igneous province (ELIP) covers w0.3 106 km2 of the western margin
Received 9 April 2013 of the Yangtze Block and Tibetan Plateau with displaced, correlative units in northern Vietnam (Song Da
Received in revised form zone). The ELIP is of particular interest because it contains numerous world-class base metal deposits and
16 July 2013
is contemporaneous with the late Capitanian (w260 Ma) mass extinction. The flood basalts are the
Accepted 20 July 2013
signature feature of the ELIP but there are also ultramafic and silicic volcanic rocks and layered mafic-
Available online 7 August 2013
ultramafic and silicic plutonic rocks exposed. The ELIP is divided into three nearly concentric zones
(i.e. inner, middle and outer) which correspond to progressively thicker crust from the inner to the outer
Keywords:
Late Permian
zone. The eruptive age of the ELIP is constrained by geological, paleomagnetic and geochronological
Mantle plume evidence to an interval of 3 Ma. The presence of picritic rocks and thick piles of flood basalts testifies to
Large igneous province high temperature thermal regime however there is uncertainty as to whether these magmas were
Flood basalts derived from the subcontinental lithospheric mantle or sub-lithospheric mantle (i.e. asthenosphere or
Mineral deposits mantle plume) sources or both. The range of Sr (ISr z 0.7040e0.7132), Nd (3Nd(t) z 14 to þ8), Pb
Uplift and doming (206Pb/204Pb1 z 17.9e20.6) and Os (gOs z 5 to þ11) isotope values of the ultramafic and mafic rocks
does not permit a conclusive answer to ultimate source origin of the primitive rocks but it is clear that
some rocks were affected by crustal contamination and the presence of near-depleted isotope compo-
sitions suggests that there is a sub-lithospheric mantle component in the system. The silicic rocks are
derived by basaltic magmas/rocks through fractional crystallization or partial melting, crustal melting or
by interactions between mafic and crustal melts. The formation of the Fe-Ti-V oxide-ore deposits is
probably due to a combination of fractional crystallization of Ti-rich basalt and fluxing of CO2-rich fluids
whereas the Ni-Cu-(PGE) deposits are related to crystallization and crustal contamination of mafic or
ultramafic magmas with subsequent segregation of a sulphide-rich portion. The ELIP is considered to be
a mantle plume-derived LIP however the primary evidence for such a model is less convincing (e.g. uplift
and geochemistry) and is far more complicated than previously suggested but is likely to be derived from
a relatively short-lived, plume-like upwelling of mantle-derived magmas. The emplacement of the ELIP
may have adversely affected the short-term environmental conditions and contributed to the decline in
biota during the late Capitanian.
Ó 2013, China University of Geosciences (Beijing) and Peking University. Production and hosting by
Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction earth and biological sciences to explain the physical transfer of

material from the mantle to the crust and its effect on the
The study of mafic continental large igneous provinces (LIPs) biosphere. In the broadest sense continental mafic LIPs are large
requires the application of a broad range of disciplines within the (i.e. >0.5 105 km2) spatially contiguous regions of the continental
crust which host temporally and petrogenetically associated
* Tel.: þ886 2 7734 6386; fax: þ886 2 2933 3315. igneous rocks predominated by mafic compositions (Sheth, 2007a).
E-mail addresses: jgshelln@ntnu.edu.tw, gshellnutt@hotmail.com. The formation of LIPs is debated as some are considered to be
derived by deep-seated diapiric upwellings of high temperature
Peer-review under responsibility of China University of Geosciences (Beijing) magmas (i.e. mantle plume) whereas others are considered to be
derived by relatively shallow mantle melting associated with ten-
sile stress in the overriding lithosphere (Jerram and Widdowson,
2005; Campbell, 2007; Saunders et al., 2007; Bryan and Ernst,
Production and hosting by Elsevier 2008; Foulger, 2010). Regardless of their formation, LIPs are
1674-9871/$ e see front matter Ó 2013, China University of Geosciences (Beijing) and Peking University. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2013.07.003
370 J.G. Shellnutt / Geoscience Frontiers 5 (2014) 369e394
either directly or indirectly a consequence of plate tectonics and the Jahn, 2011; Shellnutt et al., 2011b; Zhong et al., 2011a; Kamenetsky
cooling of the Earth (Wilson, 1963; Morgan, 1971, 1972; White and et al., 2012). The objective of this paper is to provide an overview of
McKenzie, 1989, 1995; Coffin and Eldholm, 1994; Ernst and Buchan, the major features and issues regarding the formation of the ELIP.
2003). The paper is divided into seven parts which focus on a specific
The emplacement and eruption of LIP magmas are often topic. The first part discusses the basic geological background of the
coincident with mass extinctions as four of the major (i.e. ELIP including its context within the geology of China. The second
CretaceousePaleogene, TriassiceJurassic, middle Permian and part discusses the age and duration ELIP including the uncertainties
PermianeTriassic) mass extinctions are contemporaneous with the between geochronological techniques and interpretations. The
formation of the Deccan Traps, Central Atlantic Magmatic Province, third part discusses the formation of the non-mineralized
Emeishan large igneous province and the Siberia Traps (Raup and magmatic rocks. The fourth part focuses on the structural fea-
Sepkoski, 1982; Rampino and Stothers, 1988; Courtillot et al., tures, i.e. evidence for a fossil plume head and crust doming, and
1999; Wignall, 2001, 2005; Courtillot and Renne, 2003; White the effect that magmatism may have had on the late middle
and Saunders, 2005; Wignall et al., 2009). The emission of partic- Permian ecosystem. The metallogenesis of the ELIP is the focus of
ulate and gasses (i.e. SO2 and CO2) from the erupting lavas as well as the fifth part, specifically the formation of the Ni-Cu-(PGE) sulphide
country rock degassing may be sufficient to induce climate change, and the Fe-Ti-V oxide deposits as well as some thoughts on the
cause a reduction in sunlight and inhibit photosynthesis and/or potential formation of rare earth element (REE) deposits. The sixth
induce acid rain (Wignall, 2001; Ganino and Arndt, 2009). However section attempts to bring all of the information together outlined in
not all LIPs are coincident with biotic crises and therefore the the previous sections and provide a synthesis of the ELIP. The final
relationship may not be clear-cut (Courtillot and Renne, 2003; section discusses future research directions and opinions of ELIP-
Shellnutt et al., 2011a). Although LIPs may contribute to related topics.
ecosystem collapse they are also important sites for economic de-
posits of precious and base metals (Pirajno, 2000; Borisenko et al., 2. Geological background
2006; Ernst, 2007; Zhang et al., 2008a, b). In many cases the ore
deposits are orthomagmatic (i.e. layered intrusions, volcanogenic China is composed of three major Precambrian blocks and
massive sulphide) but due to the large volume of hot magmas smaller terranes which have been amalgamating since w1850 Ma
passing through the crust it is possible to form a variety of types or earlier (Fig. 1). In the east, the Archean North China Block (NCB)
including skarns and hydrothermal copper and gold. also known as the Sino-Korean Craton is bounded to the North by
The late Permian Emeishan large igneous province (ELIP) is the Central Asia Orogenic Belt (CAOB), a Proterozoic to Paleozoic
relatively small compared to the Siberian Traps or Central Atlantic fold and thrust belt, and to the South by the middle Triassic Central
Magmatic Province but is the focus of a tremendous amount of Orogenic Belt (Qinling-Dabie Orogenic Belt). To the west of the NCB
geological, geochemical, paleomagnetic, geochronological and and the north of the Tibetan Plateau is the Tarim Block which is a
biostratigraphic research during the past three decades. In spite of Paleoproterozoic stable craton. Southeast of the Tibetan Plateau is
its stature as a ‘smaller’ large igneous province, the ELIP is an the South China Block, a composite craton of the Yangtze Block and
important geological feature of SW China not only because it hosts the Cathaysia Block (Fig. 1).
a number of world-class orthomagmatic Fe-Ti-V oxide deposits and The NCB consists of two major Archean continental fragments
series of smaller economically important Ni-Cu-(PGE) sulphide surrounded by Paleoproterozoic orogenic belts (Zhao et al., 2005,
deposits but also the eruption of the Emeishan flood basalts is 2006). From the late Paleoproterozoic to the Paleozoic shallow
contemporaneous with the late Capitanianeearly Wuchiapingian marine carbonates were deposited on many parts of the NCB.
mass extinction (i.e. end-Guadalupian) indicating that there may be During this time, the southern margin was a site of volcanic arc
a link between the two (Zhou et al., 2002a; Zhang et al., 2006a, b; accretion and granitic magmatism (1400e1000 Ma). During the
Ganino and Arndt, 2009; Sun et al., 2010; Shellnutt et al., 2012a). Neoproterozoic extensive rift basins were formed along the
Beyond the flood basalts, economic and biogeological importance, northern and southern margins of the NCB (Wang and Mo, 1995; Li,
the ELIP contains a diverse set of igneous rocks including cumulate 1998).
mafic-ultramafic layered intrusions, picrites and the full spectrum To the south of the Central Orogenic Belt is the South China
of volcanic and plutonic silicic rocks (i.e. andesites, trachytes, rhy- Block (SCB) which comprises the ArcheaneProterozoic Yangtze
olites, syenites, granites). The fact that the magmatic plumbing Block to the northwest and the Paleo-Mesoproterozoic Cathaysia
system of the ELIP is well exposed at the surface is relatively special Block to the southeast (Wang and Mo, 1995; Chen and Jahn, 1998).
because the plutonic-hypabyssal rocks are not often observed These two blocks are in contact along the Jiangshan-Shaoxing fault
within continental mafic LIPs thus providing a nearly complete zone and likely collided during the late Mesoproterozoic
account of its development. The bulk of the geological and petro- (w1000 Ma) although this is debated (Hsu et al., 1990; Chen and
logical research, including evidence of structural doming of the Jahn, 1998). To the immediate west of the SCB is the Tibetan
crust and high temperature picritic lavas, suggests that the ELIP was Plateau. The Tibetan Plateau consists of four distinct terranes, the
formed by a mantle plume. Consequently it is considered to be one Lhasa, Qiangtang, Yidun and Songpan-Ganze, a late Triassiceearly
of the best examples of a mantle plume-derived LIP and can be used Jurassic thrust sequence composed of 10 km thick marine sedi-
as a benchmark for comparison with other continental mafic LIPs ments (Bruguier et al., 1997; Yan et al., 2003). Many of these ter-
(Campbell, 2005). ranes were accreted during the Paleozoic to Mesozoic and were
The numerous studies have produced a general understanding deformed during the India-Eurasia collision (Wang and Mo, 1995;
on the formation of the ELIP but recently many of the old views are Yin and Harrison, 2000).
giving way to new ideas which challenge the conventional ortho- Southwestern China comprises the western margin of the
doxy. Specifically that the ELIP shows evidence for doming of the Yangtze Block to the east and the eastern most part of the Tibetan
crust or that it was derived by a mantle plume is questioned as well Plateau to the west (Fig. 1). The Yangtze Block consists of Meso-
as the ongoing debate regarding the formation of the flood basalts Proterozoic granitic gneisses and metasedimentry rocks which
and oxide-ore deposits (Song et al., 2001, 2004, 2008a; Xu et al., have been intruded by Neoproterozoic (w800 Ma) granites and
2001, 2004; He et al., 2003; Zhou et al., 2005; Ganino et al., 2008; mafic rocks (Zhou et al., 2002b; Zhao and Zhou, 2007). The
Utskins-Peate and Bryan, 2008; Sun et al., 2010; Shellnutt and Neoproterozoic granites are overlain by a series of marine and
J.G. Shellnutt / Geoscience Frontiers 5 (2014) 369e394 371
o o o o o o
80 90 100 110 120 130 E
Paleo-Asian
Orogenic Belt
40o
Beijing 40oN
North China Craton
o Kunlun-Tibet Domain
30
o
30
Yangtze Block
k
oc
Bl
Taipei
n
ia
ys
ha
at
C
Hong Kong
Emeishan LIP
Figure 1. Major tectonic divisions of China (modified from Zhang et al., 1988).
terrestrial strata of the late Neoproterozoic (w600 Ma) to the 3. Age and duration of magmatism
Permian (Yan et al., 2003). The largest, single geological feature of
SW China is the late Permian ELIP and is located at the western Flood basalts have erupted regularly throughout the Earth’s
edge of the Yangtze Block near the boundary with the Songpan- history on the order of about 1 every 20 million years for continents
Ganze terrane (Figs. 1 and 2). The wedge shape distribution of but possibly as often as 1 per 10 million if oceanic plateaux are also
ELIP rocks is likely related to Mesozoic and Cenozoic faulting considered (Coffin and Eldholm, 2001; Ernst et al., 2005; Bryan and
associated with the development of the Songpan-Ganze terrane Ernst, 2008). The area and volume of a given flood basalt province is
and the India-Eurasia collision (Chung and Jahn, 1995; Chung primarily dependent on the duration of volcanism, which is related
et al., 1997, 1998). The ELIP covers an area of at least to the rate of heat loss, material available to melt, and the medium
0.3 106 km2 of SW China and northern Vietnam (Song Da zone) (i.e. subaerial or subaqueous) into which the lavas erupt. Conse-
and consists of mafic and ultramafic volcanic rocks, spatially quently, determining the start of magmatism is much easier than
associated felsic plutons and layered mafic-ultramafic intrusions, determining when it ended but most continental flood basalt
some of which host giant Fe-Ti-V oxide and Ni-Cu sulphide de- provinces are active for 10 million years with some lasting up to
posits and is subdivided into three roughly concentric zones (i.e. 50 million years whether they are punctuated or continuous (Bryan
inner, intermediate and outer) which correspond to crustal and Ernst, 2008). The initiation of ELIP volcanism is well con-
thickness estimates and differential seismic velocity layers strained by both biostratigraphic and radiometric techniques
(Fig. 2a and b). The centre of the ELIP is known as the inner zone however the cessation of magmatism is unclear and continues to be
and has the thickest crust which progressively thins from the debated.
intermediate to outer zone (Zhong et al., 2002; Xu et al., 2004; The sedimentology and biostratigraphy constrains the eruption
Zhou et al., 2005). The volcanic piles range in thickness from of the Emeishan flood basalts to the late middle Permian (He et al.,
1.0 to 5.0 km in the western half and 0.2e2.6 km in the 2007, 2010a; Sun et al., 2010). The Emeishan basalts erupted onto
eastern half and consist mostly of flood basalts with picrites in the middle Permian fusulinid-bearing Neomisellina-Yabeina zone
the lower half and basaltic-andesites and silicic volcanic rocks of the carbonate Maokou Formation which suggests they erupted
in the upper half. The volcanic rocks erupted at equatorial no early than 263 Ma (He et al., 2003, 2010b). The deposition of the
latitudes of eastern Pangaea within one normal-polarity cycle Xuanwei formation at 257 4 Ma marks the end of subaerial
suggesting rapid emplacement (Huang and Opdyke, 1998; Ali volcanism in the region indicating that it probably lasted for 10
et al., 2002; Zheng et al., 2010). The ELIP is an important host million years (He et al., 2007). Paleomagnetic data collected from
of Ni-Cu-(PGE) sulphide and Fe-Ti-V oxide mineral deposits. In basalt sections at Duge, Zhijin, Ebian and Yanyuan show evidence
the central part, namely the Panxi region, of the ELIP there are for an early period of normal magnetic polarity followed by reverse
abundant giant orthomagmatic Fe-Ti-V oxide deposits which polarity suggesting a relatively rapid (i.e. 1.5 Ma) emplacement
contribute 35.2% Ti and 6.7% V of the total global production of coinciding within one normal-polarity episode thereby reducing
these metals (Zhou et al., 2005). There are economic to sub- the likely eruption duration by nearly three times (Huang and
economic Ni-Cu-(PGE) and PGE deposits within the Panxi region Opdyke, 1998; Thomas et al., 1998; Ali et al., 2002, 2005; Zheng
but are also found in the outer parts of the ELIP (Song et al., et al., 2010). Furthermore, Thompson et al. (2001) and Xu et al.
2003). (2001) both noted the absence of weathered flow tops in most
o o
108 E
a Yangliuping
Ni-Cu
North
China
Tibetan Plateau
Yangtze
Block
India o
30 N
o 30 N
Sibumasu
Cathaysia
Block
Indochina
Fig. 2a
Taihe Ti-V
o
28 N 28oN
Xinjie Ti-V Emeishan basalt
Xichang
Mafic-ultramafic
Baima Ti-V intrusion
Panzhihua Ti-V oxide deposit
Ti-V Hongge Ti-V
Limahe Sulphide deposit
A Ni-Cu
(Ni-Cu-PGE)
Thrust
26oN
Panzhihua
B Fault 26oN
Zhubu
Pt-Pd
Inner
ne
Zone
Zo
Kunming ne
Jinbaoshan
te
ia
Zo
Pt-Pd
ed
o
24 N 24oN
er
rm
ut
te
O
In
Baimazhai
Ni-Cu
22oN 22oN
100oE 102oE 104oE 106oE 108oE
b A B
Lijiang Zhehai
0
5.8
20 6.2
Crust
Depth (km)
40 6.4
7.1 HVLC
60
80 8.1 7.7 Depleted mantle
8.4 8.3
100 8.1
8.4 8.5
8.1
Figure 2. (a) Regional distribution of the Emeishan large igneous province showing the concentric zones (dashed red lines) of the ELIP and location of Ti-V oxide and Ni-Cu-PGE
sulphide deposits (modified from Tao et al., 2010). (b) Seismic P-wave velocity (km/s) structure of the lower crust and upper mantle beneath the western Yangtze Block. The profile
is from Lijiang (A) to Zhehai (B) (modified from Xu et al., 2004).
sections beneath the overlying sediments may be due to rapid the lithosphere is under extension (Richards et al., 1989; Campbell
emplacement and burial. and Griffiths, 1990; Griffiths and Campbell, 1991; Sheth, 1999;
The geological and paleomagnetic data indicate that the Favela and Anderson, 2000; Ernst and Buchan, 2003; Campbell,
Emeishan basalts erupted during the late middle Permian which 2005; Ernst et al., 2005; Natland and Winterer, 2005; Saunders
lasted for w2 million years or less however the radiometric ages of et al., 2007; Bryan and Ernst, 2008; Foulger, 2010). There are a
all magmatic rocks reveal a more complicated situation. There are number of geological, geochemical and thermal criteria which
well over 50 published radiometric age dates of volcanic and indicate whether a given LIP is generated by a mantle plume. The
plutonic rocks which are interpreted to be a part of the ELIP and main geological features associated with mantle plume-derived LIP
range from w236 Ma to w266 Ma (Table 1). The large range of include: short duration of magmatism (e.g. 1 Ma), the eruption of
radiometric age dates for ELIP-related rocks is in direct conflict with ultramafic lavas, thermal anomalies, voluminous flood basalts and
a rapid emplacement model (Fig. 3). The range of dates may, in fact, doming of the crust (Campbell, 2007). Some of the criteria are
be an artifact of different radiometric methods used, misinter- difficult to assess, in particular the eruption duration and doming of
preting rocks, poor data processing and the rock type (i.e. volcanic the crust. Furthermore, determining the thermal history of an
vs. plutonic). The reported 40Ar-39Ar ages of the Emeishan basalts ancient LIP is problematic however it can be surmised by the
range between 246 4 Ma and 256 0.8 Ma and were initially presence of ultramafic lavas and by calculating their mantle po-
interpreted to be pene-contemporaneous with the Siberian Traps tential temperatures (Herzberg and O’Hara, 2002; Herzberg et al.,
and the end-Permian mass extinction. However zircon U/Pb dates 2007; Herzberg and Asimow, 2008). The ELIP is considered to be
of plutonic rocks consistently yielded ages around 260 Ma although a mantle plume-derived large igneous province and exhibits, to
there are a number of results which yielded ages between 251 Ma varying degrees, the criteria outlined for mantle plume-LIPs
and 255 Ma (Fig. 3). The young 40Ar-39Ar basalt ages were consid- although there is evidence that the subcontinental lithospheric
ered to be an artifact of post-emplacement thermal resetting mantle (SCLM) may be a contributing source and that the mantle
caused by regional tectonic events (e.g. Longmenshan thrust belt plume model is too simplistic (Song et al., 2001, 2004, 2008a; Xu
and the North China-South China collision) however, more likely, et al., 2001, 2004, 2007a, b; He et al., 2003, 2007; Xiao et al.,
they were not corrected for systematic bias inherent in the K-Ar 2004; Shellnutt and Zhou, 2007; Shellnutt et al., 2008; Shellnutt
system that results in younger ages (Ali et al., 2004; Renne et al., and Jahn, 2011; Kamenetsky et al., 2012). This section summa-
2010, 2011; Shellnutt et al., 2012a). The first high precision rizes the magmatic features of the ELIP.
zircon chemical abrasion ID-TIMS geochronology results from a
suite of diabase dykes and granitic rocks yielded ages tightly cluster 4.1. Ultramafic volcanic rocks
between 257.6 0.5 Ma and 259.6 0.5 Ma and currently is the
best emplacement age available for the ELIP (Shellnutt et al., High temperature ultramafic volcanic rocks are recognized
2012a). within the inner zone of the ELIP at Binchaun, Yongsheng, Ertan,
The volcanic rocks likely erupted over the course of a few million Muli, Dali, Jinping, and Lijiang (Polyakov et al., 1991; Glotov et al.,
(i.e. 2 Ma) years however that does not necessarily mean that 2001; Hanski et al., 2004, 2010; Hou et al., 2006; Zhang et al.,
plutonic magmatism ended as abruptly. There are many published 2006a, b; Wang et al., 2007; Ali et al., 2010; He et al., 2010c;
zircon U/Pb age dates of ELIP rocks that have post-257 Ma ages and Kamenetsky et al., 2012). There are also correlative units in the
are used as evidence to suggest that plutonic magmatism Song Da zone of northern Vietnam which was tectonically trans-
continued for another 20 Ma or so (Zhong et al., 2007, 2009, 2011a; posed by w600 km sinistral offset during the Paleogene activation
Shellnutt and Zhou, 2008; Shellnutt et al., 2008; Xu et al., 2008; Luo of the Ailao Shan-Red River fault system (Chung et al., 1997). The
et al., 2013). However the relatively large (i.e. 2 Ma) error on some rocks are regarded as picrites as they contain between 14 wt.% and
age dates does not permit greater constraint than 10 Ma and thus it 27 wt.% MgO but, in some cases, their composition and textures (i.e.
cannot be verified if plutonism actually continued beyond the spinifex) bear some resemblance to the komatiites of Gorgona Is-
volcanism. Furthermore, two syenitic intrusions that were dated land (Hanski et al., 2004; Kamenetsky et al., 2012). The picrites are
using the ID-TIMS methods have shown that rocks which were found at various stratigraphic levels within the volcanic piles
previously considered to be w252 Ma are actually w259 Ma and however they are typically found no higher than the lower half
diabase dykes that were considered to be w242 Ma are between which suggests they were amongst the earliest eruptive rocks (Xu
257 and 259 Ma thus casting doubt on an excessively long et al., 2001; Hanski et al., 2004; Zhang et al., 2006a, b; Li et al.,
magmatic duration (Shellnutt et al., 2012a). It is possible that 2010).
plutonic magmatism continued beyond the volcanism if the heat The whole rock composition of primary mantle-derived ultra-
source dissipates slowly over the course of a few million years but it mafic rocks can be used to estimate their eruption temperatures
is unlikely that ELIP magmatism continued for an additional 20 and mantle potential temperatures (McKenzie and O’Nions, 1991;
million years. Therefore, providing a heat source is available, it is Albarede, 1992; Herzberg and O’Hara, 2002; Herzberg et al.,
possible that underplated mafic ELIP rocks could have served as a 2007; Herzberg and Asimow, 2008). The eruption and mantle po-
source for post-ELIP magmas which may have similar geochemical tential temperatures (Tp) of the ELIP picrites have been estimated
characteristics as the ELIP rocks (Xu et al., 2004; Shellnutt et al., using different techniques by Xu et al. (2001), Zhang et al. (2006a,
2008). b), Ali et al. (2010) and He et al. (2010c). Xu et al. (2001), using REE
inversion, have suggested that the mantle potential temperatures
4. Magmatic rocks of the Emeishan large igneous province are >1550 C whereas Zhang et al. (2006a, b), using the empirical
estimate method of Albarede (1992), calculated a Tp of
Mafic continental large igneous provinces represent the physical 1630e1690 C. In contrast, both He et al. (2010c) and Ali et al.
and chemical transfer of material from the mantle to the crust (2010) using PRIMELT2 calculated the initial MgO values of the
(Coffin and Eldholm, 1994; Sheth, 2007a; Bryan and Ernst, 2008). picrites to be 20% which corresponds to eruption temperatures of
The nature of the mantle melting is a debated issue and is primarily w1440 C and a mantle potential temperatures between w1540 C
focused on whether LIPs are formed by hot, deep-seated upwelling and 1610 C. The wide-range of estimates is perhaps a little
of mantle material (i.e. mantle plume) or if they are merely formed disconcerting regarding the precision of the Tp but the fact that the
as a consequence of shallow decompression melting in areas where temperatures are consistently >1540 C suggests that, no matter
Table 1
Summary of reported age dates from the Emeishan large igneous province.
Sample Rock type Method Material Age (Ma) Reference

206
GS03-092 Syenite Pb/238U Zircon 259 5 Shellnutt et al. (2009)
206
GS04-016 Syenite Pb/238U Zircon 258 4 Shellnutt et al. (2009)
206
GS05-056B Gabbro Pb/238U Zircon 261 2 Shellnutt et al. (2009)
206
TH-14 Granite Pb/238U Zircon 261 2 Xu et al. (2008)
206
LQ-3 Nepheline syenite Pb/238U Zircon 262 4 Luo et al. (2007)
206
GS04-077 Mafic dyke Pb/238U Zircon 261 5 Shellnutt and Jahn (2011)
206
MY-5 Pyroxene syenite Pb/238U Zircon 260 4 Xu et al. (2008)
206
GS05-065 Syenite Pb/238U Zircon 260 2 Shellnutt and Zhou (2007)
206
HG-1 Granite Pb/238U Zircon 255 4 Xu et al. (2008)
206
ALH-0401 Granite Pb/238U Zircon 251 6 Zhong et al. (2007)
206
GS03-122 Syenite Pb/238U Zircon 252 3 Shellnutt and Zhou (2008)
206
WB-0604 Syenite Pb/238U Zircon 253 2 Zhong et al. (2009)
206
SL-2 Diorite Pb/238U Zircon 260 4 Xu et al. (2008)
206
HC-2 Quartz syenite Pb/238U Zircon 266 5 Xu et al. (2008)
206
GS04-119 Mafic dyke Pb/238U Zircon 242 2 Shellnutt et al. (2008)
206
Panzhihua Picritic dyke Pb/238U Zircon 261.4 4.6 Hou et al. (2013)
206
BC-Tu#-3 Rhyolitic tuff Pb/238U Zircon 238 3 Xu et al. (2008)
206
20BS-116 Basalt Pb/238U Zircon 260 5 Fan et al. (2008)
206
SCHL-66 Ultramafic dyke Pb/238U Zircon 262 3 Guo et al. (2004)
206
TH-1 Gabbro Pb/238U Zircon 263 4 Shellnutt et al. (2011b)
206
Mianhuadi Metagabbro Pb/238U Zircon 259.6 0.8 Zhou et al. (2013)
206
CD-0401 Granite Pb/238U Zircon 261 4 Zhong et al. (2007)
206
HGF-01 Gabbro Pb/238U Zircon 259.3 1.3 Zhong and Zhu (2006)
206
DS-01 Gabbro Pb/238U Zircon 260 0.8 Zhong and Zhu (2006)
206
PZH72 Leucogabbro Pb/238U Zircon 263 3 Zhou et al. (2005)
206
ZJ-3 Sediments Pb/238U Zircon 257 3 He et al. (2007)
206
SW-5 Sediments Pb/238U Zircon 260 5 He et al. (2007)
206
Xinjie Gabbro Pb/238U Zircon 259 3 Zhou et al. (2002)
206
FL14 Diorite Pb/238U Zircon 258 3 Zhou et al. (2006)
206
FL7 Diabase Pb/238U Zircon 260 3 Zhou et al. (2006)
206
LM18 Gabbro Pb/238U Zircon 263 3 Zhou et al. (2008)
206
Zb4 Diorite Pb/238U Zircon 261 1 Zhou et al. (2008)
206
MY6 Syenite Pb/238U Zircon 262 2 Zhou et al. (2008)
40
20BS-71 Basalt Ar/30Ar Whole rock 253.6 0.4 Fan et al. (2004)
40
40
206
20BS-76 Basalt Pb/238U Zircon 253.7 6.1 Fan et al. (2004)
40
EM-90 Basalt Ar/30Ar Whole rock 251.5 0.9 Lo et al. (2002)
40
EM-PZH01 Syenite Ar/30Ar Biotite 254.6 1.3 Lo et al. (2002)
40
EM-37 Basalt Ar/30Ar Whole rock 252 1.3 Lo et al. (2002)
40
EM-MMG05 Syenite Ar/30Ar Biotite 252 1.3 Lo et al. (2002)
40
EM-PZH11 Syenite Ar/30Ar Biotite 251.6 1.6 Lo et al. (2002)
40
EM-86 Trachyte Ar/30Ar Hornblende 252.8 1.3 Lo et al. (2002)
40
EM-15 Basalt Ar/30Ar Whole rock 255.9 5.7 Lo et al. (2002)
206
Guanxi Basalt Pb/238U Zircon 257 7 Lai et al. (2012)
40
Ch-97-90 Pyroxeneite Ar/30Ar Phlogopite 254 5 Boven et al. (2002)
206
Jinbaoshan Wehrlite Pb/238U Zircon 260.6 3.5 Tao et al. (2009)
206
Jinbaoshan Hornblendite Pb/238U Zircon 260.7 5.6 Tao et al. (2009)
206
CD-0701 Mafic enclave Pb/238U Zircon 259.5 2.7 Zhong et al. (2011)
206
CD-0703 Mafic enclave Pb/238U Zircon 259 3.1 Zhong et al. (2011)
206
BM-0703 Gabbro Pb/238U Zircon 258.2 2.2 Zhong et al. (2011)
206
TJ-0602 Syenite Pb/238U Zircon 258.5 2.3 Zhong et al. (2011)
206
TJ-0401 Syenite Pb/238U Zircon 257.8 2.6 Zhong et al. (2011)
206
CD-0401 Granite Pb/238U Zircon 256.2 1.5 Zhong et al. (2011)
206
WB-0703-1 Gabbro Pb/238U Zircon 257.9 2.4 Zhong et al. (2011)
206
WB-0703-1 Gabbro Pb/238U Zircon 255.4 3.1 Zhong et al. (2011))
206
WB-0701-1 Syenodiorite Pb/238U Zircon 259.4 1.1 Zhong et al. (2011)
206
WB-0701-6 Syenodiroite Pb/238U Zircon 259.2 1.3 Zhong et al. (2011)
206
20BS-76 Basalt Pb/238U Zircon 259 4 Fan et al. (2008)
206
WB-702 Syenodiorite Pb/238U Zircon 257.8 2.3 Zhong et al. (2011)
206
WB-705 Syenodiroite Pb/238U Zircon 259.8 1.6 Zhong et al. (2011)
206
WB-0604 Syenite Pb/238U Zircon 255.8 1.8 Zhong et al. (2011)
206
HG-0701 Gabbro Pb/238U Zircon 258.7 2 Zhong et al. (2011)
206
HG-0703 Gabbro Pb/238U Zircon 258.9 2.1 Zhong et al. (2011)
206
ALH-0401 Granite Pb/238U Zircon 256.8 2.8 Zhong et al. (2011)
206
ALH-0702 Granite Pb/238U Zircon 256.2 3 Zhong et al. (2011)
206
TH-0701 Gabbro Pb/238U Zircon 258.8 2.3 Zhong et al. (2011)
206
GS03-111 Mafic dyke Pb/238U Zircon 257.6 0.5 Shellnutt et al. (2012a)
206
206
206
GS05-067 Syenite Pb/238U Zircon 259.6 0.5 Shellnutt et al. (2012a)
206
DHS-1 Syenite Pb/238U Zircon 259.1 0.5 Shellnutt et al. (2012a)
206
GS05-059 Syenite Pb/238U Zircon 258.9 0.7 Shellnutt et al. (2012a)
206
GS04-143 Granite Pb/238U Zircon 258.4 0.6 Shellnutt et al. (2012a)
206
JW-1 Ignimbrite Pb/238U Zircon 263 4 He et al. (2007)
206
CT-2 Clayey tuff Pb/238U Zircon 260 4 He et al. (2007)
24
22
Zircon U-Pb
40 39
Ar/ Ar
20 N = 76
18
16
Frequency
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
235 240 245 250 255 260 265 270
40
Figure 3. Frequency distribution of whole rock Ar/39Ar and zircon U/Pb radioisotopic age dates of rocks from the ELIP.
the precision, the estimates are at least 150 C above the Tp esti- subcontinental lithospheric mantle which may be comprised of
mates of primitive MORB values and thus indicative of a high variable proportions of eclogite, garnet pyroxenite and peridotite
temperature regime (Herzberg et al., 2007; Ali et al., 2010). rather than a deep-seated mantle plume source or asthenospheric
The ELIP picritic rocks can be subdivided into LREE-enriched, source. In contrast, the prevailing view is that the ultramafic rocks
LREE-depleted and may be further subdivided into high-Ti are pristine primitive melts from the starting plume head that are
(TiO2 ¼ 1.1e2.4 wt.%) and low-Ti (TiO2 ¼ 0.6e1.6 wt.%) varieties in some cases, modified via interactions with one of or a combi-
(Hanski et al., 2004, 2010; Zhang et al., 2006a, b; Wang et al., 2007; He nation of crustal material and lithospheric mantle melts and AFC
et al., 2010c; Li et al., 2012). Li et al. (2010) however suggested that the processes (Hanski et al., 2004, 2010; Zhang et al., 2006a, b, 2008a,
picrites at Muli are better divided into three groups (i.e. Type-1, Type- b; Wang et al., 2007; He et al., 2010c; Li et al., 2010). Wang et al.
2A and Type-2B) on the basis of gOs and 3 Nd(t) and to a lesser extent (2007) suggested that the differences in the Ti- and LREE-
HFSE data. Type-1 picrites are characterized as having gOs ¼ þ7.5 varieties are explained by higher degrees of anhydrous melting
to þ11.5 and 3 Nd(t) ¼ þ6 to þ8 whereas the Type-2 picrites have at shallow mantle depths (i.e. LREE-depleted) and the mantle
gOs ¼ 4.2 to 0.3 and 3 Nd(t) < þ6.5. The gOs (i.e. gOs ¼ 2.4 to 0.9) source modified by subducted oceanic crust (i.e. LREE-enriched).
values reported by Zhang et al. (2008a, b) from Lijiang area are more Some of the picrites, although certainly not all, show the
similar to the Type-2 Muli picrites of Li et al. (2010). The Pb isotope most depleted Sr-Nd-Os isotope signatures (i.e. ISr z 0.7040;
data (i.e. 206Pb/204Pb ¼ 17.933e18.883; 207Pb/204Pb ¼ 15.513e15.589; 3 Nd(t) z þ8; gOs z þ11) in the entire ELIP and implies there is a
208
Pb/204Pb ¼ 37.93e38.85) of the picritic rocks were reported by depleted mantle (i.e. sub-lithosphere) component in some of the
Zhang et al. (2006a, b) indicate that they are similar to oceanic hot- rocks (Hanski et al., 2004; Li et al., 2010, 2012). Therefore it is
spots (i.e. Indian Ocean) and the Siberian Traps. possible that some picrites represent original depleted mantle
The formation of the ultramafic lavas is a ‘hotly’ debated topic. material which was modified by interactions with crustal material
Similar to the ELIP as a whole, the basic facts are accepted but the and possibly an SCLM component whereas other picrites are
details are contested. For example, there is general agreement that derived from an SCLM source.
the ultramafic rocks erupted relatively early, they are primitive,
high temperature melts and that they represent a large (i.e. >20%) 4.2. The Emeishan flood basalts
amount of melting from a garnet-bearing mantle source (Hanski
et al., 2004, 2010; Zhang et al., 2005, 2006a, b; Wang et al., The flood basalts are the signature feature of the ELIP and testify
2007; Kamenetsky et al., 2012). However there are different in- to a widespread mantle melting event. The total maximum thick-
terpretations regarding the nature and origin of the source. ness of basaltic flows is w5 km located in the western portion (i.e.
Kamenetsky et al. (2012) have suggested that the two series (i.e. Yunnan) of the ELIP whereas in the eastern portion (i.e. Guizhou)
high-Ti and low-Ti) of picrites are derived from separate mantle total flow thickness is only a few hundred metres (Lin, 1985; Huang,
sources, a peridotite source for the low-Ti series and a garnet 1986; Xu et al., 2001). The average flood basalt thickness
pyroxenite for the high-Ti series, and originate from the throughout the entire region is estimated to bew700 m (Lin, 1985).
The known area of the ELIP is considered to cover w0.25 106 km2 are considered to have ‘high-Ti’ basaltic parental magmas and
with a total volume of w0.3 106 km3 however there are sug- paleomagnetic data suggest that there is no definitive temporal
gestions that the volume was closer w0.6 106 km3 and that the relationship between the eruption of the ‘low- and high-’ Ti ba-
calculated total amount of material added to the crust was salts (Zhou et al., 2008; Pang et al., 2009, 2010, 2013; Zheng et al.,
w8.9 106 km3 (Lin, 1985; Wignall, 2001; Zhu et al., 2003). The 2010; Shellnutt and Jahn, 2011). If there is a temporal-spatial-
original area and volume of the ELIP can only be speculated because compositional relationship of the Emeishan basalts then more
the region has experienced substantial deformation associated definitive evidence is required.
with the amalgamation of the North China, South China and The Emeishan basalts are chemically similar to many conti-
Indochina blocks during the early to middle Mesozoic and the early nental tholeiities however the ‘higher-Ti’ basalts are more similar to
Paleogene Indo-Eurasian collision. Many mafic LIPs, such as the OIB than the ‘lower-Ti’ basalts (Fig. 5). The whole rock Sr and Nd
Siberian Traps or Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP), cover isotopes of the Emeishan basalts indicate that they could be derived
an area >1 106 km2 which dwarf the relatively modest size of the from a heterogeneous mantle source, for example mixing between
ELIP. This is not to say the ELIP is insignificant but rather that size is two distinct isotopic sources, and/or experienced variable degrees
not a prerequisite in order to be geologically significant. of crustal assimilation (Fig. 6). The typical range of the 3 Nd(t) values
The early themes of Emeishan basalt studies was that they of the Emeishan basalts is between 5 and þ6 as both the ‘high-Ti’
appeared to be readily divisible into two main compositional basalts (i.e. 3 Nd(t) ¼ 3.6 to þ4.8) and the ‘low-Ti’ basalts (i.e.
groups, with further sub-groupings (i.e. LT1, LT2, HT1, HT2 and 3 Nd(t) ¼ 14.2 to þ6.4) completely overlap. Assuming the pristine
HT3), on the basis of their TiO2 wt.% and Ti/Y ratio and that there end-member source of the Emeishan basalts has an 3 Nd(t) value
is a spatial-temporal distribution (Song et al., 2001; Xu et al., of þ7, then more than 20% assimilation of Yangtze Block upper
2001, 2004; Xiao et al., 2004; He et al., 2010c; Zheng et al., crustal rocks is required to reproduce the isotope trend observed in
2010; Lai et al., 2012). The division into ‘high-Ti’ and ‘low-Ti’ Fig. 6a. So much crustal assimilation is unlikely to occur because the
groups corresponded to a petrological distinction as the ‘high-Ti’ rocks would no longer be basaltic in composition and assimilation
(i.e. TiO2 >2.5 wt.%) basalts were considered to be derived by low would induce crystallization in the host magma before more
degrees (<8%) of partial melting of the pristine source whereas assimilation could occur (Glazner, 2007). Furthermore, many
the ‘low-Ti’ basalts (i.e. TiO2 < 2.5 wt.%) were considered to be Emeishan basalts that have low 3 Nd(t) values (i.e. 3 Nd(t) 0) also
derived from either the subcontinental lithospheric mantle have trace element ratios, such as Th/NbPM, Nb/La, Ta/Yb that do not
(SCLM) or picritic magmas that assimilated upper crust (Xiao indicate so much crustal contamination is needed (Fig. 7). In other
et al., 2004; Wang et al., 2007; Fan et al., 2008; Song et al., words, crustal contamination is not an end-member component in
2008; Zhou et al., 2008; He et al., 2010). The inference is that the Emeishan source material and that it likely occurs in varying
the type of basalt is indicative of the type of mineral deposit (i.e. proportions according to the precise emplacement conditions (e.g.
sulphide or oxide) which may be present in the immediate area location, country rock, amount of source melting, temperature).
(Song et al., 2008a, 2009; Zhou et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2011). On The major implication is that the Emeishan source is likely to be
the other hand, Xu et al. (2007) argued, based on Os, Pb and Nd heterogeneous. The 206Pb/204Pb1 (18.3e20.6) ratios, positive D8/4
isotope data, the opposite with the ‘high-Ti’ basalts are derived (67.7e83.0) and D7/4 (0.96e11.0) appear to support a heteroge-
from the SCLM whereas the ‘low-Ti’ basalts are derived from the neous source because Fan et al. (2008) interpreted the data as ev-
mantle plume source. The Ti-classification scheme, including the idence for HIMU- and EM1-components and thus mantle plume-
various sub-groupings, and hence the petrological connotation lithosphere interactions (Fig. 6bed).
does not appear to be as robust as initially indicated (Hao et al., The source of the basalts, as with the ultramafic rocks, is a highly
2004; Hou et al., 2011; Shellnutt and Jahn, 2011). The Ti- debated issue. There are suggestions the basalts are derived either
classification scheme is somewhat arbitrary and that there is, in directly from the SCLM or from sub-lithospheric source or as de-
fact, a continuous spectrum of compositions rather than two rivative melts from the picritic rocks (Song et al., 2001, 2004,
distinct groups (Fig. 4). 2008a, b; Xu et al., 2001; Hanski et al., 2004; Xiao et al., 2004;
The geographic distribution of the Emeishan basalts between Hou et al., 2006; Wang et al., 2007; Fan et al., 2008; Zhou et al.,
the inner and outer zones has led to speculation that there is a 2008; Wang et al., 2011). Isotope data and trace elements can
consistent spatial, temporal and chemical relationship where the usually distinguish between possible source contributions but in
‘higher-Ti’ basalts are located mostly in the outer zone and the the case of the ELIP they are not particularly insightful. The total
‘lower-Ti’ basalts are located mostly in the inner zone (Xu et al., range of 3 Nd(t) for all of the mafic and ultramafic rocks is 10 to þ8.
2001, 2004). The implication is that the ‘higher-Ti’ basalts The large range of Nd-isotopes is the same with the Sr (ISr
represent the last eruptive rocks however the spatial- z0.7040e0.7132), Os (gOs z 5 to þ11) and Pb isotopes
compositional variation is debatable and may not exist. It is (206Pb/204Pb1 z 17.9e19.7). Even if samples are screened for
known that some ‘high-Ti’ basalts are present within the inner contamination there is still a large range. Trace elements are no
zone however they were considered to be young as the ‘low-Ti’ more or less useful as there is a continuous compositional range
basalts are typically the basal flows in this area. Although there across all of the basalts (i.e. ‘high- and low-Ti’) and the chemical
are many stratigraphic profiles with basal ‘low-Ti’ basaltic flows trends which could be interpreted as crustal assimilation could in
(e.g. Binchuan, Ta Khoa, Chieng Ngam, Yangliuping, Ertan) there fact represent mixing between a subducted sediment component
are almost an equal amount of sections which have basal ‘high-Ti’ (e.g. GLOSS) and the mantle source (Fig. 7aec). Therefore crustal
flows, for example, Heishitou, Panzhihua, Longzhoushan, assimilation, fractional crystallization of picritic magmas, amount
Yanyuan Suoi Chat and Doi Bu (Xu et al., 2001, 2003; Song et al., of source melting, heterogeneous mantle, SCLM and mantle plume
2006; Qi and Zhou, 2008; Qi et al., 2008; Zheng et al., 2010; Anh source cannot be individually ruled out as mechanisms or sources
et al., 2011; Shellnutt and Jahn, 2011). Additionally, ‘high-Ti’ mafic which have contributed to the basalt genesis. In other words, there
dykes have ages between 257 Ma and 260 Ma indicating that is no consensus on the formation of the basalts beyond the fact that
they are no more or less likely to be older or younger than other they were derived either indirectly or directly form some part of the
intrusive rocks in the inner zone (Shellnutt et al., 2012a). The mantle at 260 Ma. In all likelihood both lithospheric and sub-
concentration of the Fe-Ti oxide within the inner zone is also at ithospheric mantle sources were tapped and that crustal assimi-
odds with the spatial-compositional distribution because they lation occurred in some instances.
a 35 b 40
Low-Ti High-Ti
Low-Ti High-Ti
basalt basalt 35
2.5 wt%
30 basalt basalt
500
30
25
N= 452
25
Frequency
Frequency
Mean= 2.80
20 Std dev= 0.99
20
15 N= 432
Mean= 542 15
Std dev= 138
10
10
5 5
0 0
200 400 600 800 1000 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Ti/Y TiO2 (wt%)
TiO2
c 7 d +10
6
5
+5
5
0
Nd(T)
Sm/Yb
3
-5
2
-10
1 High-Ti
Low-Ti
0 -15
300 500 700 900 200 400 600 800 1000
Ti/Y Ti/Y
Figure 4. Frequency distribution plots of (a) Ti/Y showing the 500 division line and (b) TiO2 (wt.%) showing the 2.5 wt.% division, (c) Sm/Yb ratio vs. Ti/Y of the Emeishan basalts
showing a continuous trend and (d) the range of 3 Nd(t) vs. Ti/Y. Data taken from Song et al. (2001, 2003, 2004, 2008a), Xu et al. (2001), Xiao et al. (2003, 2004), Hou et al. (2006),
Wang et al. (2007), Fan et al. (2008), Qi et al. (2008), Qi and Zhou (2008), Shellnutt and Jahn (2011), Anh et al. (2011) and Lai et al. (2012).
4.3. Silicic rocks and ignimbrite and range in composition from peraluminous, met-
aluminous and peralkaline (Shellnutt and Jahn, 2010; Xu et al., 2010;
The silicic volcanic and plutonic rocks of the ELIP are a volu- Anh et al., 2011). The peralkaline rocks have positive 3 Nd(t) values, Eu/
metrically minor (i.e. 5%) component but testifies to the diversity Eu* < 1, LREE-enriched and have distinct negative primitive mantle
of magmas that can be produced within large igneous provinces. In normalized Ba, Sr and Ti anomalies. The geochemical data suggest
general, silicic volcanic rocks are commonly exposed in the upper that these rocks are derived by fractional crystallization of mafic
portions of the flood basalt stratigraphy whereas the plutonic rocks magmas resembling the Ti-rich Emeishan basalt with minimal, if any,
typically remain buried with the rest of the magmatic pluming crustal assimilation (Shellnutt and Jahn, 2010; Xu et al., 2010). In
system. The ELIP is an excellent region to study the silicic rocks contrast, the metaluminous to peraluminous rocks have 3 Nd(t) 0,
because both the volcanic and plutonic rocks are well exposed. Eu/Eu* 1, LREE-enriched and have negative primitive mantle
The silicic volcanic rocks of the ELIP are found within the upper normalized Sr and Ti anomalies. Anh et al. (2011) have suggested that
third of the stratigraphy within the inner and Song Da zones. The the metaluminous to peraluminous rocks represent extensive frac-
silicic rocks classify as andesites, trachy-andesite, trachyte, rhyolite tionation of higher-Ti Emeishan basaltic magma but, unlike the
2
10
Active continental
margins
10
1
S
CA
Th/Yb
OIB
0
10 Oceanic
island-arcs
-1
E-MORB SC
10
TH W
MORB F
-2
10
10
-2
10
-1
100 5
Ta/Yb
Figure 5. Th/Yb vs. Ta/Yb basalt tectonomagmatic discrimination diagrams of Wilson (1989) for the Emeishan basalts. S ¼ shoshonitic, CA ¼ calc-alkaline, TH ¼ tholeiitic. The
vectors are S ¼ subduction component, C ¼ crustal contamination, W ¼ within-plate enrichment and F ¼ fractional crystallization.
peralkaline rocks, assimilated crustal material. The stratigraphic po- peraluminous but can be metaluminous and have characteristics
sition of the silicic rocks is consistent with a fractionation hypothesis such as Eu/Eu* < 1.0, negative 3 Nd(t) values, negative Nb-Ta prim-
because crust-derived melts should be closer to the lower portions of itive mantle normalized anomalies, and LREE enrichment with flat
the volcanic pile (c.f. Shellnutt et al., 2012b). HREE chondrite normalized patterns. The peraluminous rocks are
The plutonic rocks of the ELIP range in composition from syenitic considered to be derived by crustal melting associated with the
to granitic and, similar to the volcanic rocks, have alumina saturation injection of high temperature Emeishan magmas (Shellnutt et al.,
indices (ASI) of peralkaline, metaluminous and peraluminous 2011c). The zircon Hf isotopic data from the mantle-derived gran-
(Shellnutt and Zhou, 2007; Shellnutt et al., 2011b). The ASI values for itoids rocks have 3 Hf(t) z þ9 which are higher than crustal-derived
the granitic rocks provide a relatively robust system for initial Emeishan granites but lower than depleted mantle (Xu et al., 2008;
petrogenetic interpretations as the peralkaline rocks are considered Shellnutt et al., 2009b). Furthermore the mantle-derived granitoids
to be derived by fractional crystallization of Emeishan mafic magmas, do not show compelling evidence (e.g. trace element ratios) for
the metaluminous are either derived from mixing of mafic magmas crustal assimilation and the 3 Hf(t) values may be representative of
and crustal material (i.e. hybrid) or by partial melting of underplated their mafic parental source (Shellnutt et al., 2009b).
mafic rocks (i.e. mantle-derived) and the peralumuinous rocks are The formation of the silicic plutonic and volcanic rocks, in
derived by crustal melting (Table 2) (Luo et al., 2007; Shellnutt and contrast to the basalts, is simpler in many respects. Simply put, the
Zhou, 2007, 2008; Zhong et al., 2007, 2009, 2011a; Xu et al., 2008; silicic rocks are either derived directly or indirectly (e.g. partial
Shellnutt et al., 2009a, b, 2011c, Shellnutt and Iizuka, 2012). melting or fractional crystallization) from mafic magmas/rocks, by
The peralkaline granitic rocks are defined by their chemical crustal melting or mixing of mafic magmas and crustal material. The
characteristics as having Eu/Eu* < 1.0, 3 Nd(t) > þ1.5; positive zircon petrogenesis of the silicic rocks can be more easily constrained than
3 Hf(t) values, negative Ba, Sr and Ti primitive mantle normalized the basalts using Sr-Nd-Pb-Hf isotopes and trace element ratios.
anomalies and higher (i.e. >890 C) temperature estimates
(Shellnutt and Iizuka, 2011). The peralkaline rocks typically do not 5. Structural features and ecological impact of the Emeishan
show much evidence for crustal assimilation although there is at large igneous province
least one pluton (i.e. Cida) where this may be the case (Zhong et al.,
2007; Shellnutt et al., 2011c; Luo et al., 2013). The mantle-derived 5.1. High velocity layers in the crust
metaluminous granitoids are characterized by Eu/Eu* > 1.0, 3 Nd(t)
values þ1.5; positive zircon 3 Hf(t) values, depleted Th-UPM and Zr- Perhaps one of the most intriguing evidence in support of a
HfPM anomalies and positive BaPM anomalies and lower (i.e. mantle plume model for the ELIP is the differential high seismic
<900 C) temperature estimates whereas the hybrid metaluminous layers within the Yangtze Block beneath the region considered to be
rocks do not have definitive chemical characteristics partially due the epicenter of magmatism (i.e. inner zone). The same region is
to their mixed nature and the fact that few of these rocks have been shown to have thicker average crust than the middle and outer
identified but they have Eu/Eu* z 1.0, 3 Nd(t) ¼ 0.7 to þ1.4 and zones (Xu et al., 2004; Xu and He, 2007; Chen et al., 2010). The
zircon 3 Hf(t) ¼ þ1.4. The last group of granitic rocks are typically interpretation is that the deep high seismic velocity layers
Figure 6. (a) Sr-Nd plot showing the known range of Emeishan ultramafic and mafic volcanic rocks. (b) 87Sr/86Srinitial vs. 206Pb/204Pb(T) plot of the Emeishan basalts from Guangxi
and ultramafic rocks from Lijiang (western ELIP). (c) 207Pb/204Pb(T) vs. 206Pb/204Pb(T) of the Emeishan basalts from Guangxi and ultramafic rocks from Lijiang (western ELIP). (d)
208
Pb/204Pb(T) vs. 206Pb/204Pb(T) of the Emeishan basalts from Guangxi and ultramafic rocks from Lijiang (western ELIP). Emeishan ultramafic and mafic data taken from Xu et al.
(2001), Xiao et al. (2003, 2004), Song et al. (2004, 2008a, b), Hou et al. (2006), Wang et al. (2007), Fan et al. (2008), Qi et al. (2008), Qi and Zhou (2008), Shellnutt and Jahn (2011),
Anh et al. (2011), Kamenetsky et al. (2012) and Lai et al. (2012). EMI and HIMU range taken from Zindler and Hart (1986). GLOSS (global subducting sediment) values taken from
Plank and Langmuir (1998) and Chauvel et al. (2008). FOZO range taken from Hart et al. (1992) and Campbell (2007). The range of Yangtze Block lower crust rock compositions taken
from Wang et al. (2007).
represent the fossilized mantle plume head whereas the lower zone have continental-arc affinity, it is very possible that magmas
crust high velocity layers represent underplated mafic and ultra- accumulated in the lower crust of the Yangtze Block during this
mafic rocks from the plume head which fed the surface flows and time and served as a source or contaminant for the ELIP basalts
shallow crustal intrusions (Fig. 2b). The seismic data interpretations (Zhao and Zhou, 2007). The Emeishan basalts have 3 Nd(t) values
coupled with the crustal thickness is a very elegant explanation for ranging from 14.2 to þ8.0 which encompasses both varieties of
and is consistent with what would be expected from a mantle basalts and most of the ultramafic rocks. The TDM model ages range
plume model however there is a possible alternative explanation between 640 and 2400 Ma. The large range in Nd isotope compo-
(Campbell, 2007). sition is explained, in most cases, as either evidence for crustal
The crustal seismic layers cannot be completely attributed to the contamination or an isotopically heterogeneous source. If the
ELIP. For example, the seismic layers could represent a mixture of samples with minimal or no evidence for crustal assimilation (i.e.
mafic and ultramafic material from an earlier magmatic event. The Th/NbPM < 3 and 3 Nd(t) < þ2), are considered then the TDM model
western margin of the Yangtze Block was the site of either long- ages have a more restricted range (i.e. 640 Ma to 1400 Ma) which
lived subduction-related magmatism or mantle plume-related partially overlaps with the age of the Neoproterozoic rocks. The TDM
magmatism during the Neoproterozoic (Li et al., 1999; Zhou et al., values suggest that the Emeishan source, in comparison to the
2002b; Zhao and Zhou, 2007). The reason for the magmatism is emplacement age, is an ancient reservoir. The TDM ages could
irrelevant, because, whatever the cause, there are significant support a mantle plume model in the sense that the mantle ma-
amounts of mafic and felsic plutonic rocks along the entire western terial is coming from a deep source that was last modified around
margin of the Yangtze Craton. Given that most of the Neo- 900 Ma or it could mean a source which was mixed with an ancient
proterozoic felsic and mafic intrusive rocks found within ELIP inner (subduction?) component at w900 Ma.
380
J.G. Shellnutt / Geoscience Frontiers 5 (2014) 369e394
Figure 7. (a) Comparison of the Emeishan basalts using the discriminating parameters of Winchester and Floyd (1977). (b) Sm/YbPM vs. Th/NbPM of the basaltic rocks of the ELIP. (c) Nb/La vs. 3 Nd of the Emeishan basalts showing the
trend of the Parana basalts for comparison. (d) 3 Nd vs. Th/NbPM of the basaltic and picritic rocks of the ELIP. (e) Nb/La vs. 1/La of the ‘high- and low-Ti’ Emeishan and Parana basalts. The fields of Tristan da Cunha, Walvis Ridge and trend
lines of the Parana basalts are from Hawkesworth and Scherstein (2007). (f) The range of DNb (DNb ¼ log[Nb/Y] þ 1.74 1.92log[Zr/Y]) values of the Emeishan basalts. Values <0 are attributed to depleted sections of the mantle and
crust whereas values >0 are attributed to deep mantle sources (Fitton et al., 1997; Baksi, 2001). Emeishan ultramafic and mafic data taken from Xu et al. (2001), Xiao et al. (2003, 2004), Song et al. (2004, 2008a, b), Hou et al. (2006),
Wang et al. (2007), Fan et al. (2008), Qi et al. (2008), Qi and Zhou (2008), Shellnutt and Jahn (2011), Anh et al. (2011), Kamenetsky et al. (2012) and Lai et al. (2012). PM ¼ Primitive mantle normalized to values of Sun and McDonough
(1989). OIB ¼ average ocean island basalts from Sun and McDonough (1989). EMI range taken from Zindler and Hart (1986) and Cliff et al. (1991). GLOSS (global subducting sediment) values taken from Plank and Langmuir (1998) and
Chauvel et al. (2008). UC ¼ upper crust, MC ¼ middle crust values of Rudnick and Gao (2003).
Table 2
Summary of chemical characteristics of ELIP silicic rocks.
Type Genesis ASI Eu/Eu* 3 Nd(t) 3 Hf(t) TZr ( C) BaPM Nb-TaPM Examples
Mantle Fractional Weakly peralkaline <1.0 þ1.5 toþ3.4 þ8.7 0.4 to þ9.2 1.0 860 17 ve None Baima, Taihe,
crystallization 897 14 Panzhihua
940 21 (Dianchang), Cida?
953 62
Partial Melting Metaluminous >1.0 þ1.3 toþ3.2 þ5.8 0.3 to þ8.6 0.2 723 18 þve None Woshui, Huangcao
and Daheishan
Crust Crust Peraluminous to <1.0 6.7 to 3.9 2.6 0.4 767 14 þve or ve ve Ailanghe,
Metaluminous Yingpanliangzi
Hybrid Crust þ Mantle Metaluminous z1.0 0.7 to þ1.4 þ1.4 0.9 þve None Maomaogou, Salian
Data is complied from Luo et al. (2007), Shellnutt and Zhou (2007, 2008), Zhong et al. (2007, 2009), Xu et al. (2008), Shellnutt et al. (2009a, b, 2011c). ASI is the alumina
saturation index (Al/Cae1.67P þ Na þ K); Eu/Eu* ¼ [2*EuN/(SmN þ GdN)] normalized to C1 chondrites of Sun and McDonough (1989); TZr is the zircon saturation thermometry;
BaPM and Nb-TaPM indicate the presence of anomalous primitive mantle normalized values.
It is likely that the high velocity seismic layers represent the Sinian (w600 Ma) aged marbles whereas the granite portion,
fossilized remnants of the Emeishan magmas however there is no located stratigraphically above the gabbro of the complex intruded
age constraints on these layers. Therefore the high velocity layers Emeishan flood basalts (Shellnutt and Jahn, 2010). The geological
could represent pure Emeishan material, pure Neoproterozoic ma- relationships indicate there is a conundrum. In order for the granite
terial or an accumulation of both and there remains a possibility that to intrude the basalts they must have erupted first. That means the
the underplated Neoproterozoic rocks may have modified the basalts either erupted onto something which was overlying the
original Emeishan magmas during their emplacement and is the Sinian limestones or directly on top of them. In either case the
reason why the basalts have higher-Ti concentration than most LIPs. entire Paleozoic up to the Maokou limestones is missing (He et al.,
2010a). Since the Panzhihua complex is intrusive, albeit shallow,
the whereabouts of the Paleozoic rocks is unknown. The Paleozoic
5.2. Flexure of the crust
rocks could have been eroded before the deposition of the Maokou
limestone or they were never deposited in the first place because
It is theorized that the excessive heat (i.e. 100e350 C above
they were above sea-level. If the Paleozoic rocks were eroded then
ambient conditions) from a mantle plume is suitable, depending on
why and how did conditions change so that the Maokou limestone
the exact thermal conditions, to induce maximum uplift of the
could be deposited just before the Emeishan basalts erupted and
surface directly beneath the plume head to an area within a 200 km
why was the Paleozoic section preserved elsewhere (i.e. Dulong-
radius. The amount of vertical displacement may be in excess of
Song Chay) on the Yangtze Block (Yan et al., 2006)? Perhaps the
w1 km (Griffiths and Campbell, 1991; Campbell, 2005). Flexure and
easiest explanation is that the Paleozoic rocks were not deposited
doming of the crust prior to flood basalt eruption is considered to
because the inner zone was probably a topographic high (Fig. 8b),
be one of the most compelling physical evidence for the presence of
e.g. similar to the modern day Mascarene Plateau, and sea level may
an ancient mantle plume (Cox, 1989; Campbell and Griffiths, 1990;
not have been sufficiently high to allow for deposition of carbonate
Griffiths and Campbell, 1991; Rainbird, 1993; Farnetani and
rocks until the late Capitanian. The sea-level curve by Haq and
Richards, 1994; White and McKenzie, 1995; Campbell, 2005,
Schutter (2008) show that the short-term sea-level change
2007; Ernst et al., 2005; Saunders et al., 2005, 2007). It is also
(Fig. 9) was the highest at the CapitanianeWuchiapingian bound-
one of the most debated topics in LIP research as evidence for uplift
ary which is contemporaneous with the eruption of Emeishan ba-
and doming may not be as robost as purported nor necessary
salts onto the Maokou limestones (Gradstein et al., 2004; He et al.,
(Burov and Guillou-Frottier, 2005; Elkins and Tanton, 2007; Sheth,
2007, 2010a; Sun et al., 2010). If sea-level increased during the late
2007b; Utskins-Peate and Bryan, 2008).
Capitanian and the inner zone (i.e. Chuandian old land) was a
The ELIP is considered to be one of the best examples of mantle
topographic high then carbonate rocks would be deposited in sync
plume-induced surficial uplift and doming (Campbell, 2005, 2007).
with the increasing sea-level and thus given an appearance of a
The progressive thickening of the Maokou limestone from the inner
dome shape (Fig. 8b). If the ‘topographic high’ model is correct then
zone to the outer zone of the ELIP encapsulates the evidence for
it would also be consistent with thick crust beneath the inner zone
uplift and subsequent erosion and redisposition (Fig. 8a) (He et al.,
of the ELIP because after uplift the dome would eventually erode
2003, 2007; 2010a, b). However, the uplift model for the ELIP has
away and presumable the Yangtze crust would become relatively
come under scrutiny and alternative ideas have been presented
thinner over time (Xu et al., 2004). Whatever the case may be, e.g.
(Utskins-Peate and Bryan, 2008, 2009; Ali et al., 2010; Sun et al.,
uplift or not, the argument against uplift is compelling and will
2010; Utskins-Peate et al., 2011). The evidence against uplift is
require more evidence to refute but until such evidence is pre-
twofold: (1) that uplift either did not occur before volcanism or that
sented it will probably remain one of the most contentious debates
pre-eruption uplift is muted (Ali et al., 2010; Sun et al., 2010) and
in ELIP studies.
(2) that the flood basalts were emplaced at sea-level and that
previously interpreted alluvial fan sediments are actually hydro-
magmatic deposits (Utskins-Peate and Bryan, 2008, 2009; Utskins- 5.3. Effect on the late Permian ecosystem
Peate et al., 2011). The core of the debate is focused on whether the
geological evidence presented by He et al. (2003, 2007, 2010a, b) is There is a tendency to connect biological crises or mass ex-
actually documenting uplift not whether the ELIP is or is not a tinctions with the eruption of subaerial or subaqueous flood basalts
mantle plume-derived LIP (Ali et al., 2010). with contemporaneous or pene-contemporaneous volcanic
There is further geological evidence which argues against (Rampino and Stothers, 1988; Courtillot et al., 1999; Wignall, 2001,
plume-induced uplift of the surface. The Panzhihua layered gabbro 2005; White, 2002; White and Saunders, 2005). In many cases
complex located in the Panxi region of the inner zone has intruded there is compelling evidence to link specific volcanic episodes to a
Figure 8. (a) Model of uplift and doming of the crust due to the arrival of the Emeishan mantle plume based on He et al. (2003, 2007, 2010a). (b) Alternatively the area around the
western Yangtze Block was a topographic high and subsequent sea-level change allowed for deposition of carbonate rocks prior to the arrival of the Emeishan mantle plume.
decline in biota however there are many large igneous provinces induce a climate change or affect marine chemistry to the point
(e.g. Tarim, Panjal, Karoo, Ethiopia, Columbia River) in which there where some genera would be vulnerable and die out (Ganino and
is no association with ecosystem collapse. The basic premise is that, Arndt, 2009; Shellnutt et al., 2012a).
due to rapidly emplaced basaltic magmas, dramatic climatic It is possible that the ELIP either directly caused or accelerated
changes occur at a pace which is faster than then ability of an the late Capitanian mass extinction however there are larger
ecosystem to adapt (Rampino and Stothers, 1988; Wignall, 2001). eruptions of flood basalts which clearly had no effect on global
Whether the volcanism is responsible for a ‘nuclear winter’ sce- ecosystems (e.g. Tarim). The reason why some LIPs are contempo-
nario, exacerbates ‘greenhouse’ conditions or changes marine wa- raneous with mass extinctions could be related to random condi-
ter chemistry is debated (Wignall, 2001; Saunders, 2005; Self et al., tions which cannot easily be predicted such as: parental magma
2005). Some of the most severe mass extinctions such as the end- composition, geographic location, composition of country rock, or
Permian, CretaceouseTertiary and TriassiceJurassic are contem- vulnerability of species. The fact that continental flood basalts erupt
poraneous with major flood basalt eruptions. on average of once per 20 Ma then the frequency of mass extinc-
Compared to the end-Permian mass extinction the late Cap- tions will undoubtedly match, at some point, with the formation of
itanian mass extinction (w263 Ma) affected less genera but it was an LIP. So it seems that the ELIP may have erupted at the right time,
contemporaneous with the earliest eruption of the Emeishan flood in the right place and within the right country rocks (i.e. carbonate
basalts and as a consequence is considered to have been the cause rocks).
of or at least contributed to the decline in biota at that time
(Wignall, 2001; Zhou et al., 2002a; He et al., 2007; Ganino et al., 6. Metalllogenesis of the Emeishan large igneous province
2008; Retallack and Jahren, 2008; Ganino and Arndt, 2009;
Shellnutt et al., 2012a). If the atmosphere is to be affected by 6.1. Ni-Cu sulphide and PGE deposits
magmatism then emplacement rates have to be considerably fast. It
is suggested that the emplacement of ELIP magmas into carbonate- The magmatic sulphide deposits are concentrated within ul-
rich country rocks and a rapid emplacement (i.e. <2 Ma) was suf- tramafic and/or mafic intrusive rocks and are found throughout the
ficient to contribute significant enough amounts of CH4 and thus entire ELIP. The deposits contain variable proportions of Ni, Cu and
Years in Ma
Standard
Periods
Epochs
Sea-level
Intervals
Stages &
Glacial
changes
Common (M above PD)
Usage
Olenekian
0m
100
200
250
Triassic Induan
Siberian Traps
Lopingian
Changhsingian
Late
Wuchiapingian
260 ELIP
Middle
Capitanian
alupian
Guad-
Wordian
Permian
270 Roadian
Kungurian
280
Cisuralian
Artinskian
Early
Tarim, Panjal
290
Sakmarian
Asselian
300
Figure 9. Sea-level changes, glacial intervals (grey rectangles) and eruption of continental flood basalts (red) during the of the Permian (modified from Haq and Schutter, 2008).
platinum group elements (PGE) within sulphide minerals or plat- have intruded mid to late Paleozoic metasedimentary rocks (Song
inum group minerals (Zhong et al., 2002; Song et al., 2003, 2005, et al., 2003). The sills range in size but are generally 2 km long and
2008a; Wang and Zhou, 2006; Wang et al., 2011). The propensity up to 300 m thick and composed of serpentinite (40e60%), talc
of sulphide and/or PGE deposit to form is suggested to be linked schist (25e45%), tremolite schist (10e30%) and a minor amount of
with the type (i.e. ‘low-Ti’) of parental magma (Song et al., 2003, gabbro (5e7%) indicating substantial post-emplacement alteration
2008a, 2009; Zhou et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2011). Song et al. and metamorphism occurred (Song et al., 2003). The sills (i.e. Yan-
(2005) grouped the sulphide and PGE deposits into four genetic gliuping and Zhengziyanwuo) are estimated to contain 0.27 Mt of Ni,
types based on petrogenetic processes and host rock and mineral 0.10 Mt of Cu and 35 tons of PGE (Song et al., 2005). The ore bodies
associations. The four-types of deposits are (1) Ni-Cu-(PGE) by in are found as either: (1) disseminated within the serpentinite, (2)
situ sulphide segregation, (2) PGE-enriched layers within layered massive ores within the footwall of the country rock (i.e. Paleozoic
intrusions, (3) Ni-Cu sulphide related to sulphide-bearing mush marble) or (3) mineralized veinlets within the intrusions (Song et al.,
and (4) PGE sulphide ores in ultramafic rocks. Native Cu and Au 2003). The sills are considered to have formed from magmas which
deposits have also been identified but the appear to be related to are compositionally similar to the basalt in the immediate area
post-ELIP hydrothermal processes (Wang et al., 2006a, b; Zhang (Song et al., 2003, 2006). The general model is that basaltic magmas
et al., 2006a, b; Zhu et al., 2007). were emplaced and began to fractionate. The residual liquid be-
comes more evolved and at the same time volatiles (i.e. S, CO, CO2)
6.1.1. Ni-Cu-(PGE) sulphide deposits from the country rocks will be fluxing the magma system. The CO
The best example of this type of sulphide deposit is found in the and CO2 would decrease the magma oxidation state, and coupled
Yangliuping area of Sichuan where numerous mafic-ultramafic sills with the decrease in magma temperature, crystallization and
(e.g. Yangliuping, Zhengziyanwuo, Xiezuoping, Daqiangyanwuo) assimilation of S, promote S-oversaturation and sulphide
immiscibility and the segregation and concentration of Ni, Cu and saturation and allowed the PGE to partition into sulphide minerals
PGE within the sulphide liquid (Song et al., 2003). The sulphide (Zhu et al., 2010). The oxide-rich layers on the other hand are
liquid would concentrate at the bottom of the chamber and form the probably due to simple crystallization processes and magma
massive sulphide deposits whereas the disseminated and veinlet recharge (Wang et al., 2008a).
deposits represent sulphide liquid which was transported with the
silicate magma during continued injection of new batches of magma 6.1.3. Ni-Cu sulphide-bearing mush
and dispersed. The sulphide mush-type of deposit is considered to be the most
important type of sulphide deposit in the ELIP (Song et al., 2005).
6.1.2. PGE-rich layers within layered intrusions The deposits are typified by the Limahe and Baimazhai intrusions
There are at least two mafic-ultramafic layered intrusions which which contain 0.1e3 Mt of Ni ore and composed of gabbros,
host PGE-enriched layers. The Hongge and Xinjie intrusions are wehrlites, olivine peridotites, pyroxenites and massive sulphide
located in the central part of the Panxi region. The Hongge layered ores (Wang and Zhou, 2006; Wang et al., 2006a, b; Pu et al., 2007;
mafic-ultramafic intrusion contains PGE-rich layers in lower parts Sun et al., 2008; Tao et al., 2008, 2010; Zhang et al., 2009). The basic
but is also the second largest Fe-Ti-V oxide deposit after Panzhihua. premise for the sulphide mush-type of deposit is that a mafic or
The Hongge intrusion is comprised of three main zones with four ultramafic silica saturated, Mg-rich and S-undersaturated magma
cycles which consist of variable proportions of olivine, clinopyr- assimilated country rock at depth in a staging chamber (Wang and
oxene, magnetite, chromite and plagioclase with additional minor Zhou, 2006; Wang et al., 2006a, b; Sun et al., 2008; Tao et al., 2008,
amounts of apatite, orthopyroxene and ilmenite (Zhong et al., 2010). The magma became S-saturated due to contamination
2002). The lower olivine zone (i.e. LOZ) is composed mostly of (d34S ¼ þ2.4& to þ5.4&; gOs(t) ¼ þ263; ISr > 0.7075; 3 Nd(t) < 0)
olivine, magnetite, clinopyroxene with hornblende and some from the country rock and promoted crystallization of mafic silicate
plagioclase in the upper parts. The middle clinopyroxene zone (i.e. minerals and thus the sulphide-rich portion settled to the base of
MCZ) begins with an olivine clinopyroxenite layer at the base and the chamber. The precise mechanism of sulphide transportation or
ends with a plagioclase clinonpyroxenite at the top. The upper concentration may be different between Limahe and Baimazhai but
gabbro zone in compositionally more evolved and contains more they represent dynamic magma systems. In the case of the Bai-
plagioclase. There are intermittent bands of magnetite starting mazhai deposit, the upper part of the chamber is silicate-rich and
from the lower MCZ and ending near the top of the UGZ. The LOZ expelled whereas the lower portion is a mixture of silicate and
does not contain an oxide-rich layer but lower part of the zone has a sulphide and subsequently the entire system is squeezed allowing
PGE-enriched layer and the boundary between the LOZ and MCZ is for the complete expulsion of the more evolved silicate magma and
another PGE-enriched horizon. The LOZ is considered to be cycle I, the zonation of the silicate and sulphide-rich mixture (Wang and
the MCZ has cycles II and III and the UGZ is cycle IV. Each cycle is Zhou, 2006; Wang et al., 2006a, b).
recognized by abrupt reversals in major and trace elemental values
which indicate periods of crystallization and magma recharge 6.1.4. PGE sulphide ores within ultramafic rocks
suggesting Hongge was an open magma system (Zhong et al., 2002, The PGE sulphide ore deposit is mainly described from the Jin-
2003, 2005). The whole rock Sr-Nd isotopes (ISr ¼ 0.7059e0.7072; baoshan ultramafic sill located east of Dali in Yunnan Province and
3 Nd(t) ¼ 2.7 to þ1.0) indicate that wall rock assimilation played a is w5 km long, 1 km wide and variably thick ranging between 20
role in the segregation of sulphide-rich liquid and the formation of and 150 m. The sill intrudes Devonian dolomite which overlies the
the PGE-rich layers but the repetitive formation of the oxide-rich Proterozoic basement rocks of the Yangtze Block. The stratigraphy
layers are likely forming due to crystallization and magma of the intrusion is rather simple as it is composed of wehrlite with
recharge (Pang et al., 2008a; Bai et al., 2012a, b). The parental intermittent layers of disseminated sulphide Pt-Pd mineralization
magma or magmas of the Hongge system is unknown but it was at quasi regular intervals whereas there is a 5e15 m layer of
likely a mixture of more primitive mafic or ultramafic and basaltic chromite in the middle of the intrusion. There are gabbros located
magmas because the LOZ contains relatively minor amounts of in the upper portion of the intrusion but probably not petroge-
plagioclase, bulk Mg# increases abruptly at the cycle IIeIII bound- netically related to the Jinbaoshan parental magmas and horn-
ary and the primitive mantle normalized PGE patterns of the blende pyroxenite is occasionally found at the margins (Wang et al.,
magnetite-rich layers are similar to the ELIP picrites (Zhong et al., 2005, 2008b, 2010; Tao et al., 2007, 2009). Nevertheless,
2005; Bai et al., 2012a, b). Brozdowski et al. (2004) divided the Jinbaoshan intrusion into six
The Xinjie mafic-ultramafic layered intrusion is similar to the units which are based on variations in mineralogy and textures (i.e.
Hongge intrusion in terms of its isotope variability (e.g. grain size, mode). The concentration of the Pt þ Pd typically ranges
ISr ¼ 0.7056e0.7074; 3 Nd(t) ¼ 4.1 to þ2.8), cyclic ultramafic-mafic from 1 ppm to 5 ppm with occurrences as high as 17 ppm whereas
layered nature and presence of PGE-rich layers at the base followed Ni and Cu have grading of w0.21% and w0.16% respectively. The
by Fe-Ti oxide-rich layers in the middle to upper portion (Zhong total amount of Pt þ Pd is w45 tons (Tao et al., 2007; Wang et al.,
et al., 2004, 2011b; Wang et al., 2008a; Zhu et al., 2010). The 2008b). The two main economic horizons are referred to as K1
intrusion consists of three cyclic zones of ultramafic (i.e. wehrlite, and K2 and range in thickness from 4 m to 16 m. The K1 horizon is
clinopyroxenites) to mafic (i.e. gabbro) rocks which have variable located at the base of the intrusion whereas the K2 is located at the
proportions of clinopyroxene, olivine, plagioclase, oxide minerals base of the fifth horizon (Brozdowski et al., 2004). The Jinbaoshan
(i.e. magnetite, ilmenite, ferrichromite, chromite), hornblende and intrusion is likely derived from a Mg-rich, Ti-poor tholeiitic
sulphide minerals. The parental magma composition is unknown parental magma and, according to Tao et al. (2007), represents a
and whether it is mafic or ultramafic is debated (Zhong et al., 2004, residual assemblage formed by the magmatic dissolution of
2011b; Wang et al., 2008a; Zhu et al., 2010). There are abrupt plagioclase due to multiple pulses. Wang et al. (2005) suggested
chemical and mineralogical changes between each cycle which is there is limited evidence (i.e. 3 Nd(t) ¼ 0.1 to þ0.8, gOs(t) ¼ þ20.7
interpreted to represent injection of a new magma (Zhong et al., to þ77.8, d34S ¼ 0.6 to 2.8&) for crustal contamination. It is thought
2004, 2011b). The formation of the PGE deposits in the lower that sulphide saturation of the parental magma occurred at depth
portions of the intrusion is thought to be due to wall rock due to olivine and chromite crystallization and that the subsequent
assimilation-induced sulphide segregation but it is possible that immiscible sulphide droplets were transported and accumulated in
the crystallization of magnetite may have caused subsequent S- the Jinbaoshan sill through successful magma pulses (Tao et al.,
2007; Wang et al., 2010). Hydrothermal fluids likely contributed to spatial and the isotopic similarity between the neighboring per-
the formation or redistribution of some of the PGE concentration alkaline granitic rocks and the cumulate gabbros is very strong
(Wang et al., 2008b, 2010). evidence that there is a petrogenetic link between the rock types
and that they are part of the same igneous complexes (Shellnutt
6.2. Fe-Ti-V oxide-ore deposits and Zhou, 2007; Shellnutt et al., 2009a, 2011b; Shellnutt and
Jahn, 2010). The original parental liquid for the gabbroic in-
The orthomagmatic Fe-Ti-V oxide deposits of the ELIP are a trusions is largely speculative because the chilled margins are not
substantial economic resource. There are at least five world-class commonly exposed or have been modified by magma-country rock
magmatic oxide deposits within the Panxi region of the inner zone. interactions. In most cases the parental liquids are considered to be
Zhou et al. (2005) reported w7% and w35% of global production of ‘high-Ti’ Emeishan basalt (Table 3). It is thought that the gabbros
V and Ti respectively is from China with most of the metals origi- are derived from ‘high-Ti’ Emeishan basalt because of the evolved
nating from the layered gabbroic complexes of the ELIP. Between compositions of the olivine (e.g. <Fo82) and clinopyroxene (e.g.
the Panzhihua, Hongge, Baima and Taihe deposits there is an esti- Mg# < 80) and the trace element budget. Simply stated, if the
mated 2530 Mt of Fe, 680 Mt of Ti and 28.5 Mt of V (Ma et al., 2003; original parental magma equals the gabbro plus the ore body plus
Zhong et al., 2005). The deposits can be divided into two groups the granitic rocks at various proportions the bulk composition must
based on their compositions and stratigraphy. For example, the be basaltic due to the low forsterite values of the olivine and the
deposits at Hongge and Xinjie may have originated from more HFSE budget (Zhou et al., 2005; Pang et al., 2008a, b, 2009;
primitive parental magmas but were certainly subject to open Shellnutt et al., 2009a, b, 2011a, b, c; Zhang et al., 2009; Shellnutt
system magmatic processes (i.e. recharge, assimilation) whereas and Jahn, 2010). Consequently, an ultramafic (i.e. ferropicrite)
the Panzhihua, Baima and Taihe deposits likely originated from parental magma is not likely suitable for the layered gabbroic in-
more evolved parental magmas (i.e. basaltic) and were compara- trusions (i.e. Panzhihua, Baima, Taihe) but is probably more likely
tively less influence by open system magmatic process. Further- for the layered mafic-ultramafic intrusions (i.e. Xinjie, Limahe,
more the Panzhihua, Baima and Taihe gabbros are petrogenetically Hongge), although the basaltic magma may have formed from an
related to isotropic peralkaline quartz-bearing granitoids whereas ultramafic parental liquid. The more intriguing issues are related to
the others do not appear to be so. the ore body formation.
The formation of the Panzhihua, Baima and Taihe gabbro- The oxide-ore deposits in the gabbros are considered to be
granitoid-ore complexes, like many aspects of the ELIP, is a highly related to one or more of silicate immiscibility or CO2-fluid fluxing
debated issue. For instance, some considered the gabbro-ore to be to induce oxygen enrichment or crystallization (Zhou et al., 2005;
exclusive from the formation of the neighboring granitic rocks Ganino et al., 2008, 2013a, b; Shellnutt et al., 2011b; Zhou et al.,
whereas others suggest they are part of the same intrusion 2013). Silicate immiscibility is thought to be a possible rock form-
(Shellnutt et al., 2009a, 2011b; Zhong et al., 2009, 2011a; Shellnutt ing process where a ferrous (i.e. Fe-rich basalts) silicate liquid will
and Jahn, 2010). Furthermore the formation of the actual ore de- separate from a siliceous (i.e. granitic) silicate liquid (Philpotts,
posit and host gabbro is widely debated as well and may involve a 1976, 1982; Charlier and Grove, 2012). Zhou et al. (2005, 2013)
number of magmatic processes such as silicate immiscibility, frac- suggested that the oxide-ore zone of the Panzhihua-type gabbros
tional crystallization, fluxing of CO2-rich fluids, and have either a formed by immiscibility where the oxides crystallized from the
basaltic or ultramafic parental magma (Zhou et al., 2005; Zhang ferrous silicate liquid and segregated out form the ore deposits.
et al., 2006a, b, 2009; Ganino et al., 2008, 2013a, b; Pang et al., Although silicate immiscibility can occur in terrestrial rocks, it
2008a, b, 2009, 2010, 2013; Ganino and Arndt, 2009; Shellnutt seems that it is not a major magma/rock forming process as the
et al., 2009a, 2011b; Shellnutt and Jahn, 2010; Hou et al., 2012a, definitive evidence is usually identified from melt inclusions on the
b, 2013; Shellnutt and Pang, 2012). order of micron scale (Watson, 1976; Veksler et al., 2006, 2007).
The main geological and geochemical features of each intrusion Furthermore the necessity to invoke immiscible separation to form
include: Fe-Ti-V oxide-ore deposits in the lower stratigraphic oxide minerals and concentrate them into an ore deposit is in
layers, mineral assemblage (cumulus olivine, clinopyroxene and conflict with the interstitial titanomagnetite textures. After crys-
plagioclase with interstitial titanomagnetite apatite sulphide tallization of olivine, plagioclase and clinopyroxene, the residual
minerals), similar isotope composition (i.e. 3 Nd(t) z þ2 to þ4, liquid composition from an original high-Ti basaltic parental
ISr z 0.7045 to 0.7055, 3 Hf(t) z þ7 to þ10), LILE (except Ba and Sr)- magma will be enriched in Fe, Ti and incompatible elements and
and HFSE-(except Eu) depletion and are temporally and spatially therefore will start to crystallized titanomagnetite in abundance. It
associated with peralkaline quartz granitoids. The major features of could be said that the Fe-Ti-HFSE-rich residual liquid resembles a
the three gabbroic intrusions are similar enough to suggest that ferrous silicate liquid but in of itself did not necessarily formed by
they underwent similar processes of formation although each silicate immiscibility. Additionally the trace element partitioning of
intrusion undoubtedly had some unique developments that are silicate immiscibility seems to be at odds as the ferrous silicate
more of a function of initial parental magma composition and liquid will be enriched in incompatible elements as compared with
location of emplacement. the siliceous liquid (Watson, 1976; Veksler et al., 2006). The fact the
Some of the issues regarding the genesis of the gabbros are contemporaneous, incompatible element-enriched, Mg-Ti-Ba-Sr-
easier to explain. The variability of mineral chemistry and zonal Eu-depleted peralkaline quartz granitic rocks are located a few
nature of each intrusion suggests that they represent open system hundred metres away from the cumulate gabbros is rather
magma chambers and that multiple magma pulses occurred but compelling evidence that they represent the residual liquids after
they could not be completely open as there is relative isotope ho- fractional crystallization of a mafic parental magma. The same
mogeneity indicating magma homogenization likely occurred geological and geochemical relationship is true for the Baima and
(Pang et al., 2009, 2010, 2013; Shellnutt et al., 2011b; Shellnutt and Taihe intrusions.
Pang, 2012; Song et al., 2013). Pang et al. (2009) identified that Ganino et al. (2008, 2013a, b) have suggested that the release of
there is a Zr-depletion problem with the cumulate gabbros. In other CO2-rich fluids from the adjacent Sinian marbles allowed the host
words the gabbroic intrusions are too poor in bulk Zr, and other magma to be even more oxidizing and contributed to the en masse
HFSE, to represent a parental magma composition unless an crystallization of titanomagnetite in the Panzhihua intrusion and
evolved residual liquid was removed. The geochemical, temporal, the formation of the oxide-ore deposit. There is little doubt that the
Table 3
Estimates for the parental magma compositions of the Fe-Ti-V oxide-bearing layered mafic-ultramafic intrusions.
Intrusion Panzhihuaa Panzhihuab Hongge/Panzhihuac Hongged Xinjied Taiheb Baimab

SiO2 (wt.%) 42.6 49.18 45.83 47.28 46.24 50.45 44.64
TiO2 3.99 2.94 4.85 3.51 3.08 2.61 3.48
Al2O3 15.8 11.53 15.62 9.93 8.69 12.36 13.79
Fe2Ot3 12.67 12.19 16.41
FeOt 15.6 14.41 14.5
FeO 11.36
Fe2O3 2.23
MnO e 0.19 0.23 0.18 0.19 0.20 0.22
MgO 5.99 8.74 7.18 9.39 13.93 7.44 6.95
CaO 11.9 10.54 7.52 11.22 9.83 9.95 10.18
Na2O 2.45 2.28 3.26 1.76 1.53 2.61 2.40
K2O 0.31 1.12 1.41 1.15 1.00 1.41 1.09
P2O5 0.69 0.31 0.51 0.29 0.26 0.30 0.35
LOI 0.5 0.5 0.5
Total 99.2 100 100.01 99.12 99.25 100 100
Mg# 46 57.8 53 58 67 54.8 45.6
V (ppm) 385 335

Cr 890 1505
Co 54 54 52
Ni 115 115 85
Sr 548 550 780
Nb 30.8 24 31
Ba 498 475 590
Ta 2.1 1.6 1.7
a
Zhou et al. (2005).
b
Shellnutt et al. (2011b).
c
Pang et al. (2008a).
d
Bai et al. (2012b). Mg# ¼ 100*[Mg2þ/Mg2þþFe2þ] where FeOt ¼ 0.8998*Fe2Ot3.
parental magma of the Panzhihua complex interacted with the One process which is consistently mentioned with respect to the
marble country rock as the contact relationship is exposed and Panzhihua, Baima and Taihe complexes is fractional crystallization
there are xenoliths within the lower part of the intrusion but (Zhou et al., 2005; Ganino et al., 2008; Pang et al., 2008a, b, 2009,
whether there was enough carbonate-fluid assimilated to directly 2010, 2013; Shellnutt et al., 2009a, 2011b; Zhang et al., 2009;
induce titanomagnetite crystallization is another issue (Zhou et al., Shellnutt and Jahn, 2010; Zhong et al., 2011a; Hou et al., 2012a;
2005; Pang et al., 2008a, b, 2009). Panzhihua may be unique in this Shellnutt and Pang, 2012; Song et al., 2013). As mentioned previ-
respect because there are no carbonate country rocks in the im- ously, there is evidence for open system behavior and internal
mediate vicinity at Baima and Taihe and therefore questions the redistribution of crystals but the overall process which is affecting
need to add CO2-rich fluids to assist in the formation of the oxide the magma system is crystallization and the consequences of an
deposits. It is possible that the parental magmas for the Baima and evolving magma, specifically the major and trace element budget,
Taihe complexes passed through carbonate rocks before they were rather than assimilation, contamination or unusual magma type.
emplaced but there is no evidence for it at the moment. There is The discussion on immiscibility highlighted the fact that the trace
also the issue with the oxidation state of the neighboring granitic element budget of the layered gabbros is not sufficiently accounted
rocks. The Panzhihua and Taihe peralkaline granites have a mineral for unless a residual liquid is considered (Pang et al., 2009). The
assemblage (i.e. aenigmatite and ilmenite) indicative of reducing obvious candidate for the residual liquid is the neighboring per-
oxidation conditions whereas the Baima peralkaline syenite has an alkaline granitic rocks (Shellnutt et al., 2011b). In each complex
oxidizing assemblage (i.e. magnetite, quartz and titanite) (Shellnutt there are intermediate (e.g. syenodiorite) composition rocks either
and Iizuka, 2011). The oxidation conditions of a magma are by no as a ‘transitional’ plutonic body, in the case of Panzhihua, or as
means fixed and will change during crystallization and thus con- microgranular enclaves, in the case of Baima and Taihe (Shellnutt
ditions of the granites may be different from the gabbros but if and Jahn, 2010; Shellnutt et al., 2010). The overarching premise is
O-enrichment through fluxing by CO2-rich fluids is necessary to that a basaltic parental magma as represented by a ‘high-Ti’
invoke oxide-ore formation then why are the Panzhihua and Taihe Emeishan basalt is injected in the shallow crust and crystallizes
granites forming under reducing conditions if they are the residual olivine, plagioclase and clinopyroxene (Fig. 10). Titanomagnetite
liquids? If it is simply because that by the time the residual silicic will crystallize as soon as conditions permit but the net result will
liquid formed in Panzhihua and Taihe, the magma was relatively be that the residual liquid composition becomes more silicic
‘depleted’ in oxygen then why is the Baima syenite mineralogy (Shellnutt and Zhou, 2007; Shellnutt et al., 2011b). Assimilation of
indicative of oxidized conditions since there is no evidence for CO2- CO2-rich fluids or other crustal material and/or internal redistri-
fluid fluxing? Furthermore the development of oxide-rich layers in bution may or may not be necessary to form the deposits but it is
the Xinjie and Hongge intrusions does not appear to require CO2 unlikely that the parental magma was picritic.
fluxing (Zhong et al., 2003, 2004). The necessity of CO2-fluid fluxing
for the formation of the oxide-ore deposits is uncertain because it 6.3. Potential of rare earth element deposits
seems, with respect to the Baima, Taihe, Xinjie and Hongge
complexes, oxide-ore deposits would form nevertheless and The Panxi region of the Emeishan large igneous province, spe-
that the fluxing may simply accelerate the oxide crystallization cifically from Mianning to Dechang, is one of the richest REE-
process. deposit areas of southwestern China. There are numerous Eocene
Figure 10. Proposed petrogenetic model of the formation of the Panzhihua, Baima and Taihe magmatic Fe-Ti-V oxide-bearing layered intrusions. (a) Emplacement of a parental
magma resembling a Ti-rich Emeishan basalt with an initial amount of suspended crystals. (b) Settling and in situ crystallization of cumulate olivine, plagioclase and clinopyroxene
with possible fluxing of CO2 from the surrounding country rocks. Additional magmas may or may not be injected. (c) After a period of fractionation, a lighter alkali-rich (white)
residual magma migrates to the top of the magma chamber. At this point the magma chamber is likely oxygenated and crystallizes massive amounts of magnetite (black) in the
lower part of the magma chamber while the silicic liquid forms in the upper part of the magma chamber. (d) Solidification and stratification of the BIC gabbroic unit into four zones
and formation of the granitic rocks.
(40 Ma) to Miocene (10 Ma) alkalic-granite/syenite and carbonatitic (Salvi and Williams-Jones, 2005). The identification of magmatic
plutons throughout this region some of which (e.g. Maoniuping) chevkinite within the Woshui metaluminous pluton suggests there
contain significant REE mineralization (Niu et al., 2003; Hou et al., could be another type of REE-deposit in the region (Shellnutt and
2009; Xu et al., 2012). The common mineral assemblage within the Iizuka, 2013). Although the Woshui pluton was also intruded by
Eocene to Miocene granites includes bastnasite, fluorite, barite and mafic dykes, the bulk REE content is likely to be too low for eco-
aegirine-augite. The Mianning-Dechang alkalic granites and sye- nomic concentrations but there remains a possibility that eroded
nites share many chemical characteristics with the alkalic granit- material from the pluton could accumulate in the neighboring
oids from western Mongolia and the ELIP in particular the basins and valleys and be a potential for ion-adsorption clay de-
peralkaline rocks (Kovalenko et al., 1995; Shellnutt and Zhou, 2007; posits. In addition to the detritus from the Woshui pluton, material
Hou et al., 2009). Currently, there are few, if any, REE-deposit from the Baima pluton could also be added and possibly increase
directly associated with the alkalic granitoids of the ELIP however the likelihood REE-rich material could be deposited (van Olphen,
their mineral assemblages suggest there may be potential for 1959; Kanazawa and Kamitani, 2006; Bao and Zhao, 2008).
mineralization either as hydrothermal-magmatic or as depositional Therefore the alkalic rocks of the ELIP are a potential target for
deposits (Niu et al., 2003). magmatic-hydrothermal deposits or they may have acted as a
The abundance of HFSE in the ELIP peralkaline granitoids (i.e. source for possible ion-adsorption clay deposits.
Panzhihua, Baima, Taihe) is known to be as high 0.3 wt.% and the
host rocks contain REE-ore minerals (i.e. bastnasite). The plutons, 7. Tectonomagmatic synthesis of the Emeishan large igneous
both metaluminous and peralkaline, of the ELIP were intruded by province
high temperature mafic dykes which were likely hot enough to
induce partial melting and remobilization of REEs within the per- A unifying theory of the formation of the ELIP is a difficult issue
alkaline rocks and thus could create economic concentrations to address because the available data and geological evidence
similar to magmatic-hydrothermal deposits (Shellnutt et al., 2008). dictate that some studies are more likely to be correct than other
Alternatively, and perhaps more likely, late stage magmatic fluids studies. For example the range of Sr-Nd-Pb-Os isotopes of
derived from the alkaline granitoids could have concentrated the Emeishan rocks does not permit any resounding conclusion on the
HFSE and formed enriched-veins or veinlets of REE-rich minerals type of mantle source and therefore it could be said that a sub-
lithospheric mantle source, or a subcontinental lithospheric The volcanic and the plutonic rocks are likely derived from
mantle source or both are involved. Furthermore the effects of magmas generated from a mantle plume source (Fig. 11). Some
crustal contamination can mask the features of the original mantle magmas were subsequently contaminated by various amounts of
source. This section brings together the main geological and crustal material. The major and trace elemental and isotope
geochemical features of the ELIP in order to constrain its likely composition of the Emeishan magmatic rocks indicate that the
tectonomagmatic history. source was heterogeneous and possibly volatile-rich as is the case
During the late Capitanian to early Wuchiapingian the Yangtze for some Ti-rich basaltic rocks (Pilet et al., 2005, 2008). The sub-
Block was a stable carbonate platform at tropical latitudes. It is continental lithospheric mantle may or may not be involved but
uncertain what the topography (i.e. flat or undulatory) of the car- probably cannot be discerned with ease due to the isotopic het-
bonate platform was but the modern day Mascarene Plateau may erogeneity of the rocks and the fact that the source may have been
be a good analog because it is possible that some portion of the volatile-rich (e.g. CO2, F) and contaminated with crustal material
Yangtze Block was exposed whereas most of the platform was (e.g. GLOSS). The volatiles could be from the original source or
submerged. The Emeishan volcanic rocks erupted along with for- mixing within an enriched component (i.e. GLOSS) or simply due to
mation of several plutonic complexes. Huang and Opdyke (1998), low amount of partial melting. Whether uplift and doming of the
Thompson et al. (2001) and He et al. (2003, 2007) suggested that crust occurred is not a prerequisite for the formation of the flood
volcanism was short-lived, probably within one magnetic reversal basalts and may or may not have occurred (He et al., 2003, 2007,
cycle or <3 Ma (Ali et al., 2005; Zheng et al., 2010; Shellnutt et al., 2010a, b; Utskins-Peate and Bryan, 2008; Ali et al., 2010; Sun
2012a). A short duration is consistent with eruption rates and et al., 2010). The injection of mafic magmas induced partial melting
emplacement models for many large igneous provinces (Coffin and of the Yangtze Block which led to the formation of the per-
Eldholm, 1994; Bryan and Ernst, 2008). Age dates and correlations aluminous to metaluminous silicic rocks whereas mingling be-
of mafic and acidic layers near the Permo-Triassic boundary of tween mafic magmas and crustal melts produced other
Southwest China have suggested that the ELIP may have extended metaluminous silicic rocks (Shellnutt et al., 2011c). The mafic
beyond the late Permian but is not likely a part of the main effusive magmas which did not erupt but reached shallow crustal levels (i.e.
period (Fan et al., 2004; Kamo et al., 2006). It is unlikely that ELIP <3 km) crystallized and formed the cumulate layered mafic-
magmatism was continuously active for w20 Ma as CA-ID-TIMS ultramafic complexes some of which produced both volcanic and
results show that some of the rocks previously dated at w252 Ma plutonic peralkaline silicic rocks (Fig. 11). The formation of ore
are in fact w259 Ma (Shellnutt et al., 2012a). Verification of the late deposits within the layered intrusions is dependent on the depth of
Permian ages (i.e. 252 Ma) and Triassic ages (i.e. 240 Ma) is required emplacement, the original parental magma composition, amount
but it is possible that underplated mafic rocks related to the ELIP and timing of crustal assimilation including country rock volatile
served as a source for post-260 Ma magmas. fluxing. It is possible, providing that magmatism was short-lived,
Figure 11. At 260 Ma the ELIP plume head arrives at the base of the lithosphere possibly inducing uplift of the crust and decompressional melting of the plume source. Mafic
magmas are injected into the lower crust/upper mantle forming chambers and the HVLC layer. Some magmas erupt onto the surface whereas others reach relatively shallow depths
and form the oxide-ore bearing layered intrusions and sulphide ore bearing intrusions. The continuous injection of mafic magmas likely induced partial melting of the crust which
leads to the formation of the crust-derived silicic plutons and possible the hybrid silicic plutons.
N South China Block

S
North China Block Indochina Block
Mantle Plume
Mantle Limestone Cover
Crust Flood Basalts Oceanic Lithosphere
Mafic-Ultramafic Intrusions Silicic intrusive rocks
Figure 12. A simplified block model of the regional tectonic positions of the North China Block and Indochina Block to the South China Block during the emplacement of the ELIP
(260 Ma).
that country rock degassing contributed to climatic changes which studies may not change the overall state of knowledge. Further-
adversely affected global ecosystems. more, the evidence for uplift and doming of the crust prior to the
The cause of the ELIP is uncertain. It could simply be due to the eruption of the Emeishan basalts may be debated in literature
random formation of a mantle plume related to global plate tec- continuously and is beginning to resemble scientific ‘trench-war-
tonics or it could be due to the plate dynamics of the North China- fare’ where enormous amounts of energy and capital are invested
South China-Indochina Block (Fig. 12) (Shellnutt et al., 2008; Jian into solving the problem but the advancement in knowledge will be
et al., 2009). The current location of the Panxi region is along a minimal and, most importantly, the probability of a breakthrough
marginal boundary between the Yangtze Block and the Songpan- will be low. However the identification of mantle plumes and their
Ganze terrain of the Tibetan Plateau and does not correspond with consequences is a first order geoscience problem and thus the ELIP
an intra-plate setting. The composition of basaltic and A-type may be a ‘frontline’ region to examine or test mantle plume theory
granitic rocks has long been used as evidence for within plate mafic for years to come.
magmatism (c.f. Pearce and Cann, 1973; Pearce et al., 1984). The I believe studies on the ELIP should focus on refinement and
composition of the Panxi plutons and the mafic dykes are consis- detailed investigations of magma-scale or mineral-scale issues.
tent with a rifting environment or within plate setting. The Microanalytical techniques applied to mineral/melt inclusions of
geological evidence is a little more complicated due to Mesozoic to accessory minerals (e.g. apatite, fluorite) may provide evidence for
Cenozoic tectonic over printing in SW China. After emplacement of the original parental compositions of some of the plutonic rocks or
the ELIP, which undoubtedly was a within plate extensional setting possibly highlight some of the processes which are ongoing during
(He et al., 2003; Xu et al., 2004), the SCB moved northward into crystallization or ore formation. The poor age precision on the
Eurasia around 231 Ma which caused widespread deformation of emplacement of the ELIP must be refined. Current in situ zircon U-
the western margin of the Yangtze Block thereby destroying the Pb techniques provide ‘good enough’ results but require better
outer margin and creating an appearance of a margin setting of the precision and thus CA-ID-TIMS mineral (i.e. zircon or baddeleyite)
modern ELIP (Fig. 12) (Bruguier et al., 1997). Many LIPs are associ- could be applied to constrain the duration of magmatism more
ated with continental break-up and mantle plumes (Coffin and precisely. Specifically the latest Permian and Triassic ages of ‘ELIP-
Eldholm, 1994; Courtillot et al., 1999; Ernst et al., 2005) but not related’ rocks must be verified. If the younger ELIP ages are verified
all are related to both (Sheth, 1999, 2005a, b; McHone, 2000). The then it would be evidence in support of long-lived magmatism and
emplacement of the ELIP was tensional however it was unlikely to a time progression feature similar to the Hawaiian Islands-Emperor
have caused the Yangtze Block to split. This presents an interesting seamount chain.
problem and leads to the question: did the Yangtze Block split? I believe more detailed work must be done on the ore deposits and
Considering that many continental break-ups occur along plate exploration of new types of deposits. In an ideal world this would
margins or suture zones it is suggested that the location of the mean new drilling and cooperation between publically funded re-
Emeishan mantle plume was not concomitant with a major litho- searchers and private or state-owned companies. Some sites, like
spheric inhomogeneity (i.e. a plate margin or tectonic suture zone) Panzhihua are wonderfully exposed but Taihe and Baima are not or at
(Courtillot et al., 1999). Also, the impending collision between the least not yet and there are other areas where a drill core may provide
NCB and the SCB may have prevented complete plate break-up as value insight and possibly a new deposit. Finally, I think it would be
the extended plate would have simply been pushed back together worthwhile to examine the possibility of REE-deposits associated
upon collision. It is generally agreed that the majority of Emeishan with the alkaline granitic rocks. If new ideas and challenges are not
flood basalts erupted within a short period around 260 Ma so it is met then ELIP research will become mundane and inconsequential.
likely that ELIP-related extension stopped shortly thereafter. Because of the excellent exposure of the ELIP plumbing system there
is an opportunity to find new information on how LIPs and their
magmatic systems develop which will have tremendous implications
8. Future directions
for petrology, economic geology and mantle plume theory.
Considering the amount of research that has been published
over the past 20 years on the ELIP, the question is: where do we go Acknowledgments
from here? In my opinion there is plenty of whole rock, major and
trace elemental data, isotope data and paleomagnetic studies to I would like to thank an anonymous reviewer and M. Santosh for
constrain the formation of the ELIP and that additional geochemical constructive comments on the manuscript and Jarda Dostal for
reviewing an earlier version of the manuscript. Special thanks to Chung, S.-L., Lee, T.-Y., Lo, C.-H., Wang, P.-L., Chen, C.-Y., Yem, N.T., Hoa, T.T.,
Genyao, W., 1997. Intraplate extension prior to continental extrusion along the
Mei-Fu Zhou for introducing me to the ELIP and Jason Ali, Sun-Lin
Ailao Shan-Red River shear zone. Geology 25, 311e314.
Chung, Clement Ganino, Eero Hanski, Bor-Ming Jahn, George Ma, Cliff, R.A., Baker, P.E., Mateer, N.J., 1991. Geochemistry of inaccessible island volca-
Kwan-Nang Pang, Liang Qi, Xie-Yan Song, Christina Wang, nics. Chemical Geology 92, 251e260.
Kuo-Lung Wang and Yi-Gang Xu for very enlightening discussions Coffin, M.F., Eldholm, O., 2001. Large Igneous Provinces: progenitors of some ophio-
lites?. In: Ernst, R.E., Buchan, K.L. (Eds.), Mantle Plumes: Their Identification
on a variety of ELIP-related topics over the years. This project was through Time, vol. 352 Geological Society of America, pp. 59e70. Special Paper.
supported by NSC grant 102-2628-M-003-001-MY4 to JGS. Coffin, M.F., Eldholm, O., 1994. Large igneous provinces: crustal structure, di-
mensions and external consequences. Reviews in Geophysics 32, 1e36.
Courtillot, V.E., Renne, P.R., 2003. On the ages of flood basalt events. Comptes
Rendus Geoscience 335, 113e140.
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geochemistry of the Hongge Fe-V-Ti deposit in the Pan-Xi area, southwestern Dr J. Gregory Shellnutt is an Assistant Professor at National
China. Mineralium Deposita 37, 226e239. Taiwan Normal University (NTNU) in Taipei. He received his
Zhou, M.-F., Chen, W.T., Wang, C.Y., Prevec, S.A., Liu, P.P., Howarth, G.H., 2013. Two Ph.D. from The University of Hong Kong (2007), which
stages of immiscible liquid separation in the formation of Panzhihua-type Fe-Ti- focused on the formation of A-type granites within the
V oxide deposits, SW China. Geoscience Frontiers 4, 481e502. Emeishan large igneous province and their association with
Zhou, M.-F., Arndt, N.T., Malpas, J., Wang, C.Y., Kennedy, A.K., 2008. Two magma the giant Fe-T-V oxide-ore bearing gabbroic intrusions. As a
series and associated ore deposit types in the Permian Emeishan large igneous post-doctoral researcher at Academia Sinica (Taipei) he
province, SW China. Lithos 103, 352e368. continued his work large igneous provinces and granite
Zhou, M.-F., Zhao, J.-H., Qi, L., Su, W., Hu, R.Z., 2006. Zircon U-Pb geochronology and petrogenesis. He now manages the new wavelength-
elemental and Sr -Nd isotopic geochemistry of Permian mafic rocks in the dispersive X-ray Fluorescence laboratory (WD-XRF) at
Funing area, SW China. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 151, 1e19. NTNU mainly conducting whole rock analyses for the geo-
Zhou, M.-F., Robinson, P.T., Lesher, C.M., Keays, R.R., Zhang, C.J., Malpas, J., 2005. sciences community in Taiwan. His personal research interests are on the formation
Geochemistry, petrogenesis and metallogenesis of the Panzhihua gabbroic of alkaline granitic rocks on Earth and Venus, the formation of orthomagmatic Fe-Ti-
layered intrusion and associated Fe-Ti-V oxide deposits, Sichuan Province, SW V oxide deposits, giant radiating mafic dyke swarms and origin of orogenic peridotites
China. Journal of Petrology 46, 2253e2280. within accretionary terranes.

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Geoscience Frontiers 5 (2014) 369e394

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

China University of Geosciences (Beijing)

The Emeishan large igneous province: A synthesis

1. Introduction earth and biological sciences to explain the physical transfer of

North China Craton

100oE 102oE 104oE 106oE 108oE

Sample Rock type Method Material Age (Ma) Reference

Intrusion Panzhihuaa Panzhihuab Hongge/Panzhihuac Hongged Xinjied Taiheb Baimab

V (ppm) 385 335

N South China Block

Mantle Limestone Cover

Crust Flood Basalts Oceanic Lithosphere

Mafic-Ultramafic Intrusions Silicic intrusive rocks

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