Understanding The Self: College of Arts and Sciences

PAMPANGA STATE AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
Magalang, Pampanga
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES
General Education Course
UNDERSTANDING THE
SELF
Prepared by:
Joyce Anne G. Belza Ella M. Roque
Sally B. Trinidad Norman. C. King
Clemente O. Boleche, Jr. Camille Rose Carl R. Mendoza
Understanding the Self

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UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

General Education
PART ONE: The Self from Various Perspectives
Module 1. Philosophical Perspective of the Self

A. Socrates
B. Plato
C. St. Augustine
D. Rene Descartes
E. John Locke
F. Sigmund Freud
G. David Hume
H. Gilbert Ryle
I. Paul Churchland
Module 2. Socio-Anthropological Self

A. The Self and the society
B. The self as a product of modern society
C. Culture and the self
Module 3. Psychological Self

A. Me self and I self
B. Real self and Ideal self
C. Multiple and Unified self
D. True vs. False self
E. Freud’s Construction of Self and Personality
F. Erickson’s Theory of the self
Module 4. The Self in Western and Eastern Thought

A. Self in the Eastern thought
B. Self in the Western thought
C. Individualistic self
D. Collective self

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PART TWO: Unpacking the Self
Module 5. The Physical Self

A. The concept of beauty
B. Importance of beauty
Module 6. Sexual Self

A. Human Reproductive System
B. Erogenous Zones
C. Biology of Sexual Behaviour
D. Understanding the chemistry of lust, love and attachment
E. Gender sensitivity, awareness and appreciation
F. Sexually transmitted diseases
G. Methods of contraception
Module 7. Spiritual Self

A. Spirituality
B. Nurturing the Spiritual Self
C. Logo therapy
D. Finding Meaning
E. Belief in Spirits
Module 8. Material/Economic Self

A. Effects of Material Possession
B. The Shopaholic
Module 9. Political self

A. Origins of Political Self
Module 10. Digital Self
A. Digital technology
B. Social Networking in the Philippines
PART THREE: Managing and Caring for the Self
Module 11. Learning to be a better student

A. What happens during learning
B. Meta cognition and study strategies
C. Managing your own learning; self-regulated learning
Module 12. Setting Goal for Success

A. Importance of Goals

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B. Goal Setting theory
Module 13. Taking care of one’s health

A. Stress
B. Stress Management
C. Stress and Filipinos

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INTRODUCTION TO
UNDERSTANDING THE SELF
As a person, we always have our own definition of who we are. We may see ourselves as someone better
than the others, or sometimes we would interpret our actions and abilities to being behind or lesser
compared to others. On the other hand, the people around us see as different from how we see ourselves.
Understanding the Self is a General Education course for tertiary education. It aims to help the students
comprehend the concept of identity by exposing them to different perspectives on how “self” is defined
and the factors that influence or shape personal identity. The course is designed to integrate the concepts
and theories which were discussed and learned inside the classroom to the students, personal daily
experiences.
Photo Credit: https://icebreakerideas.com/who-am-i-game/

The course is divided into three parts namely;
The Self from Various Perspectives. The first part discusses the different representations and
conceptualizations of the self from various disciplinal perspectives. It aims to compare and contrast how
the self has been represented across different disciplines and perspectives. Students will be exposed to
examining the different influences, factors, and forces that shape the self. At the end of this part, the
students should be able to demonstrate critical and reflective thought in analysing the development of
one’s self and identity by developing their own theory of the self.
Unpacking the Self. The second part explores the different aspects of self and identity. It will help
students know how to demonstrate critical, reflective thought in integrating the various aspects of self and
identity. This part also shows the different forces and institutions that impact the development of various
aspects of self and identity. Students should be able to examine one’s self against the different aspects of
self.
Managing and Caring for the Self. The final part will help students the theoretical concepts in relation to
managing and caring for the different aspects of the self. Students should be able to acquire and hone new
skills and learnings for better managing of one’s self and behaviours. Finally, they should be able to
apply these new skills to one’s self and functioning for a better quality of life.

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PART 1.
THE SELF FROM
VARIOUS PERSPECTIVES

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MODULE 1
THE PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVE OF

THE SELF
Photo Credit:
https://scontent-hkt1-1.xx.fbcdn.net/v/t1.15752-0/p280x280/117344483_2140197
20048963_8292604894724264708_n.jpg?_nc_cat=102&_nc_sid=b96e70&_nc_ohc=MTEFI-
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the topic, you are expected to:
1. Explain the role of philosophy in understanding the self.

2. Discuss the different concepts of the self from the philosophical perspective.
3. Differentiate the various concepts of the self and identify their similarities.
4. Develop your own philosophy of the self.
What is the Philosophical Self?

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The etymological definition of philosophy is love of wisdom. Philosophy employs the inquisitive
mind to discover the ultimate causes, reasons, and principles of everything.
The nature of the self is a topic of interest among philosophers. The philosophical framework for
understanding the self was first introduced by ancient Greek philosophers. What is self and the
qualities that define it? Philosophers have different philosophical views what self is. Is it the
soul, the body, the mind, your actions or your consciousness?
SOCRATES: AN UNEXAMINED LIFE IS NOT WORTH LIVING
Born: Alopece 469–399 B.C.E.

Socrates was a Greek philosopher from Athens who is
credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy,
and as being the first moral philosopher of the Western
ethical tradition of thought.
Philosophical era: Ancient philosophy Works written: The
Symposium, Apology, The Cavalry Commander
http://digjamaica.com/m/blog/30-days-of-inspiration-14-
cultivate-self-awareness/
For ancient Greek philosopher Socrates, the self

is synonymous with the soul. The soul is immortal. Socrates believed that every human
possessed an immortal soul.
According to Socrates, the care for the soul is the main task of Philosophy. He asserted that in
life, self-knowledge or examining one’s self is essential. This is because by knowing yourself,
you can make the right decisions and eventually find the path to improving your life. Thus, he
coined the phrase “The unexamined life is not worth living.”
Soul searching must begin at the source of all knowledge and significance – the
self. The Socratic method, the so-called introspection, is a method of carefully
examining our thoughts and emotions – to gain self-knowledge.
Human life does not end at one’s death. Socrates explained that death is the departure of the soul
for the eternal world. One continues to live in the world after death. In Socrates' concept of
Reality, it consists of two dichotomous realms: physical realm and ideal realm. The physical
realm is changeable, transient, and imperfect. The body belongs to the physical realm. The ideal
realm is unchanging, eternal, and immortal. The soul belongs to the ideal realm. This is also
similar to the concept of having two types of existence; the visible (physical) and the invisible
(soul). Our preoccupation with bodily needs such as food, drink, sex, pleasure, material
possessions, and wealth keep us from attaining wisdom.

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Socrates was the first thinker to focus on the full power of reason on the human self: who we are,
who we should be, and who we will become. The soul strives for wisdom and perfection, and
reason is the soul’s tool to achieve an exalted state of life.
Life is all about striving to be happy. A person can have a meaningful and happy life only if he
becomes virtuous and knows the value of himself that can be achieved through constant soul-
searching. For him, this is best achieved when one tries to separate the body from the soul as
much as possible. Thus, for Socrates, the virtuous man is a happy man.
PLATO: THE SOUL IS IMMORTAL
Plato, (born 428/427 BCE, Athens, Greece—died 348/347, Athens),

ancient Greek philosopher, student of Socrates (c. 470–399 BCE), teacher
of Aristotle (384–322 BCE), and founder of the Academy, best known as
the author of philosophical works of unparalleled influence.
https://www.laphamsquarterly.org/
contributors/plato
Plato was a student of Socrates and he believed that the self is synonymous with the soul. Plato’s
philosophy of the self can be explained as a process of self-knowledge and purification of the
soul. His philosophical method was “collection and division”. In this method, the philosopher
would “collect” all the generic ideas that seemed to have common characteristics and then divide
them into different kinds until the subdivision of ideas become specific. He is best known for his
“Theory of Forms” that asserted the physical world is not really the “real” world because
ultimate reality exist beyond the physical world.
The “soul” is the most divine aspect of the human being. The self/soul/mind is the aspect of
human beings by which ideas (forms) are known.
The self consists of three-parts: reason (the rational), spirit or passion (the spirited) and physical
appetite (the appetitive). Reason is the divine essence that enables us to think deeply, make wise
choices, and achieve a true understanding of eternal truths. The spirit or passion includes basic
emotions such as love, anger, ambition, aggressiveness, and empathy. The physical appetite
includes our basic biological needs such as hunger, thirst, and sexual desire.
These three elements of our selves are in a dynamic relationship with one another,
sometimes in conflict. When conflict occurs, Plato believes that it is the responsibility of our
Reason to sort things out and exert control, restoring a harmonious relationship among the three
elements of our selves.

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Plato believes that genuine happiness can only be achieved by people who
consistently make sure that their Reason is in control of their Spirits and Appetites.
QUESTION:
Using Plato's view, which part of the body could represent each part of the soul?
ST. AUGUSTINE: I AM DOUBTING, THEREFORE I AM
St. Augustine, also called Saint Augustine of Hippo, original Latin name
Aurelius Augustinus, (born November 13, 354, Tagaste, Numidia [now
Souk Ahras, Algeria]—died August 28, 430, Hippo Regius [now Annaba,
Algeria]; bishop of Hippo from 396 to 430, one of the Latin Fathers of the
Church and perhaps the most significant Christian thinker after St. Paul.
Source: brittanica.com
St. Augustine was deeply influenced by Plato's ideas. He integrated the ideas of Plato and
Christianity, and gave the “Theory of Forms” a Christian perspective. Self for St. Augustine is an
immaterial but rational soul. His concept of the “self” is an inner, immaterial “I” which had self-
knowledge and self-awareness. He developed a more unified perspective on the body and soul.
The soul is what governs and defines the human person or the self. The soul is an important
element of man. The soul is united with the body so that man may be entire and complete. The
physical body is different from and inferior to its inhabitant, the immortal soul. Also, the body
possessed senses, such as imagination, memory, reason and mind through which the soul
experienced the world
Augustine described that humankind is created in the image and likeness of God. He believed
that God is transcendent and everything created by God who is all good is good. Therefore, the
human person being a creation of God is always geared towards the good. The goal of every
human person is to attain this communion and bliss with the Divine by living his life in virtue.
The self is known only through knowing God. Self-knowledge is a consequence of knowledge of
God. For Augustine, “knowledge can only come by seeing the truth that dwells within us.” The
truth of which Augustine spoke refers to the truth of knowing God.
God is transcendent and that the self seeks to be united with God through faith and reason. In
Augustine's mission to discover the truth on the existence of God, he developed the fundamental

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concept of the human person and thus, provided the philosophical principle, “I am doubting,
therefore I am.”
QUESTION:
If the soul (which knows the “Truth”) governs the body, then why does evil exist?
RENE DESCARTES: I THINK THEREFORE I AM
René Descartes, (born March 31, 1596, La Haye, Touraine, France—died

February 11, 1650, Stockholm, Sweden), French mathematician, scientist,
and philosopher.
He formulated the first modern version of mind-body dualism, from which
stems the mind-body problem, and because he promoted the development
of a new science grounded in observation and experiment, he has been
called the father of modern philosophy.
*dapat Nakita mo muna

Rene Descartes is regarded as the 1st thinker to emphasize the use of reason to describe, predict,
and understand natural phenomena based on observational and empirical evidence. He proposed
that “doubt” was a principal tool of diciplinary inquiry, methodolical skepticism, which is a
systematic process of being skeptical about the truth of one's belief to determine which belief
could be ascertained as true
Descartes famous line is “cogito ergo sum” which means “I think, therefore I am”. The phrase “I
think therefore I am” is the keystone of Descartes’ concept of self. He asserted that everything
perceived by the senses could not be used as proof of existence. He added that there could only
be one thing we could be sure of in this world and that was everything could be doubted.
Therefore, by doubting our own existence, he proved that there is a thinking entity that is doing
the act of doubting.
For him, the act of thinking about the self – of being self-conscious – is in itself proof that there
is self. For Descartes, the essence of the self – a thinking entity that doubts, understands,
analyzes, questions, and reasons.
Descartes’ claims about the “self” are: (1) it is constant, not prone to change and not affected by
time, (2) only the immaterial soul remains the same throughout time and (3) the immaterial soul
is the source of our identity.
There are two dimensions of the self: (1) the self as a thinking entity and (2) the self as a
physical body. The thinking self (or soul) is the nonmaterial, immortal, conscious being, and
independent of the physical laws of the universe. The physical body is the material, mortal, non-

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thinking entity, fully governed by the physical laws of nature. The soul and body are independent
of one another and each can exist and function without the other.
The self as a thinking entity is distinct from the self as a physical body. In other words, the
thinking self can exist independently of the physical body.
*dinadaya tayo ng senses naten, self is the mind
QUESTION:
If it is “I think therefore I am” then what can you say about those who chose not to doubt?
JOHN LOCKE: THE SELF IS CONSCIOUSNESS
John Locke, (born August 29, 1632, Wrington, Somerset, England—

died October 28, 1704, High Laver, Essex), English philosopher
whose works lie at the foundation of modern philosophical empiricism
and political liberalism. He was an inspirer of both the European
Enlightenment and the Constitution of the United States.
*self is the mind with memory
For Locke, the human mind at birth is tabula rasa or blank slate which means that knowledge is
derived from experience. He asserted that the self, or personal identity, is constructed primarily
from senses – or more specifically, what we see, hear, smell, taste, and feel. These experiences
shape and mold the self throughout a person’s life.
*self, kailangan maalala ang experience para masabina ikaw yon.
As Descartes described the “self” as a thinking thing, Locke expanded the definition of “self” to
include the memories of that thinking thing. Since “self” consist of memory, the person now is
the same as the person he is yesterday. A person's memory provide continuity of experience that
allows him/her to identify him/herself as the same person over time. This theory of personal
identity allows Locke to justify a defense of accountability. Therefore, a person who remembers
is always accountable to his past behaviors.
Self-consciousness is necessary to have a coherent personal (self) identity or knowledge of the

self as a person. Consciousness is what makes possible our belief that we are the same identity in
different situations. Using the power of reason and introspection enables people to understand
and achieve accurate conclusions about the self.

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EXERCISE:
Relate John Locke's perspective of the “self” on crimes involving people with mental illness.
*You had a choice kaya hindi naakusahan yung mga may mental illness
Self as a thinking thing, a person with mental illness does not think properly anymore. The mental illness
led these people to find difficulty on what is right or wrong. Sometimes these people say “I don’t recall
the moment I did the crime; I only remember that there are blood stains in my hands”. As they don’t
recall their memories due to their illness.
SIGMUND FREUD: THE SELF IS MULTILAYERED
Sigmund Freud, (born May 6, 1856, Freiberg, Moravia, Austrian Empire

[now Příbor, Czech Republic]—died September 23, 1939, London,
England), Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis.
Sigmund Freud’s most important contribution is psychoanalysis which is a practice devised to

treat mental illness through dialogue. The “self” according to Freud is an entity in itself
characterized as the subject (the subject, the doer, the topic) of the physical and mental actions
and experiences. He asserted that the self is an entity that is unified, single, undivided and
unaffected by time.
Freud’s work in the field of psychoanalysis as he tackles the concept of the “psyche” is essential.
Psyche is the totality of the human mind, both conscious and unconscious (Watson, 2014).
The “psyche” (the human soul, mind or spirit) is divided into three levels of consciousness.
a. Conscious - deals with awareness of what is present
b. pre/sub conscious - data that can readily be brought to consciousness
c. unconscious - data retained but not easily available to the individuals consciousness
The conscious self is governed by the reality principle and is organized in ways that are rational,
practical, and appropriate. The unconscious contains the basic instinctual drives that would be
considered socially taboo and is governed by the pleasure principle. Much of the self is
determined by the unconscious. The preconscious is located between the conscious and
unconscious part of the self that is not threatening and is easily brought to mind.
Psychoanalytic Theory is a personality theory based on the notion that an individual acts due to
unseen forces which are governed by the conscious and rational thought. Freud further structures
the psyche/mind into three parts;

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a. ID – the id operates on the pleasure principle (Freud, 1920) which is the idea that
every wishful impulse should be satisfied immediately, regardless of the consequences.
When the id achieves its demands we experience pleasure when it is denied we
experience ‘unpleasure’ or tension.
It’s that little devil that sits on your shoulder, whispering temptations and spurring
you on. Whenever you see a selfish, spoiled child in the grocery store demanding a toy
and throwing a tantrum if he doesn’t get his way, you’ll know that’s the id in action!
*pleasure principle
b. EGO – The ego converts, diverts, and transforms the powerful forces of the id into
more useful and realistic modes of satisfaction. It attempts to regulate the id in order to
achieve satisfaction despite the limits of reality.
*nagbabalanse na dalawa
c. SUPEREGO - Superego is another name for your conscience. It expects your ego to
be strong and effective in its struggles against the id’s force.
Usually, our conscience comes from our parents or a parental figure. As we grow,
we internalize their standards, those same standards that make us feel so guilty when we
tell a lie or cheat on our taxes. But does everyone have a conscience? *konsensiya,
nagkakaroon habang lumalaki
Source: verywellmind.com
Source:powe
rofsubconsciousmindblog.wo rdpress.com
EXERCISE:

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Explain the works of each part of the psyche/mind when you are courting someone.
DAVID HUME: THERE IS NO SELF
David Hume, (born May 7 [April 26, Old Style], 1711, Edinburgh,
Scotland—died August 25, 1776, Edinburgh), Scottish philosopher,
historian, economist, and essayist known especially for his
philosophical empiricism and skepticism.
*perception sa mga bagay bagay ay hindi consistent
*self is not consistent, self should be on/off
David Hume is identified with the “bundle theory” wherein he described the “self” or person as a
bundle or collection of different perceptions that are moving in a very fast and successive
manner. He believed that human intellect and experiences are limited, therefore, it is impossible
to attribute it to an independent persisting entity (soul). For him, the “self” is made up of
successive impressions.
Two divisions of mind's perceptions:
1. impressions
2. ideas
Hume asserted that the “self” cannot be verified through observation and what we directly know
are mere objects our senses are experiencing. The “self” is nothing but a series of incoherent
impressions received by our senses thus perceptions are only active for as long as you are
conscious. The “self” is just a passive observer similar to watching one's life pass before the
eyes.
Hume suggests that if people carefully examine their sense experience through the process of
introspection, they will discover that there is no self.
According to Hume, what people experience is just a bundle or collection of different

perceptions, impressions, sensations, ideas, thoughts, and images.
The idea of personal identity is a result of imagination.

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QUESTION:
Is love an impression or an idea?
GILBERT RYLE: THE SELF IS THE WAY PEOPLE BEHAVE
Gilbert Ryle, (born August 19, 1900, Brighton, Sussex, England—died

October 6, 1976, Whitby, North Yorkshire), British philosopher, leading
figure in the “Oxford philosophy,” or “ordinary language,” movement.
Ryle’s first book, The Concept of Mind (1949), is considered a modern
classic. In it he challenges the traditional distinction between body and
mind as delineated by René Descartes.
The self is best understood as a pattern of behavior, the tendency or

disposition for a person to behave in a certain way in certain circumstances. Ryle’s concept of
the human self thus provided the philosophical principle, “I act therefore I am.”
In short, the self is the same as bodily behaviour.
PAUL CHURCHLAND: THE SELF IS THE BRAIN

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Born October 21, 1942 Vancouver, B.C., Canada

University of Pittsburgh
Main interests Neurophilosophy Philosophy of science Philosophy of mind Artificial intelligence
Epistemology
The self is inseparable from the brain and the physiology of the body. All we have is the brain
and so, if the brain is gone, there is no self. For Churchland, the physical brain and not the
imaginary mind, gives us our sense of self. The mind does not really exist. It is the brain and not
the imaginary mind that gives us our sense of self. The self is the brain.
ACTIVITY
Reflect on and make a narrative essay on the different philosophical perspectives.
Which of the philosophy of the self relates to your own belief and explain how each view impact
your self-understanding? What is your own philosophy of self?

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MODULE 2
THE SOCIO-ANTHROPOLOGICAL
PERPECTIVE OF THE SELF
Photo Credits:https://sirigurudavehnameh.wordpress.com/2015/11/15/culures-society/
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the topic, you should be able to:

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1. Recognize what sociology and anthropology tells about understanding the self and others.
2. Understand how individuals view the self as a product of socialization.
3. Explain the theories of the social self.
4. Discuss the self as a product of modern and postmodern societies.
5. Define what is culture, its components and how culture influences the self.
6. Identify different cultural perspectives
7. Appreciate own social and cultural experiences that have been particularly helpful in
understanding the self.
The Self and the Society
The self is not present at birth. It develops only with social experience wherein language,
gestures, and objects are used to communicate meaningfully. The sociological perspective of the
self is based on the assumption that human behaviour is influenced by group life.
A particular view of oneself is formed through interactions with other people, groups, or social
institutions. For sociologists like George Herbert Mead and Charles Horton Cooley, the self is
not dependent on biological predispositions; rather, it is a product of social interaction.
Sociologist Charles Horton Cooley introduced the looking-glass self to highlight that the people
whom a person interacts become a mirror in which he views himself. Since these perceptions are
subjective, there might have wrong interpretations of how other people evaluate him. It would be
critical if he thinks others judge him unfavorably because he could develop a negative self-
image.
George Herbert Mead’s theory of the social self, explained that the self has
two divisions: the “I” and the “me”. The “I” is the subjective element and
the active side of the self. It represents the spontaneous, and unique traits of the individual. The
"I" is the response of the individual to the “Me”. The “Me” is the objective element of the self. It
represents the “internalized” attitudes, expectations, and demands of other people.
The "Me" is what is learned in interaction with others and with the environment. The full
development of the self is attained when the “I” and the “me” are
united.
The Self as a Product of Modern Societies
According to Gerry Lanuza, in modern societies the attainment and stability of self identity is
freely chosen. It is no longer restricted by customs and traditions. In postmodern societies, self-
identity continuously change due to the demands of multitude of social contexts, new
information technologies, and globalization.
These freedom and changes offer opportunities for self-cultivation but problems may also arise
(e.g. alienation and dehumanization). For instance, it limits the face to face, close relationships

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with others especially among family members. It limits close contact and communication with
others.
According to Sociologist Jean Baudrillard, in postmodern societies, individuals achieve self-

identity through prestige symbols that they consume. The cultural practices of advertising and
mass media greatly influence individuals to consume goods not for their primary value and
utility but to give them a feeling of goodness and power when compared with others.
The postmodern person has become an insatiable consumer and may

never be satisfied in his life. Thus, the self may be a never-ending search for prestige in the
postmodern society.
Culture and the Self
Culture is that complex whole which consists of knowledge, beliefs, ideas, habits, attitudes,
skills, abilities, values, norms, art, law, morals, customs, traditions, feelings and other
capabilities of man which are acquired, learned and socially transmitted by man from one
generation to another through language and living together as members of the society.
Characteristics of Culture
Culture is learned. It is acquired through education, training and experience.

Culture is socially transmitted through language. It is transmitted from one generation to another
through the medium of language, verbal or non-verbal through gestures or signs, orally or in
writing.
Culture is adaptive. Through inventions and discoveries, man has been able to overcome his
limitations to outdo other animals.
Culture is material and non-material. Material culture, such as buildings and machines, are
products or outputs of the application of man’s knowledge and skills, which are basically non-
material.
Culture has sanctions and controls. These sanctions could be formal or informal.
Components of Culture
Norms. These are guidelines people are supposed to follow in their relation with one another;
they are shared rules that specify what is right or wrong and the appropriate and inappropriate
behavior. They indicate what people should do or should not do in a specific situation. They
indicate the standards of propriety, morality, legality and ethics of a society that are covered by
sanctions when violations are made.
Folkways. These are everyday habits, customs, traditions, and conventions people obey without
giving much thought to the matter. People who violate folkways are labeled as slobs or eccentric
but as a rule they are tolerated. Example: barrio folks eat with bare hands and walk bare footed,
city folks eat using spoon and fork and walk with slippers or shoes.
Mores. These are the norms people consider vital to their well-being and most cherished values;
they are special customs with moral and ethical significance, which are strongly held and
emphasized.

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Ideas, Beliefs, Values
Ideas are non-material aspects of culture and embody man’s conception of his physical, social
and cultural world. Example: idea of a model community, idea of an educated person, idea of
alternative marriage. Beliefs – refers to a person’s conviction about a certain idea; it embodies
people’s perception of reality and includes the primitive ideas of the universe as well as the
scientist’s empirical view of the world. Example: belief in spirits, belief in gravity, belief in life
after death.
Values are abstract concepts of what is important and worthwhile. They are the general ideas that
individuals share about what is good or bad, right or wrong, desirable and undesirable. They
provide the foundation that underlies a people’s entire way of life.
Different viewpoints/Perspectives on Culture
Cultural Relativism. The concept of cultural relativism states that cultures differ, so that a
cultural trait, act, or idea has no meaning or function by itself but has a meaning only within its
cultural setting. (Horton and Hunt, 1985). Culture is relative, and no cultural practice is good or
bad by itself. Every cultural element must be received in terms of its meanings, function or
significance in the culture which it is a part. Example: Marriage is monogamy among Christians
but polygamy among Muslims.
Culture Shock. It refers to the feeling of disbelief, disorganization, and frustration one
experiences when he/she encounters cultural patterns or practices which are different from his.
He becomes so accustomed to his/her cultural milieu that he finds himself/herself disgusted,
unsettled, troubled and disoriented when he/she enters another society with a different culture.
Ethnocentrism. It refers to the tendency to see the behaviors, beliefs, values and norms of one’s
own group as the only right way of living and to judge others by those standards. It is the feeling
of superiority for one’s own culture and to consider other cultures as inferior, wrong, strange or
queer.
Xenocentrism. This refers to the idea that what is foreign is best and that one’s lifestyle, products
or ideas are inferior to those of others.
Noble savage mentality. It refers to the evaluation of one’s culture and that of others based on the
romantic notion that the culture and the way of life of the primitives or other simple cultures is
better, more acceptable, and more orderly. Example: Some urbanites say that rural lifestyle is
better because they have simple need.
Causes of cultural change
Discovery. It refers to the process of finding a new place or an object, artifact or anything that
previously existed. It also refers to the initial awareness of existing but formerly unobserved

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relationships of elements of nature to human life. Example: discovery of fire led to the art of
cooking, discovery of oil, sources of energy, diseases, etc.
Invention. It implies a creative mental process of devising, creating and producing something
new, novel or original. It also implies the utilization and combination of previously known
elements to produce an original or novel product. Example: Invention of government system,
language, democracy, religion, alphabet, etc.
Diffusion. It refers to the spread of cultural traits (e.g., religious beliefs, technological ideas,
language forms, etc.) or social practices from a society or group to another belonging to the same
society or to another through direct contact with each other and exposure to new forms.
Colonization. It refers to the political, social and political policy of establishing a colony which
would be subject to the rule or governance of the colonizing state. It is politically termed as
imperialism. Example: Hispanization of Filipino culture, American global hegemony.
Rebellion and Revolutionary Movements. These aim to change the whole social order and
replace the leadership. They challenge the existing folkways and mores and propose a new
scheme of norms, values, and organization. Revolutionary movements involve more radical, if
not violent, changes in the community. Example: 1986 Philippine Revolution, EDSA
Revolution, Oakwood mutiny.
ACTIVITY
Write a reflection paper on the documentary enitled “Ang Huling Prinsesa” which was created
by GMA 7’s by Kara David.

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MODULE 3
PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE SELF
http://www.madorbad.com/introduction-to-self-psychology/
Learning Outcomes
1. Define and describe the different concepts of self.
2. Differentiate the various concepts of the self and identify their interrelationships.
3. Explain how the concepts of self-influence behavior.
4 Apply concepts of self in one’s life to develop self-awareness and self-understanding.
This topic presents the psychological theories that influence the way people understand the self
and the growth process to live life to the full. Understanding of the self is highest when the

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different parts of the self becomes integrative. An important aspect of understanding the self is
self-awareness.
WILLIAM JAMES' CONCEPT OF SELF: THE ME-SELF AND THE I-SELF

The self is divided into two categories: the "I-Self" and the "Me-Self". The "I-Self" refers to the
self that knows who he or she is. James believed that the "I-Self" is the thinking self. The “I-
Self” reflects the soul of a person or what is now thought of as the mind and is called the pure
ego.
The "Me-Self" is the empirical self. It refers to describing the person’s personal experiences and
further divided into subcategories: material self, social self, and spiritual self.
The material self consists of things that belong to a person such as the body, clothes, house etc.
The social self refers to whom and how a person acts on social situations.
The spiritual self refers to the most intimate and important part of the self that includes the
person’s purpose, motives, emotions, values, conscience, and moral behavior.
James believed that the path to understanding the spiritual self is through introspection.
CARL ROGERS’ SELF THEORY: REAL AND IDEAL SELF

Another aspect of self-understanding is self-concept. Self-concept refers to the image of oneself.
Psychologist Carl Rogers defined the self as a flexible and changing perception of personal
identity.
The self develops from interactions with significant people and self-awareness. According to
Rogers, human beings are always striving for self-fulfillment, or self-actualization.
When the needs of the self are denied, severe anxiety may result. Central to achieving self-
actualization is the development of self-concept. Rogers suggest that there are two components
of self-concept: real self and ideal self.
Real self consists of all the ideas, including the awareness of ‘what I am’ and ‘what I can do’.
The ideal self is the person’s conception of what one should be or wanted to be that includes
one’s goals and ambitions in life. The closer (congruent) the ideal self is to the real self, the more
fulfilled and happy the individual becomes. The farther (incongruent) the ideal self is to the real
self leads to unhappy and dissatisfied person.
MULTIPLE VERSUS UNIFIED SELF

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Self-understanding in adolescents also includes conceptualizing the self as multiple or unified

and true or false. The construction of multiple selves varies across different roles and
relationships.
Coping with different selves constitutes a formidable task among adolescents. These challenges
contribute heavily to the young person’s struggle for a unified self.
TRUE VERSUS FALSE SELF

Winnicott suggests that the self is composed of the true self and the false self. The function of
the false self is to hide and protect the true self. People tend to display a false self to impress
others. The self can change depending on situations.
THE SELF AS PROACTIVE AND AGENTIC
Albert Bandura suggests that humans have the ability to act and make things happen. In his
theory of the self, people are viewed as proactive agents of experiences. Agency embodies the
endowments, belief systems, self-regulatory capabilities, and structures and functions through
which personal influence is exercised, rather than residing as a distinct entity.
The main agentic features of human agency are: intentionality, forethought, self-reactive ness,
and self-reflectiveness. Intentionality refers to acts done intentionally. Forethought enables the
person to anticipate the likely consequences of prospective; actions.
Self-reactiveness enables the person to make choices and choose appropriate courses of action,
as well as motivate and regulate their execution. Self-reflectiveness gives the person the ability
to reflect upon oneself and the adequacy of one's thoughts and actions.
People are not only agents of action but self-examiners of their own functioning. Efficacy beliefs
are the foundation of human agency. Self-efficacy refers to the individual’s belief that he or she
is capable to perform a task. It influences whether people think pessimistically or optimistically
and in ways that are self-enhancing or self-hindering. Efficacy beliefs play a central role in self-
regulation.
THE SELF AS THE CENTRAL ARCHETYPE
Jung suggested that the psyche continues to develop throughout life, but the psyche starts to
show a definite form and content during adolescence. Jung conceived the structure of personality
(psyche) as a complex network of interacting systems that strive toward harmony. The main
systems are: ego, personal unconscious, and collective unconscious.
The ego is one's conscious mind, the part of the psyche that includes perceptions, thoughts,
feelings, and memories that may enter consciousness. It is through the ego that we establish
sense of stability.
Personal unconscious includes the repressed and forgotten experiences. The collective
unconscious consists of the fundamental elements of the human psyche that includes experiences
all humans share or in common.

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Within the collective unconscious lie archetypes. Central to Carl Jung’s theory of the self is the
concept of archetype. An arechetype is a universal thought form
or predisposion to respond to the world in certain ways. The archetype represents the hidden
potentialities of the psyche, or total personality. For Jung, there are four major archetypes:
persona, shadow, animus/anima, and self.
The persona refers to social roles that individuals present to others. The shadow refers to the
repressed thoughts that are unacceptable. This archetype is often considered as the dark side of
the psyche.
The anima is the feminine side of the male psyche while the animus is the masculine side of the
female psyche. The self is the central archetype that unites all parts of the psyche. The ego is the
individual’s conscious perception of the self.
SIGMUND FREUD’S CONSTRUCTION OF SELF AND PERSONALITY
According to Sigmund Freud, there are three structures of personality: id, ego, and superego. The
id is the pleasure-seeking side, immature, impulsive, child-like and
cannot delay gratification. It has no regard of others and the law. The ego refers to the “I” and
works on the reality principle, controls the id, and can delay pleasure. The ego can conform with
existing societal consideration. The superego refers to the “conscience” and “moral judge” of
conduct. Violation of rules lead to guilt feelings. It strives for perfection rather than pleasure.
It appears that the id is the devil within the self, the superego is the angel, and ego is the person
in the middle. The id, ego, and superego are often in conflict with each other. Freud used the
term ego strength to refer to the ego's ability to resolve the conflict between the three structures.
If this constant state of conflict is unresolved, personality problems may arise.
In Freud’s view, the id, ego, and superego develop in a series of stages. Freud called these the
psychosexual stages of development that progresses through five stages: oral, anal, phallic,
latency, and genital. Each of the stage is associated with conflicts that the individual must
resolved so that he or she can successfully forward to the next stage.
Freud also believed that each stage has needs and dissatisfaction of needs may result in fixation
which could have lasting negative effects on personality.
The first stage is the oral stage, which lasts from birth up to the first year of life.
During this stage, babies derive pleasure from oral activities like sucking and biting.
Overindulgence of the oral needs may lead to oral incorporative personality disorder such as
overeating, smoking, and alcoholism while dissatisfaction may lead to oral aggressive
personality disorder such as sarcasm and tactlessness.
The next stage is anal stage, which occurs around the second year of life. During this stage, the
child derives pleasure from the elimination of body wastes. Through toilet training, the child
learns the basic rules of society. Anal fixations can lead to anal retentive personality disorder
such as obsession with cleanliness or anal expulsion personality disorder such as clumsiness.

27
Freud called the third stage, phallic stage, which usually occurs around the ages of 3 and 6.
Children during this stage derive pleasure from examining, touching, fondling, or displaying
their genitals, or others. These behaviors are likely motivated by curiosity on the differences
between the anatomy of man and woman. Sex curiosity will remain high during the elementary
years and children tend to ask questions with regard to anatomical structures, sex, and how
babies are made. During this stage, parents and teachers need to properly educate the children
about sexuality. Fixations at this stage may lead to abnormal sex behaviors in later life.
The fourth stage is the latency stage, which lasts from 7 to 1 2. At this stage, sexual energy is
repressed because children become busy with school.
The last stage is genital stage, which starts from adolescence to adulthood. During this stage,
pleasure is again derived from the genital area and individuals seek to satisfy their sexual drives
from sexual relationships. Sexual problems may result as a consequence of inappropriate sex
behaviors.
THE ROLE OF ERIK ERIKSON’S THEORY IN UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

Another important aspect of self-understanding involves views of identity development of the
self.
In Erik Erikson’s theory, adolescence stage is a period of identity development. Identity
formation is usually viewed as a process that requires adolescents to distance themselves from
the strong expectations and definitions imposed by parents and other family members
To achieve an individual identity, one must create a vision of the self that is authentic and having
hold of one’s destiny in an effort to reach goals that are personally meaningful. Erikson’s theory
proposes that individuals go through eight psychosocial stages of development.
While Erikson believed that each stage is important, he gave a particular emphasis on the
development of the ego. The ego is the positive force that contributes to identity formation and
lay the foundation for certain strengths and virtues in life. Each stage consists of developmental
tasks that one needs to accomplish in order to develop successfully.
During each stage, the person experiences life crisis which could have negative
consequences if not properly resolved.
ACTIVITIES
Which of the basic concepts described in the preceding theories that you think applies to you the
most. Did your study of the different theories of the self leads you to change any of your
perceptions about yourself? Did the theories of the self leads you to recognize your strengths and
weaknesses? How does the lesson foster self-understanding and development?
One way to learn about the self is by using self-assessment measures. Understand more about
yourself and gain insights about your strengths by taking the survey of character strengths.

28

29
MODULE 4.
THE SELF IN EASTERN and WESTERN
THOUGHT
http://outlookafghanistan.net/topics.php?post_id=9140
Learning Outcomes
1. Know the difference between the self in Eastern versus Western though
2. Have exposure to individualistic culture.
3. Know the collective culture.
4. Identify the difference between and individualistic versus collective self.

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The Self in Eastern Thought
If we assume that the religious tradition was the mainstream in the east, accepting the concept of
a superior being (Allah, Nibbana, Ha Shem, Lord, etc) was a necessity for being religious. As a
follower, you should live in a way that God demands.
Every single aspect of a follower's life will be defined by the concepts of obedience, submission,
and dedication. They should surround their will to the Lord’s irresistible one. The ultimate aim
of a worshiper is the contentment and the satisfaction of the worshiped. How? By eliminating
their will and following His commandments. Denial of their personal self and becoming a God-
oriented self is the first step toward His eternal and glorious kingdom.
As an eastern, the concept of the "self" stands for something which always exists
somewhere out of you. You are not an individual person anymore, but a servant who serves
along with His other servants. So in the east, the community of the followers is always more
important than individuals. The Ummah of Islam, the nation of the Jehovah, the Church of
Christianity, the Sangha of Buddhism are some of these communities which their interests
always come first, so the followers need sometimes even sacrifice themselves to protect it. In one
word, "self" direction in the east is outward.
The Self in Western Thought

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The Self in the Western thought is generally seen as possessing no belief in kind of personal
god(s) or at least not a god who is able to change the human ways of life. Their approach to the
world was formed around a materialistic view with a rational realism that seeks the reality of the
nature of everything by studying their attributes and properties.
The human being was part of this world, the only difference about human was his cognition and
awareness. The human is the only creature who can be studied by very him/herself. The journey
of the western people into the depth of their most inner labyrinth of "self" started right here.
Looking to the ancient Greek and its political system based on a kind of democracy (although
slaves, women, and a majority of low-level citizens couldn't vote!) shows the importance of the
concept of individuality. Even the aristocracy of Plato had a kind of self-oriented approach to
governing over the political system, however, it wasn't based on the people votes but it is highly
depended on elite individual's opinions over the issues.
While in the east the vote only belongs to the God or His messengers or a council of his chosen
servants which decided based on His will which interpreted through His revealed message, not
based on worshipper's opinion. We can see the sparks of what we call humanism in the
enlightenment era back in ancient Greek. The well-being and joyful life of the individuals (not
the society unless we consider society a gathering of the individuals) are the main priority of
western societies. You should make yourself happy in this world, It's the ultimate goal of life. In
one word, "self" direction in the west is inward.
Individualistic Cultures
Individualistic cultures, such as North American and Western European countries, are
characterized by a cultural perspective that emphasizes the uniqueness of the individual’s
personal characteristics, needs, and motives as the focal point of predicting and understanding
the individual’s actions.

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In contrast to collectivistic cultures, individualistic cultures place more emphasis on the

expression and satisfaction of the individual’s needs than on conformity to public norms. These
cultures are sometimes described as ‘complex’ societies because people have considerable
societal flexibility to join many different groups and exercise a wide range of choices in the
expression of various social roles. For example, in American society, although parents might
have certain expectations of their children to go to college, the children are relatively free to
choose a major that reflects their personal needs and interests. Due to their emphasis on the
expression of the needs and desires of the individual, such complex, individualistic cultures
illustrate the proverb ‘the squeaky wheel gets the grease’.
Collectivistic Cultures
In contrast to individualistic cultures, collectivistic cultures such as Japan, India, and China tend
to be characterized by a cultural perspective that places less emphasis on the uniqueness of the
individual’s personal characteristics as the focal point of predicting and understanding the
individual’s actions. Instead, such cultures place more of an emphasis on the person’s
identification with a group, such as family, country, occupation, or caste, and the expectations,
duties, and roles associated with being a member of a group as the primary source for
understanding the individual. These cultures appear as ‘tight’ societies because of the high
expectations they place on people to conform to societal values, roles, and norms. For example,
even though she may not like studying economics, a young Japanese college student may pursue
a career as an economist to fulfill the wishes of the elder members of her family. Due to their
restrictive nature, such tight, collectivistic cultures illustrate the proverb ‘the nail that stands out
gets pounded down’.
These descriptions of individualistic and collectivistic cultures represent general patterns of
thinking and behavior associated with certain cultural guidelines. As a point of clarification,
within any given culture there will be personal expression by individuals who do not conform to
such cultural guidelines. More specifically, even in tight, collectivistic cultures there will be
those individuals whose actions reflect to a greater degree their personal needs, motives, and
values. For example, even in highly repressive cultures, there will be those individuals who will
pursue their academic interests (e.g., study forbidden texts), creative passions (e.g., play music),
and/or political views (e.g., anti-government protesting) that are at odds with the cultural
guidelines.
ACTIVITY
Write about;
1. your own experience in visiting another province or region. Describe the differences in culture
that they have observed.
2. your shared experiences with the people they visited in other towns or provinces.

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References:
https://www.quora.com/What-are-Eastern-and-Western-perspectives-about-self
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.2304/plat.2012.11.3.413

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PART 2.
UNPACKING
THE SELF

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MODULE 5
THE PHYSICAL SELF
Photo Credits: http://marell-lawfirm.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/mirror-image-rule-pic.jpg
Learning Outcomes
1 . Understand the stages of life and explain the physical changes that occur during each stage.
2. Identify the contributions of genetic and environmental factors on physical development of the
self.
3. Describe the factors that affect body image.
4. Examine the impact of culture on body image and self.
5. Develop a positive body image.
THE PHYSICAL SELF

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The physical self refers to the body. The basic parts of the bod y are the head, neck, chest, arms,
and legs. It is also made up of other organs such as the brain, heart, lungs, stomach, intestines,
bones, and muscles. These organs work together to perform many of its functions such as
breathing, walking, and dancing. The body's ability to perform its functions gradually changes
through the years. In general, the body performs its functions least well during infancy and old
age.
Physical efficiency generally peaks in early adulthood between the ages of twenty and thirty, and
then slowly declines into the middle age. Physical development and growth during childhood
continues at a slow rate compared with rapid rate of growth in babyhood.
Adolescence begins with the onset of puberty. This stage is characterized by rapid physical
changes that includes the maturation of the reproductive system.
Each individual goes through a succession of developmental stages.
Life span is the development from conception to death. Elizabeth B. Hurlock outlined the stages
in the life span:
Stage Age
Prenatal fertilization to birth
Infancy birth to 2 weeks of life
Babyhood 2 weeks of life to 2nd year
Early Childhood 2 to 6
Late Childhood 6 to 10 or 12
Puberty 10 or 12 to 14
Adolescence 14 to 18
Early Adulthood 18 to 40
Middle Adulthood 40 to 60
Late Adulthood or senescence 60 to death
Two Factors Affecting Physical Growth and Development

Physical growth and development is the product of heredity and environment. Heredity is the
biological process of transmission of traits from parents to
offspring.
Environment refers to the factors to which the individual is exposed after conception to death
which includes learning and experiences.
Environmental factors such as diet, nutrition, and diseases play an important role in physical
development.
The sex and other physical traits are determined by the combination of chromosomes and genes
during fertilization.
Fertilization is the union of egg and sperm cell. Chromosomes are thread like tissues that carries
the genes, and are usually found in pairs. There are 23 pairs of chromosomes.

37
Chromosomes are classified as autosomes or trait chromosomes (22

pairs) and gonosome or sex chromosome. The sex of the offspring depends on the pairing of the
sex chromosomes (23rd) from the father and mother.
Genes are the basic carrier of hereditary traits. Genes are classified as dominant (strong genes)
and recessive (weak genes).
BODY IMAGE
Body image refers to how individuals perceive, think, and feel about their body and physical
appearance. Appearance refers to everything about a person that others can observe such as
height, weight, skin color, clothes, and hairstyle. Through appearances, people show others the
kind of persons they are. It appears that body image is related to self-esteem.
Self- esteem is a person's overall evaluation of his or her own worth. Adolescents worry about
different parts of their bodies. Younger women and girls tend to have poor body image. Body
image can affect both the adolescent’s physical and psychological well being.
Causes of Poor Body Image
Parents emphasis on thin ideal body lead girls to experience body dissatisfaction. Bullying and
peer pressure have been associated with greater body dissatisfaction. Media such as television,
advertisements, music, and movies. They are filled with good-looking faces, making women and
men more concerned with physical attractiveness. The result is that it can cause a great deal of
money to pay for the physical attractiveness that women and men want to achieve. The reality,
however, is that the standards of beauty presented in the media are so unrealistic.
Effects of Poor Body Image
Girls who have higher body dissatisfaction are likely to experience depression, low self-esteem,
and eating disorders. Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder in which the person refuses to eat
for fear of gaining weight which can result in severe starvation and death. The disorder mostly
afflicts females between the ages of 1 2 and 40, although men may also develop it. A related
disorder is bulimia in which the person induces purging after binging on large quantities of food.
Body Modification
Some people desperately change their physical appearance through body modification.
Tattooing, permanent makeup, body piercing, cosmetic surgery are forms of body modification.
CONCEPT OF BEAUTY
In Egyptian art, beauty is portrayed in women with slim, high waist, narrow hips, and long black
hair. Women with full figure and rounded hips was considered beautiful during the renaissance
period.

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Some tribes (e.g., Africa) during the medieval age consider chubby, fat, or plump women
beautiful. People in Malaysia, Philippines, and Indonesia considered flat noses to be the most
attractive.
THE IMPORTANCE OF BEAUTY
Standards of beauty have changed over time based on changing cultural values. All cultures
have, more or less, the same concept standards of beauty have changed over time based on
changing cultural values.
Generally, humans who have clean and unblemished skin, thick shiny hair, well proportioned
bodies, and symmetrical faces, have traditionally been considered the most beautiful.
Beauty is considered important throughout history. This is because these features indicate youth,
health, good genes, and fertility. Beauty is important in all societies. Attractive people have a lot
of advantages in life. For example, men tend to seek attractive women as mates.
Studies have shown that men and women who are physically attractive have more opportunities
such as job, promotion, and income. Also, people tend to view attractive people as good, happier,
smarter, and better people.
Generally, unattractive people are less liked and assisted. Above all things physical, it is more
important to be beautiful in the inside.
ACTIVITY:
Interview 5 persons and have them define what is physical beauty.
MODULE 6
THE SEXUAL SELF

39
https://i0.wp.com/www.naturalhealthfertility.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/baby-making-vs-love-making.jpg?fit=1000%2C668&ssl=1
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the chapter, you are able to:
1.Explain the development of sex characteristics and human reproductive system

2.Describe the erogenous zones and understand human sexual response
3.Understand attraction, love, and attachment
4.Explain sexual orientation
5.Identify the causes and consequences of sexually transmitted infections and early pregnancy.
6.Reflect on the importance of contraception and Reproductive Health Law.
At the outset, it should be clear that when approaching this topic on the sexual self, it should not
just be as a biological process, but as a preparation to entering into and sustain an intimate,
happy, and long-time relationships in the future.
DEVELOPMENT OF SEX CHARACTERISTICS AND THE HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE

SYSTEM
The beginning of adolescence is marked by rapid physical changes, including the maturation of
the reproductive system and development of the primary and secondary sex characteristics.

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The primary sex characteristics are physical characteristics that are present at birth.
In women, these characteristics include the vagina, uterus, and ovaries.

In men, the primary sex characteristics include the penis, testes or testicles, and the scrotum.
The secondary sex characteristics develop during the onset of puberty. For females is the onset of
the menstrual cycle, widening of hips, enlargement of buttocks, and growth of pubic hair.
Testicular growth, sperm production, appearance of facial, pubic, and other body hair, and
deepening of voice are some of the first signs of puberty in men.
During puberty, testosterone and other androgens stimulate the development of

primary and secondary sex characteristics and also increase sex drive. The level of testosterone
production is fairly constant.
In women, the ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone as well as small amount of
testosterone. Estrogen promotes female reproductive capacity and secondary sex characteristics.
The production of female sex hormones follows a cyclical pattern, on an approximately 28-day
monthly cycle.
The greatest production/n occurs during ovulation period, when an egg is released from the
ovaries. The two ovaries produce, store, and release egg cells during ovulation. Ovulation period
can occur 14 days after the beginning of the menstrual period.
The reproductive system is a system of sex organs designed for reproduction or sexual function.
The female reproductive system comprises the two ovaries, the fallopian tubes, the uterus, the
vagina, and the clitoris.
The male reproductive system includes the penis, the testes, the scrotum, the prostate gland, the
seminal vesicles, the vas deferens, and the epididymis.
SEXUAL AROUSAL AND EROGENOUS ZONES: WHAT TURNS PEOPLE ON
Human sexual arousal may be produced by direct stimulation of the body’s erogenous zones.
According to Freud, erogenous zones are areas of the body that provide pleasure. Erogenous
zones include the genitals, mouth, breast, ears, anus, and to a lesser degree, the entire surface of
the body.
One of the most basic sexual stimulation is masturbation or self-stimulation that causes sexual
pleasure or orgasm. Other sexual activities such as intimate kissing, cuddling, necking, petting,
or touching the erogenous zones may be uniquely important to sexual arousal.
In many species, sexual arousal is loosely tied to variations in hormonal levels; in humans,

41
however, hormones play less of a role. In one sense, the brain is where sexual desire originates
and where sexual behavior is controlled.
Cognitive factors thus play an important role in sexual arousal in humans. Culture also
influences the expression of sexual desire.
THE PHASES OF SEXUAL RESPONSE
William Masters and Virginia Johnson use the term sexual-response cycle to
describe the changes that occur in the body as men and women become
sexually aroused. They divide the sexual -response cycle into four phases: excitement, plateau,
orgasm, and resolution.
The excitement phase is the beginning of sexual arousal and can last from one minute to several
hours. Pulse rate increases, blood pressure rises, breathing quickens, and the skin shows a rosy
flush particularly on the chest and breast areas during this phase. The nipples harden and erect in
both men and women. In men, the penis becomes erect, the skin of the scrotum thickens, and the
testes increase in size. In women, the clitoris swells, the lips of the vagina open, and the inside of
the vagina moistens in preparation for sexual intercourse.
In the plateau phase, the changes in the body are continued. In men, the penis becomes more
erect, the circumference of its head increases, and releases few drops of fluid. In women, the
outer part of the vagina swells
with increased amounts of blood to that area, while the clitoris retracts under the clitoral hood
but remains highly sensitive. The outer lips of the vagina become redder in color. Breathing
becomes more rapid, heart rate increases, body temperature rises, and blood pressure increases
during this stage.
During the orgasmic phase, the orgasmic contractions of the muscles in and around the penis
stimulate the release of the semen which contains the sperm cells. Men usually achieve one
intense orgasm. In women, orgasm involves the contraction of the pelvic muscles that surround
the vaginal walls and can happen multiple times.
In the resolution phase, the body returns to its normal state after orgasm. In men the erection is
lost, the testes decrease in size, and the skin of the scrotum thins
again. In women, the clitoris, the color of the outer lips of the vagina, and the lips of the vagina
return to its normal state.
ATTRACTION, LOVE, AND ATTACHMENT
During adolescence, dating and courtship emerge and become increasingly important. Puberty is
a stage when many boys and girls experience their first sexual attraction.

42
Romantic love is especially important among college students. Attraction is a positive attitude
held by one person toward another person. Initial attraction is influenced by social norms,
physical attractiveness, and process of interpersonal exchange.
Psychologist Robert Sternberg suggests that there are three components of love: intimacy,
passion, and commitment. The intimacy component refers to the feelings of closeness,
connectedness, and bondedness.
The passion component refers to the drives that lead to romance, physical attraction, and sexual
consummation. Commitment component refers to th9e decision to love and the commitment to
maintain that love. Attachment may also be called affectionate or companionate love.
SEXUAL ORIENTATION
Sexual orientation refers to a person’s sexual and romantic interests either people of the opposite
sex or people of the same sex. The most common sexual orientation is heterosexual, in which
people are sexually attracted to members of the opposite sex. In homosexual orientation, people
are attracted to and interested in relationship with people of the same sex.
Men with a homosexual orientation are referred to as gay while women with homosexual
orientation are referred to as lesbians. Bisexual people are attracted to both men and women.
Transgender people are those who believe they were born with the body of the opposite sex.
Thus, some seek sex change operation. Transsexual people are those whose genitals are
surgically removed and are fashioned as the genitals of the desired gender.
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS (STIs) AND EARLY PREGNANCY
Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) or sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are diseases that
are contracted primarily through sexual contact (vaginal, oral, or anal sex). STIs are increasing
health problems. Some STIs affect the sex organs themselves, whereas others have broader and
more life-threatening effects.
The bacterial infections are treatable with antibiotics, but those caused by viruses
are more difficult to treat and are often incurable such as HIV/AIDS. STIs commonly include
human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS), gonorrhea,
syphilis, chlamydia, genital herpes, and genital warts.
Anyone who is sexually active is at risk to sexually transmitted infections. Hence, sexually active
persons should practice safe sex.
However, it is important to remember that not having sex can be the safest sex method to avoid
all forms of sexually transmitted infections as well as other sexual problems such as early
pregnancy.
METHODS OF CONTRACEPTION AND THE REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH LAW

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Contraception refers to methods that are used to prevent pregnancy. Some methods of
contraception such as condom can also be used to prevent some
sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Other common methods of contraception available in the
Philippines include intrauterine device or IUD, birth control injection, withdrawal method,
calendar method, cervical mucus or the Billings method.
Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012 or otherwise known as

Reproductive Health Law or RH Law, is a law that guarantees universal access to methods of
contraception, fertility control, sexual education, and maternal care.
The RH bill provides for "prevention and treatment of HIV/AIDS and other, STIs/STDs"
The Reproductive Health Law or RH Law aims to keep couples and especially women, well-
informed about available family planning methods that they can freely use depending on their
needs and beliefs. As well, it aims to promote adolescent and youth health and propagate
information on sexuality and reproductive health through proper care and sex education.

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MODULE 7.
THE SPIRITUAL SELF
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PmuFF36uIxk
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the chapter, you are able to:
1. Demonstrate understanding of the spiritual self.

2. Explain the importance of spirituality in one’s life.
3. Discuss how spirituality is connected to religion.
4. Describe how spirituality develops.
5. Identify the different spiritual beliefs of indigenous people in the Philippines.

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Spirituality
The root meaning of spirituality is taken from the Latin word spiritus, meaning breath or life
force. Spirituality can be understood as a search for the sacred, a process through which people
seek to discover, hold on to, and, when necessary, transform whatever they hold sacred in their
lives. The sacred could refer to God and transcendence.
The term "spirituality" originally developed in early Christianity. Christians use the term "
Spirit" to describe the Holy Spirit. In Christian Ethics, the experience of the
sacred is characterized by reverence, faith, fear, trust, love and admiration which is intimately
connected to God.
Worship is regarded as an essential act to realize the ultimate meaning of transcendence and
human life. Acts of worship may include prayer, reading the bible, attending sacraments, and
doing sacrifices. Through acts of faith, hope, and love, man is able to encounter God and
understand God’s words of salvation.
Spiritual Self
The spiritual aspect of the self is the inner essence, the part of the self that connects the person to
the sacred, the supernatural, and the universe. People develop spirituality through interaction,
observation, and imitation. The family, school, and church play a very important role in the
child’s spiritual development.
The Importance of Understanding and Nurturing the Spiritual Self
Understanding and nurturing the spiritual self is as important as the other aspects of the self.
Understanding and developing awareness of the spiritual self gives the person a feeling of
oneness with God and the universe. It also gives a deeper purpose or meaning of one’s life.
All religions recognize the importance of spirituality in one’s life. Spirituality is connected with
religion. To know God is the central function of
religion. Religious beliefs and practices make people closer to God.
Logotherapy and the Search for Meaning of Life
Viktor Frankl’s personal experiences in the Nazi concentration camps during World War II led
him to develop the basic tenets of logotherapy.
Frankl embraced both the bright and darkside of human existence and believed
that human sufferings could contribute to human achievement and meaning in life.
Logotherapy is also the pursuit of human existence as well as on mans’ search for
such a meaning. Logos is a Greek word that denotes meaning.
In logotherapy, man can discover the meaning in life in three different ways: by
doing a deed, by experiencing a value, and by suffering.
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Belief in Spirits
Spirituality is also associated with animism. As the child embodies spiritual beliefs
about God and the sacred; it also includes the primitive concept about
animism.
Animism or the belief that creatures, objects, and places possess spirits. Despite of all the
scientific progress and technological advancements, existence of
animism still remains. Among the sources of animism is ignorance or lack of education
especially in distant and isolated places.
The other source of animism is the lack of faith in God. However, one must admit that there are
forces in this world that are unusual and cannot be explained by science and modern technology.
ACTIVITY
Choose between the movies “Life of Pi” and “The Da Vinci Code”. Watch it and write a
reflection paper about the movie. Focus your discussion on the concepts of religion and
spirituality.

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MODULE 8
THE MATERIAL/ECONOMIC SELF
Photo Credits:https://www.wintrustbank.com/small-business/resources/financial-education/2018/02/eight
-steps-to-stop-overspending-when-you-dont-know-where-to-start.html
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the chapter, the students are able to:
1. Develop understanding about material self.
2. Describe the basic components of material self.
3. Discuss the influence of media in material possessions.
4. Develop qualities of a wise buyer.

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Material Self
According to William James, the material self is the: “sum total of all that he can call his, not
only his body and his psychic powers, but his clothes and his house, his wife and children, his
ancestors and friends, his reputation and works, his lands, and yacht and bank-account. All these
things give him the same emotions. If they wax and prosper, he feels triumphant; if they dwindle
and die away, he feels cast down - not necessarily in the same degree for each thing, but in much
the
same way for all.”
A person’s possessions like the body, family, clothes, money, house, car, and other tangible
objects make up the material self. The basic component of the material self includes the body.
One of the tasks of adolescents is that of accepting and appreciating the physical characteristics
of their body.
Few adolescents are able to do this successfully. Adolescents tend to worry about their bodies
and physical appearance. Another component of the material self is the clothes that people wear.
Clothes represent the self. The style and brand of clothes becomes a symbolic significance. The
material component of the self can include books, bed, money, car, house and other things that a
person can call his own possession. The material components of the self also includes people
such as immediate and extended family members (my family) as well as close friends (my
friend) that the person feels psychologically connected. These people are likely to shape and
influence the development of self and identity.
Pets could also symbolically define a person’s identity. A person’s pet could be an expression of
one’s social status, pride, and prestige.
Effects of Material Possessions
Regardless of how much or how little material possessions people have, they
are interested in material possessions. Possessions can be used as status symbol. Cars, house,
gadgets, and clothes are the most valuable possessions because they are the most visible in the
eyes of others.
The more expensive, the more other people are impressed. Material possessions can be a
reflection of hard work and success.
People tend to measure success through material possessions. Material possessions can make
people more motivated to work harder to achieve
them.
Defining the self by material possessions can also contribute to feelings of well-being , including
a sense of personal growth and purpose or meaning in life. However, lack or loss of material
possessions can be disruptive to the mental health of some people.

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The strong desire for material possessions could have negative effects. Materialism is the
importance people give on material possessions. Someone with a high level of materialism is
called materialistic.
A materialistic person is excessively concerned with the acquisition of material possessions. The
strong desire for material possessions could lead to psychological dysfunction or impairment in
functioning such as compulsive buying disorder (CBD) which is characterized by an obsession
with shopping and buying behaviors that causes adverse consequences (e.g. debts).
Psychologists are identifying social and cultural factors that seem strongly
implicated in the etiology of materialism.
According to Shopaholics Anonymous, there are different types of shopaholics, and they are as
follows:
1. Compulsive shopaholics who shop when they are feeling emotional distress
2. Trophy shopaholics who are always shopping for the perfect item
3. Shopaholics who want the image of being a big spender and love flashy items
4. Bargain seekers who purchase items they don’t need because they are on sale
5. Bulimic shoppers who get caught in a vicious cycle of buying and returning
6. Collectors who don’t feel complete unless they have one item in each color or every piece of a
set
As they shop, their brain releases endorphins and dopamine, and over time, these feelings
become addictive. Some people develop shopping addictions because they essentially get addicted to
how their brain feels while shopping.
Some of the other emotional symptoms you may notice from a shopaholic include the following:
1. Spending more than they can afford
2. Shopping as a reaction to feeling angry or depressed
3. Shopping as a way to feel less guilty about a previous shopping spree
4. Harming relationships due to spending or shopping too much
5. Losing control of the shopping behavior
Lack or loss of material possessions could lead to anxiety, insecurity, and

depression. Thus, when a person is about to make a purchase, he should ask himself/herself a
very important question: DO I REALLY NEED THIS?!
ACTIVITY
Watch and reflect on the movie entitled, “Confessions of a Shoppaholic”.

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MODULE 9
THE POLITICAL SELF
http://www.philstar.com/headlines/2014/07/28/1351269/group-seeks-50-cut-power-rate?nomobile=1
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the topic, you are able to:
1. Describe the nature, functions, and origins of political self.

2. Discuss the role of family, school, church, peer groups, and media in the development of
political self.
3. Determine the importance of social interaction in political self.
4. Identify and describe the theoretical perspectives in the development of political self.
What is the Political Self?

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As an essential part of the self, the political self organizes self-relevant information about
politics. The political self is an essential part of the self because it constitutes knowledge about
the Constitution, government, and governance.
The political self helps in defining the structure and functions of the government; in telling the
relationship between the State and the citizens; and in describing their rights, freedom, and
obligations as citizens. It also exemplifies the ideals and aspirations of the people; embodies the
rules and principles of the State; and determines the status and power of the people.
One important component of political self is identity, the person’s understanding of who and
what he is or she is. Thus, citizenship becomes a salient basis for political self.
The political self is often defined by citizenship and is also in part defined by reference to other
members in the political group or community where one belongs.
Through socialization, the political self is developed. Social interaction may significantly
influence a person’s understanding of politics, and perhaps a person’s political actions in the
future. Also, through social interaction, people learn the status, duties, rights, and power
necessary to interact successfully with other people in the group or community.
The Origins of Political Self
The family has a hierarchical structure, which requires that each member performs their roles.
From an early age, individuals are taught to obey and treat parents with respect and conform to
their rules. This shows that authority is necessary in the development of the political self and
identity, which is established by the father and mother.
Schools have the responsibility to teach the moral, spiritual, and political values that will develop
the students to become patriotic and morally upright citizens.
The Church also helps shape the ideals of citizenship and democracy through their teachings,
homily, and pastoral letters.
Peers become increasingly important in influencing the political self. Mass media could also be a
key source of information of politics.
ACTIVITIES
The life of national heroes is a great source of inspiration. Choose one national hero in the
Philippines. Identify his courageous and heroic acts, which made this day worthy of respect and
emulation. Like the national hero you have chosen, identify your characteristics and the things
that you can do for the country.

52
Watch the movie Dekada 70. Reflect on and make a narrative essay on the three most important
things you learned from the movie. What are your insights and how are you going to apply your
insights in understanding and developing your political self and identity as a Filipino?

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MODULE 10
THE DIGITAL SELF
https://www.adweek.com/digital/how-social-media-can-help-your-startup-grow/
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the topic, you are able to:
1. Define digital self
2. Explain the role of mobile phones, internet, and social networking in digital self.
3. Identify the Filipino values of social networking.
4. Explain the role of the government, school, and church in the prevention of identity theft, false
information, and fake news.
5. Describe the provisions of Data Privacy Act of 2012.
What is the Digital Self?

54
Among Filipino youth, the use of digital technology has now become
part of the self – the digital self. The digital self is the aspect of the self that is expressed or
shared to others through the use of digital technology especially the internet and social
networking.
On networking sites, users normally disclose personal information such as name, age, birthdate,
address, and contact number. Some users provide very personal information about themselves
such as likes and dislikes etc. This sharing of personal information on social networking sites
may be related to the adolescents’ strong desire for social approval and acceptance. Similar can
be said about adults.
Digital Technology
Digital technology includes all types of electronic equipment and applications that use
information in the form of numeric code. It also includes the use of devices that process and use
digital information. Forms of digital technology include the use of mobile phones. The rise of
mobile phones has resulted in the widespread use of internet and social networking.
Mobile phones are ever more becoming part of the daily life of today’s youth. Digital technology
allows the users to keep in touch, connect with people, and be updated on the activities and
whereabouts of others.
However, the use of digital technology limits the face to face interaction with others and drawn
people away from meaningful and intimate communication with families and friends.
The growing use of the internet and social networking changes the social behaviors of
individuals, families, and societies.
Social Networking in the Philippines

The Philippines has the fastest growing internet population in Southeast Asia. The rise is
attributed to social networking. Majority of the Filipinos use the internet primarily for social
networking.
The Filipino youth are the biggest users of social networking in the past few
years. They mostly use social networking for communication, information, and entertainment
However, it is al so through social networking that identity theft, false information, and fake
news circulate. Thus, the Church, schools, and government in the Philippines make efforts stop,
prevent and effectively manage the spread of identity theft, false information, and fake news in
the country.
ACTIVITY

55
Answer the Internet Addiction Test (IAT) by Dr. Kimberly Young.

You may download the test at http://www.globaladdiction.org/dldocs/GLO
BALADDICTION-ScalesInternetAddictionTest.pdf.
What are your insights on the outcomes of the test?

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PART 3.
MANAGING AND CARING
FOR THE SELF

57
MODULE 11
LEARNING TO BE A BETTER
STUDENT
Photo Credits: http://www.hoft.edu/esl/learn-english-usa/
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the chapter, the students are able to;
1. Explain learning and explain how it works in humans.

2. Identify the parts of the brain involved in learning.
3. Describe the importance of neuroplasticity and its implications to learning.
4. Discuss the influence of metacognition and self-regulation in learning.
5. Choose and apply strategies to improve learning.

58
Learning
Behaviorists define learning as a relatively permanent change in behaviour as a result of practice
or experiences. Cognitive psychologists define learning as a process that leads to change as a
result of experience.
Learning is the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and attitudes through experience. It is a
transformational process that leads to personal growth and development. Learning helps the
individual to adapt in the environment. Learning is a constant process.
What happens to the brain during learning?

Learning new knowledge and skills everyday keeps the structures of the brain changing and
increase its ability to learn. The process of neuroplasticity is the ability of the brain to change
that involves the addition of new neurons, new interconnections between neurons, and the
reorganization of information processing areas.
The process of neuroplasticity or changes in the structure and functions of the neurons in the
brain usually happen in the cerebral cortex which is the wrinkled layer of the brain. The cerebral
cortex is packed with neurons and is responsible for the most sophisticated information
processing in the brain.
The cerebral cortex plays a key role in human learning, thought, memory, and
language
Metacognition and studying strategies

Metacognition is the awareness of one's thinking and the strategies one is using to learn. The
‘meta’ in metacognition refers to higher-order cognition about cognition. Metacognition is
simply defined as cognition about cognition or thinking about thinking. Psychologist John
Flavell identified two components of metacognition: metacognitive knowledge and
metacognitive regulation.
Metacognitive knowledge includes knowledge of one’s own cognitive abilities, knowledge of
cognitive tasks, and knowledge of the strategies to complete the cognitive tasks. Metacognitive
regulation refers to how the individual monitors and control one’s cognitive processes.
Barry J. Zimmerman defines self-regulated learning (SRL) as the process in which
students systematically direct their thoughts, feelings, and actions toward the attainment of their
academic goals.
Self-regulated describes a process of taking control of and evaluating one's own
learning and behavior.
In simple words, self-regulated learning is a process of taking control of and
evaluating one's own learning.

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Suggested Activities
A. To discover your strengths and weaknesses, answer the Multiple Intelligence Inventory.
The test may be downloaded at,
http://www.kerstens.org/alicia/planning10/Multiple%20Intelligences%20Inventory.pdf
B. Answer the Metacognitive Awareness Inventory. The test may be downloaded at,
https://www2.viu.ca/studentsuccessservices/learningstrategist/documents/Metacognitive
AwarenessInventory.pdf

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MODULE 12
SETTING GOALS FOR SUCCESS
Photo Credits: https://twincitiesview.com/plan-action-achieve-successreach-goals/
Learning Outcomes
1. Know the types of motivation.
2. Identify their short-term and long-term goals.
3. Understand the importance of goal setting.
4. Apply the ways on how to achieve their goals.

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Goals
Motivation directs a person’s behaviour toward a particular goal. A goal is the object toward
which the behavior is directed, usually within a specified period of time. Goals motivate people
to develop strategies that will enable them to perform better.
Goals can be classified into two categories: short-term goals and long-term goals. Generally,
short-term goals are those that can be achieved in a day, week, or year. Long-term goals are
usually achieved over a year or more.
Values
Values are those which the person considers personally important and worthy. It could be the
basis of what is desirable, correct, and good.
Needs
Needs also activate and direct behavior. Motivation is usually aroused by a need or lack of
something that may propel a person to act. There are two classifications of needs: physiological
and psychological needs.
Physiological needs are innate needs of the body such as food, water, air, sleep, and sex.
Psychological needs arise from relationship with other people such as affiliation, achievement,
altruism, esteem, and status.
The theory of psychologist Abraham Maslow suggests how needs motivate behavior. Maslow
developed the theory of hierarchy of needs. In his theory, he suggests that human needs are
arranged in a hierarchy. The hierarchy of needs is illustrated in the shape of a pyramid with the
biological needs at the bottom and the need for self-actualization at the top.
The Motivational Impacts of Self Efficacy and Mindset
The motivational impact of goals may be affected by moderators such as self-efficacy and mind
set. Psychologist Albert Bandura defined self-efficacy as the people’s belief that they can
successfully perform behaviors that will produce desired effects.
According to Psychologist Carol Dweck, there are two categories of mind set. In a fixed mind
set, people believe their basic qualities, like their intelligence or talents, are simply fixed traits. In
a growth mind set, people believe that their most basic abilities can be developed through
dedication and hard work.
Goal Setting
Goal setting is the process of improving work performance of individuals. For goal setting to be
most successful, goals should possess the characteristics represented by the acronym SMART:
specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, and
time-bound.

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The acronym SMART embodies the fundamental practices necessary for achieving increased
motivation. Individuals perform at higher levels when asked to meet a specific and concrete goal.
Properly set goals can be measured, attainable, and relevant. Lastly, goals work best when there
is time frame for their completion.
ACTIVITY
Fill up this SMART Goal Setting worksheet.
Photo Credits: https://www.teacherspayteachers.com/Product/SMART-Goals-Worksheet-Smart-Goal-Worksheet-Setting-Goals-SMART-Goals-3272935

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MODULE 13
STRESS MANAGEMENT AND

TAKING CARE OF ONE’s HEALTH
Photo Credits: https://ivemovedon.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/running-212.jpg
Learning Outcomes
1. Define stress and enumerate its causes and signs.
2. Contextualize stress in the Filipino culture.
3. Discuss stress management.
What is Stress?

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Stress is a feeling that is established when individuals react to specific events. It is the body’s
approach of rising to a challenge and getting ready to face a tough situation with focus, stamina,
strength and sensitive awareness. In the Filipino language, there is no existing and definite word
for stress. However, it is a fact that Filipinos acknowledge the concept of stress as part of living.
Stress can be categorized into two types as it can be beneficial or overwhelming. Eustress is the
kind of stress that “helps a person perform at a higher level and achieve their goals”. For
example, the demands of an upcoming exam or project can create stress which can influence the
person to work harder in order to pass the exam or accomplish the project.
On the other hand, distress is the kind of stress which can be described as “overwhelming and
hinders performance and overall well-being”. In this case, stress affects the person negatively as
to having a mental-breakdown when having a deadline or exam.
Causes of Stress
Stressors refer to the factors that can cause stress to a person. It can be an incident or event which
can trigger a flow of stress hormones that create well-orchestrated physical changes. In this case,
it is important to note that stressors are not universal as it can vary from one person to another.
What is stressful to one person, may not be the case for another.
In specific, these are example of stressors:
TYPE EXAMPLE
Physical Noise, weather, drought, typhoon, traffic, bright lights
Social/Relational Loneliness or solitude, rudeness, aggressiveness or conflict with
others, lack of time in spending with significant people, lack of
social and moral support
Financial Insufficient salary or allowance, taxes, unplanned expenses, bills
Organizational School/work culture, deadlines, rules and regulations, getting a
passing grade
Life Events Disease, starting college or work, death of family member, child-
birth, marriage
Lifestyle Choices Insufficient sleep, increased intake of caffeine, alcohol or drugs,
poor time management, procrastination, unhealthy diet
Physiological Illness, pregnancy, injury, poor health
Experiencing stress can be caused by a single or combination of any of these stressors. For
Filipinos, stressors are often located in work and livelihood environments. In the case of farmers,
they tend to worry about unpredictable weather conditions. For those who go to school and office
setting, they can be stressed due to oppressive bosses or leaders, or gossipy colleagues.
Signs of Stress
Stress can be manifested in in several ways. In this case, stress response or the body’s reaction
will only be triggered when a person perceives danger. Filipinos determine that they are stressed
when it produces both mental and physical diseases which can be simple or serious life-
threatening ones. It is recognized that stress affects the body’s immune system and so having

65
asthma, singaw (canker sores) and even cardiovascular and infectious diseases are perceived
signs and effects of stress.
In specifics, here are the signs of stress categorized into physical, behavioral, mental and
emotional.
PHYSICAL SIGNS BEHAVIORAL SIGNS
Increased heart rate Increased smoking, drinking, drug
Chest pains use (increase or decrease)
Dry mouth Changes in eating habits
Headaches Yelling
Muscle aches, stiffness or Indigestion Changes in sleeping habits
pain (especially in the neck, shoulders and, lower (increase or decrease)
back) Swearing
Constipation Aggression
Sweating Nervousness (e.g., nail biting,
High blood pressure fidgeting, pacing)
Nausea
Frequent colds or flu
Trembling
Stomach cramps
Worsening of an existing
Fatigue
Illness (e.g., asthma, skin rashes)
Weight gain or loss
MENTAL SIGNS EMOTIONAL SIGNS
Difficulty concentrating Anxiety
Confusion Short Temper
Decreased memory Anger
Loss of sense of humor Frustration
Difficulty making decisions Irritability
Decreased libido Worry
Mind going blank or mind racing Impatience
Inattentiveness Fear
Bad dreams
Stress Management Tips
Now that the concepts on stress are discussed, the last part of this module will serve as guide on
how to manage stress. In this guide, there are five steps one can follow to be able to cope up with
stress.
Step 1: Identify if you are experiencing stress.
One can identify if he/she is experiencing stress if there are signs evident. One can look at the
previously enumerated signs of stress in order to determine if the person is stressed. It is not
necessary that all the signs are present. Individuals have their own specific reactions to stress
which can be referred to as a “stressprint”.
Step 2: Determine the stressor.

66
After recognizing that a person is stressed, the next step will be to determine the cause of the
stress. In identifying the stressors, at times it can be an easy task while it can be difficult for
others. In identifying the stressor, a person can be guided on the categories above for the causes
of stress and list his/her own stressor.
Step 3: Know the reason for the stressor.
After identifying the stressor, it is now time to determine why it is causing stress. This is
significant for it can enable an individual to choose the best strategy in managing the stress. Note
that the stress response is activated when there is perceived danger. Generally, a person can
describe a situation as dangerous when they think that they have insufficient resources to
effectively handle the demands of the situation. In this case, there are two concepts: perceived
demands and perceived resources.
In this sense, if the perceived demands are greater than the perceived resources, then the person
can be stressed by thinking that he/she cannot handle the situation. In an opposite manner, if the
person thinks that the perceived resources are greater than the perceived demands, then it would
not cause stress.
In this step, the question to be asked is: “Why is this situation a threat or danger for me?”
Answering this question can be done by identifying the demands and resources available.
Step 4: Choose an appropriate stress management and apply it.
Being able to determine that a person is stressed and the reasons behind it, the last step is to
apply an identified stress management strategy. Selection of a stress management strategy is
dependent on the situation. In this case, one must identify a strategy that either address the
symptoms of stress or a strategy that would address the stress itself.
In this sense, stress management strategies can be physical, behavioral and/or social.
Physical Strategies
Physical activities can be a form of relaxation response in managing stress. In this case, stress
can be countered by using a combination of methods that create the relaxation response. There
have been researches which state that relaxation response can counter chronic stress for people
with heart diseases although it is not a cure for all. Still, these techniques which can be any of the
following are worth trying:
Breathing exercises. Breathing exercises are scientifically proven to induce relaxation. These can
include abdominal breathing, meditation, and yoga, focusing on a soothing word such as peace
or calm, repetitive prayer, and tai chi.
Massage. Having tensed muscles can be a result of experiencing stress. In this case, massage can
be an effective method to relax tense muscles. However, this is a short-term approach in stress
management. In this method, one can do self-massage or be massaged by others.
Exercise. There have been researches which revealed that doing physical exercises can bring a
person to a relaxed state. During exercises, the body releases adrenaline which is a hormone that

67
enables the body to get and keep the body moving. In this case, exercises can also bring body
awareness and body control which extends the benefit more than stress management.
Hobby. Having a personal hobby is proven to enable a person to take his/her mind off stress-
producing thoughts which can also be relaxing. Still, one must recognize that having a hobby
that is too demanding, costly or time-consuming can also be a stressor. As such, it is best to
avoid hobbies which are very stimulating such as games or gambling. It is better to engage in
hobbies which can establish contentment and satisfaction as well as those that are productive,
creative or enable skill-building. These can be gardening, crafts, and non-competitive sports,
instrument-playing, singing, writing and dancing.
Healthy Diet and Good Quality Sleep. Taking care of one’s self translates to lower stress levels.
In this case, one can ensure that he/she is treating their body well if they engage in healthy diet
and have a good quality of sleep. In having a healthy diet, it is essential to keep in mind that
under stressful conditions, it is better to eat foods that restore vitamins and minerals. Although
alcohol and drugs may seem to relieve stress, it may lead to substance abuse as a way to ease
stress. On the other hand, getting enough sleep enables the body and mind to be in top shape. As
such, it makes a person more equipped to deal with negative stressors. In this way, a good night’s
sleep is associated with better grades and improved mood.
Behavioral and/or Social Strategies

Realistic Thinking. Being realistic pertains to acknowledging the limits of every person. This
also includes proper task management which can avoid overscheduling. Once overwhelmed with
a lot of tasks, it is good to cut out activities and choose to do the most important ones first. Being
able to solve problems one by one can make a person gain control which can enable them to
calmly analyze the problem, think about the options and take charge in having solutions. Another
way is to watch out with personal thoughts. In this case, trying to be perfect and expecting others
to be the same way can add to stress. It is also good to keep in mind that it is better to have an
optimistic outlook in life to help in making the best out of stressful circumstances.
Social Support. Social networks such as relatives, spouses, friends, acquaintances, co-workers,
and companions can provide a life-enhancing social net. Though the reason is unclear, it is
known that people who are able to enjoy close relationships with their families and friends which
bring emotional support can help them at times of stress and crisis.
Stress and Filipinos
In the Philippine setting, the social pressures can be counterproductive and force people to
internalize the stress. The notion that Filipinos are happy and resilient people can limit the
person’s capability to express their stress. It is also situated in the gender context as existing
stereotypes dictate stress management.
For Filipinas who are thought of to be more expressive, they are more likely to deal with stress
through endurance (tiis) and repression (kimkim). On the other hand, men are tend to deal with
stress in the forms of merriment such as drinking (inuman) sessions. In a similar way, men are
expected to keep their feelings to present masculine values of strength and endurance; so as to

68
the notion that they are not allowed to cry which makes them more vulnerable to cardiovascular
diseases.
With all these concepts on stress, it should be highlighted that stress management is a great way
of taking care of one’s health. Being able to determine the root causes of stress and applying
stress management strategies can help a person in living a more comfortable life.
Learning Activity 1
Create a list based on your personal observations of the stressors at your home.
Guide Questions:
Answer the following to check what you learned from the discussions so far. Check your
answers from the provided answer key at the end of this unit.
1. What is stress?
2. What are the two types of stress?
3. What are the steps in stress management?
Answers to Guide Questions:

Question 1: Stress is a feeling that is established when individuals react to specific events. It is
the body’s approach of rising to a challenge and getting ready to face a tough situation with
focus, stamina, strength and sensitive awareness.
Question 2: Stress can be categorized into two types as it can be beneficial or overwhelming.
Eustress is the kind of stress that “helps a person perform at a higher level and achieve their
goals”. For example, the demands of an upcoming exam or project can create stress which can
influence the person to work harder in order to pass the exam or accomplish the project.
On the other hand, Distress is the kind of stress which can be described as “overwhelming and
hinders performance and overall well-being”. In this case, stress affects the person negatively as
to having a mental-breakdown when having a deadline or exam.
Question 3: Here are the steps for stress management:
Step 1: Identify if you are experiencing stress.
Step 2: Determine the stressor.
Step 3: Know the reason for the stressor.
Step 4: Choose an appropriate stress management and apply it.
Key Points

69
1. Stress is a feeling that is established when individuals react to specific events. It is the
body’s approach of rising to a challenge and getting ready to face a tough situation with
focus, stamina, strength and sensitive awareness.
2. Stress can be categorized into two types as it can be beneficial or overwhelming. Eustress
is the kind of stress that “helps a person perform at a higher level and achieve their
goals”. Distress is the kind of stress which can be described as “overwhelming and
hinders performance and overall well-being”.
3. Stressors refer to the factors that can cause stress to a person. It can be an incident or
event which can trigger a flow of stress hormones that create well-orchestrated physical
changes.
4. Stress can be manifested in in several ways. In this case, stress response or the body’s
reaction will only be triggered when a person perceives danger. The signs of stress
categorized into physical, behavioral, mental and emotional.
5. Here are the steps for stress management: Step 1: Identify if you are experiencing stress;
Step 2: Determine the stressor; Step 3: Know the reason for the stressor; Step 4: Choose
an appropriate stress management and apply it.
References and Supplementary Materials
Online Supplementary Reading Materials
1. Tan, M. 2006. Stress and the Filipino. Philippine Center For Investigative Journalism.
https://old.pcij.org/stories/stress-and-the-filipino/
2. Harvard Health Publishing Harvard Medical School. 2020. Understanding the Stress
Response. https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/understanding-the-stress-
response
3. Villanova University Student Life. 2020. Stress Management.
https://www1.villanova.edu/villanova/studentlife/health/promotion/goto/resources/stress.
html
4. Villanova University Office of Health Promotion. Stress Management: A Practical Guide.
https://www1.villanova.edu/content/villanova/studentlife/health/promotion/goto/resource
s/stress/_jcr_content/pagecontent/download/file.res/Stress%20Management
%20Workbook.pdf

70
Assessment
Name: Course, Year and Section:
Direction: Following the steps in stress management, fill out the work sheet below:
Step 1: Identify My signs of stress are:
if you are
experiencing
stress.
Step 2: The cause of my stress is:

Determine the
stressor.
Step 3: Know Demands Resources

the reason for To handle this In this situation/event, I have:
the stressor. situation/event, I need:

71
Step 4: Choose To address my stress-related To address my stress, I will:

an appropriate signs, I will:
stress
management
and apply it.

Understanding The Self: College of Arts and Sciences

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PAMPANGA STATE AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

General Education Course

Joyce Anne G. Belza Ella M. Roque

Sally B. Trinidad Norman. C. King

Clemente O. Boleche, Jr. Camille Rose Carl R. Mendoza

Understanding the Self

UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

PART ONE: The Self from Various Perspectives

Module 1. Philosophical Perspective of the Self

Module 2. Socio-Anthropological Self

Module 3. Psychological Self

Module 4. The Self in Western and Eastern Thought

Understanding the Self

PART TWO: Unpacking the Self

Module 5. The Physical Self

Module 6. Sexual Self

Module 7. Spiritual Self

Module 8. Material/Economic Self

Module 9. Political self

Module 10. Digital Self

PART THREE: Managing and Caring for the Self

Module 11. Learning to be a better student

Module 12. Setting Goal for Success

Understanding the Self

B. Goal Setting theory

Module 13. Taking care of one’s health

Understanding the Self

Photo Credit: https://icebreakerideas.com/who-am-i-game/

Understanding the Self

Understanding the Self

THE PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVE OF

At the end of the topic, you are expected to:

1. Explain the role of philosophy in understanding the self.

Understanding the Self

SOCRATES: AN UNEXAMINED LIFE IS NOT WORTH LIVING

Born: Alopece 469–399 B.C.E.

For ancient Greek philosopher Socrates, the self

Understanding the Self

PLATO: THE SOUL IS IMMORTAL

Plato, (born 428/427 BCE, Athens, Greece—died 348/347, Athens),

Understanding the Self

ST. AUGUSTINE: I AM DOUBTING, THEREFORE I AM

Understanding the Self

RENE DESCARTES: I THINK THEREFORE I AM

René Descartes, (born March 31, 1596, La Haye, Touraine, France—died

*dapat Nakita mo muna

Understanding the Self

JOHN LOCKE: THE SELF IS CONSCIOUSNESS

John Locke, (born August 29, 1632, Wrington, Somerset, England—

Self-consciousness is necessary to have a coherent personal (self) identity or knowledge of the

Understanding the Self

Sigmund Freud, (born May 6, 1856, Freiberg, Moravia, Austrian Empire

Sigmund Freud’s most important contribution is psychoanalysis which is a practice devised to

Understanding the Self

Understanding the Self

DAVID HUME: THERE IS NO SELF

According to Hume, what people experience is just a bundle or collection of different

The idea of personal identity is a result of imagination.