MATHEMATICS PROJECT

2021-2022

NAME: JHALAK GUPTA

CLASS: XI S
ID: 3090
SUBMITTED TO: MR. AJEET SHAH
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
THE SUCCESS AND THE FINAL OUTCOME OF
THIS PROJECT REQUIRED A LOT OF GUIDANCE
AND ASSISITANCE FROM MANY PEOPLE AND I
AM EXTREMELY PRIVILIGED TO HAVE THIS
SUPPORT ALL ALONG THE COMPLETION OF
MY PROJECT. ALL THAT I HAVE DONE IS ONLY
DUE TO SUCH SUPERVISION AND ASSISTANCE
AND I WOULD NOT FORGET TO THANK THEM.
I WISH TO EXPRESS MY DEEP GRATITUDE AND
SINCERE THANKS TO THE SCHOOL PRINCIPAL,
MS. SHEELA RAGHU MA’AM FOR HER
ENCOURAGEMENT AND OPPORTUNITY FOR
THIS PROJECT.
I RESPECT MR. AJEET SHAH SIR FOR
PROVIDING ME AN OPPORTUNITY TO DO THE
PROJECT WORK AND GIVING ALL OF US
SUPPORT AND GUIDANCE WHICH MADE ME
COMPLETE THE PROJECT DULY. I AM
EXTREMELY THANKFUL FOR HIM FOR
PROVIDING SUCH A NICE SUPPORT AND
GUIDANCE.
 CERTIFICATE
THIS IS TO CERTIFY THAT JHALAK GUPTA OF CLASS XI S HAS
SUCCESSFULLY COMPLETED HER PROJECT ON

TRIGNOMETRY

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF MR. AJEET SHAH, AS SUGGESTED IN ISC

2021-22 CURRICULUM.

---------------------------------------------

(MR. AJEET SHAH)

----------------------------------------------

(EXTERNAL EXAMINER)
 TOPIC:
TRIGNOMETRY
 INDEX
SERIAL NO. CONTENT

1. INTRODUCTION

2. HISTORY OF
TRIGNOMETRY

3. CONCEPT OF
TRIGNOMETRY

4. LIST OF TRIGNOMETRY
FORMULAS

5. APPLICATION

6. GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS

7. CONCLUSION

INTRODUCTION
TRIGONOMETRY IS ONE OF THE
MOST IMPORTANT BRANCHES
OF MATHEMATICS. THE WORD
TRIGONOMETRY IS FORMED BY
CLUBBING WORDS 'TRIGONON'
AND 'METRON' WHICH MEANS
TRIANGLE AND MEASURE
RESPECTIVELY. IT IS THE STUDY
OF THE RELATION BETWEEN
THE SIDES AND ANGLES OF A RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLE. IT THUS
HELPS IN FINDING THE MEASURE OF UNKNOWN DIMENSIONS OF A
RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLE USING FORMULAS AND IDENTITIES
BASED ON THIS RELATIONSHIP.
IN THE EARLIEST TIMES, WHEN AT SEA ALL TERRESTRIAL
LANDMARKS HAD DISAPPEARED, THE LAST MEANS AVAILABLE
TO MARINERS WERE THE STARS. TRIGONOMETRY WAS
DEVELOPED EARLY IN THE HISTORY OF MANKIND, BECAUSE IT
ALLOWED A READING OF HEAVEN ESSENTIAL TO NAVIGATION.
AS STATED BY ARISTOTLE AND PTOLEMY, THE STARS HUNG IN
THE SPHERE OF « FIXED ». IT COULD THEREFORE BE RELIED UPON
TO KEEP THE NORTH. ASTRONOMERS, SAILORS AND ARCHITECTS
WERE THUS THE FIRST DEVELOPERS OF THIS ART OF THE ANGLES
OF THE TRIANGLE.
TRIGONOMETRY DID NOT STAY VERY LONG LIMITED TO
NAVIGATION. SOON, ARCHITECTS, ENGINEERS AND
MATHEMATICIANS QUICKLY UNDERSTOOD THE INTEREST OF THIS
NEW BRANCH OF GEOMETRY.
TRIGONOMETRY, THUS, DEVELOPED FROM A NEED TO COMPUTE
ANGLES AND DISTANCES IN SUCH FIELDS AS ASTRONOMY,
MAPMAKING, SURVEYING, AND ARTILLERY RANGE FINDING.
PROBLEMS INVOLVING ANGLES AND DISTANCES IN ONE PLANE
ARE COVERED IN PLANE TRIGONOMETRY. APPLICATIONS TO
SIMILAR PROBLEMS IN MORE THAN ONE PLANE OF THREE-
DIMENSIONAL SPACE ARE CONSIDERED IN SPHERICAL
TRIGONOMETRY.
 HISTORY OF
TRIGNOMETERY
ALL TRIGONOMETRICAL COMPUTATIONS REQUIRE
MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES AND COMPUTATION OF SOME
TRIGONOMETRICAL FUNCTION. THE MODERN TRIGONOMETRICAL
FUNCTIONS ARE SINE, COSINE, TANGENT, AND THEIR
RECIPROCALS, BUT IN ANCIENT GREEK TRIGONOMETRY, THE
CHORD, A MORE INTUITIVE FUNCTION, WAS USED.
TRIGONOMETRY, OF COURSE, DEPENDS ON GEOMETRY. THE LAW
OF COSINES, FOR INSTANCE, FOLLOWS FROM A PROPOSITION OF
SYNTHETIC GEOMETRY, NAMELY PROPOSITIONS II.12 AND II.13 OF
THE ELEMENTS. AND SO, PROBLEMS IN TRIGONOMETRY HAVE
REQUIRED NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN SYNTHETIC GEOMETRY. AN
EXAMPLE IS PTOLEMY'S THEOREM WHICH GIVES RULES FOR THE
CHORDS OF THE SUM AND DIFFERENCE OF ANGLES, WHICH
CORRESPOND TO THE SUM AND DIFFERENCE FORMULAS FOR
SINES AND COSINES.
THE PRIME APPLICATION OF TRIGONOMETRY IN PAST CULTURES,
NOT JUST ANCIENT GREEK, IS TO ASTRONOMY. COMPUTATION OF
ANGLES IN THE CELESTIAL SPHERE REQUIRES A DIFFERENT KIND
OF GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY THAN THAT IN THE PLANE.
THE GEOMETRY OF THE SPHERE WAS CALLED "SPHERICS" AND
FORMED ONE PART OF THE QUADRIVIUM OF STUDY. VARIOUS
AUTHORS, INCLUDING EUCLID, WROTE BOOKS ON SPHERICS. THE
CURRENT NAME FOR THE SUBJECT IS "ELLIPTIC GEOMETRY."
TRIGONOMETRY APPARENTLY AROSE TO SOLVE PROBLEMS
POSED IN SPHERICS RATHER THAN PROBLEMS POSED IN PLANE
GEOMETRY. THUS, SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY IS AS OLD AS
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.
  THE BABYLONIANS AND ANGLE MEASUREMENT
THE BABYLONIANS, SOMETIME BEFORE 300 B.C.E. WERE USING
DEGREE MEASUREMENT FOR ANGLES. THE BABYLONIAN
NUMERALS WERE BASED ON THE NUMBER 60, SO IT MAY BE
CONJECTURED THAT THEY TOOK THE UNIT MEASURE TO BE WHAT
WE CALL 60°, THEN DIVIDED THAT INTO 60 DEGREES. PERHAPS 60°
WAS TAKEN AS THE UNIT BECAUSE THE CHORD OF 60° EQUALS
THE RADIUS OF THE CIRCLE, SEE BELOW ABOUT CHORDS. DEGREE
MEASUREMENT WAS LATER ADOPTED BY HIPPARCHUS.
THE BABYLONIANS WERE THE FIRST TO GIVE COORDINATES FOR
STARS. THEY USED THE ECLIPTIC AS THEIR BASE CIRCLE IN THE
CELESTIAL SPHERE, THAT IS, THE CRYSTAL SPHERE OF STARS. THE
SUN TRAVELS THE ECLIPTIC, THE PLANETS TRAVEL NEAR THE
ECLIPTIC, THE CONSTELLATIONS OF THE ZODIAC ARE ARRANGED
AROUND THE ECLIPTIC, AND THE NORTH STAR, POLARIS, IS 90°
FROM THE ECLIPTIC. THE CELESTIAL SPHERE ROTATES AROUND
THE AXIS THROUGH THE NORTH AND SOUTH POLES. THE
BABYLONIANS MEASURED THE LONGITUDE IN DEGREES
COUNTERCLOCKWISE FROM THE VERNAL POINT AS SEEN FROM
THE NORTH POLE, AND THEY MEASURED THE LATITUDE IN
DEGREES NORTH OR SOUTH FROM THE ECLIPTIC.

 HIPPARCHUS OF NICAEA (CA. 180 - CA. 125 B.C.E.)

HIPPARCHUS WAS PRIMARILY AN
ASTRONOMER, BUT THE BEGINNINGS OF
TRIGONOMETRY APPARENTLY BEGAN
WITH HIM. CERTAINLY, THE
BABYLONIANS, EGYPTIANS, AND EARLIER
GREEKS KNEW MUCH ASTRONOMY
BEFORE HIPPARCHUS, AND THEY ALSO
DETERMINED THE POSITIONS OF MANY
STARS ON THE CELESTIAL SPHERE BEFORE
HIM, BUT IT IS HIPPARCHUS TO WHOM THE
FIRST TABLE OF CHORDS IS ATTRIBUTED.
IT HAS BEEN HYPOTHESIZED THAT
APOLLONIUS AND EVEN ARCHIMEDES CONSTRUCTED TABLES OF
CHORDS BEFORE HIM, BUT THERE IS NO REFERENCE TO ANY SUCH
EARLIER TABLE.
SOME OF HIPPARCHUS' ADVANCES IN ASTRONOMY INCLUDE THE
CALCULATION OF THE MEAN LUNAR MONTH, ESTIMATES OF THE
SIZED AND DISTANCES OF THE SUN AND MOON, VARIANTS ON THE
EPICYCLIC AND ECCENTRIC MODELS OF PLANETARY MOTION, A
CATALOG OF 850 STARS (LONGITUDE AND LATITUDE RELATIVE TO
THE ECLIPTIC), AND THE DISCOVERY OF THE PRECESSION OF THE
EQUINOXES AND A MEASUREMENT OF THAT PRECESSION.

ACCORDING TO THEON, HIPPARCHUS WROTE A 12-BOOK WORK ON

CHORDS IN A CIRCLE, SINCE LOST. THAT WOULD BE THE FIRST
KNOWN WORK OF TRIGONOMETRY. SINCE THE WORK NO LONGER
EXISTS, MOST EVERYTHING ABOUT IT IS SPECULATION. BUT A
FEW THINGS ARE KNOWN FROM VARIOUS MENTIONS OF IT IN
OTHER SOURCES INCLUDING ANOTHER OF HIS OWN. IT INCLUDED
SOME LENGTHS OF CHORDS CORRESPONDING TO VARIOUS ARCS
OF CIRCLES, PERHAPS A TABLE OF CHORDS. BESIDES THESE FEW
SCRAPS OF INFORMATION, OTHERS CAN BE INFERRED FROM
KNOWLEDGE THAT WAS TAKEN AS WELL-KNOWN BY HIS
SUCCESSORS.
TRIGONOMETRY IN THE MODERN SENSE BEGAN WITH THE
GREEKS. HIPPARCHUS (C. 190–120 BCE) WAS THE FIRST TO
CONSTRUCT A TABLE OF VALUES FOR A TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTION. HE CONSIDERED EVERY TRIANGLE—PLANAR OR
SPHERICAL—AS BEING INSCRIBED IN A CIRCLE, SO THAT EACH
SIDE BECOMES A CHORD (THAT IS, A STRAIGHT LINE THAT
CONNECTS TWO POINTS ON A CURVE OR SURFACE, AS SHOWN BY
THE INSCRIBED TRIANGLE ABC IN THE FIGURE). TO COMPUTE THE
VARIOUS PARTS OF THE TRIANGLE, ONE HAS TO FIND THE LENGTH
OF EACH CHORD AS A FUNCTION OF THE CENTRAL ANGLE THAT
SUBTENDS IT—OR, EQUIVALENTLY, THE LENGTH OF A CHORD AS
A

FUNCTION OF THE CORRESPONDING ARC WIDTH. THIS BECAME

THE CHIEF TASK OF TRIGONOMETRY FOR THE NEXT SEVERAL
CENTURIES.
 CONCEPT OF
TRIGNOMERTY
TRIGONOMETRY STARTS BY DEFINING ITS BASIC TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS LINKING AN ANGLE WITH THE RATIO OF A PAIR OF
SIDES OF A RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLE. LET US SEE HOW.
A RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLE AS ABOVE IS THE BASIS OF
TRIGONOMETRY.

IMPORTANT BASIC ELEMENTS HERE ARE,

 RIGHT ANGLED TRIANGLE: △ABC△ABC WITH RIGHT ANGLE

AT ∠ABC∠ABC.
 ONE OF THE OPPOSITE ANGLES: ∠Θ
 BOTTOM SIDE: BASE=B
 PERPENDICULAR TO THE BASE, HEIGHT=H
 DIAGONAL SIDE, HYPOTENUSE=L

THE FIRST TWO TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS SINΘ AND COSΘ

ARE DEFINED AS RATIOS OF TWO SIDES OF THE RIGHT-ANGLED
TRIANGLE,

SINΘ = HEIGHT/HYPOTENUSE = H/ L AND,

COSΘ = BASE/HYPOTENUSE = B/L.

THESE ARE THE TWO MOST BASIC TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

FROM WHICH OTHER FOUR BASIC TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS TANΘ, SECΘ, COSEC Θ AND COT Θ ARE DERIVED,

TANΘ = HEIGHT/BASE = H/B = SINΘ/COSΘ,

IT IS THE RATIO OF THE TWO PRIMARY FUNCTIONS.

SECΘ = HYPOTENUSE/BASE = L/B = 1/COSΘ,

IT IS JUST THE INVERSE OF COSΘ.

COSECΘ = HYPOTENUSE/HEIGHT = L/H = 1/SINΘ,

IT IS JUST THE INVERSE OF SINΘ.

COT Θ = BASE/HEIGHT = B/H = 1/TANΘ,

IT IS JUST THE INVERSE OF TANΘ.
LIST OF TRIGONOMETRY
FORMULAS
 TRIGONOMETRY FORMULAS

 SIN(−Θ) = −SIN Θ

 COS(−Θ) = COS Θ

 TAN(−Θ) = −TAN Θ

 COSEC(−Θ) = −COSECΘ

 SEC(−Θ) = SEC Θ

 COT(−Θ) = −COT Θ

 IDENTITIES

 SIN2 A + COS2 A = 1
 1+TAN2 A = SEC2 A
 1+COT2 A = COSEC2 A
 FORMULAE FOR COMPOUND ANGLES
 COS (A + B) = COS A COS B – SIN A SIN B
 COS (A – B) = COS A COS B + SIN A SIN B
 SIN (A+B) = SIN A COS B + COS A SIN B
 SIN (A -B) = SIN A COS B – COS A SIN B
 TAN(A+B) = [(TAN A + TAN B)/ (1 – TAN A TAN B)]
 TAN(A-B) = [(TAN A – TAN B)/ (1 + TAN A TAN B)]
 COT(A+B) = [(COT A COT B − 1)/ (COT B + COT A)]
 COT(A-B) = [(COT A COT B + 1)/ (COT B – COT A)]

 FORMULAS FOR TWICE OF THE ANGLES

 SIN2A = 2SINA COSA = [2TAN A /(1+TAN2A)]

 COS2A = COS2A–SIN2A = 1–2SIN2A = 2COS2A–1= [(1-
TAN2A)/(1+TAN2A)]
 TAN 2A = (2 TAN A)/(1-TAN2A)

 FORMULAS FOR THRICE OF THE ANGLES

 SIN3A = 3SINA – 4SIN3A

 COS3A = 4COS3A – 3COSA
 TAN3A = [3TANA–TAN3A]/[1−3TAN2A]
 APPLICATION
TRIGONOMETRY IS A STUDY OF
THE RELATIONSHIP OF ANGLES,
LENGTHS AND HEIGHTS. IT
EMERGED IN THE THIRD
CENTURY BC INVOLVING
APPLICATIONS FROM
ASTRONOMY TO GEOMETRIC
STUDIES. NOW IT HAS SPREAD
ITS APPLICATIONS INTO WIDER
FIELDS LIKE ENGINEERING, PHYSICS, SURVEYING, ARCHITECTURE,
ASTRONOMY AND EVEN IN THE INVESTIGATION OF A CRIME
SCENE.
APART FROM ASTRONOMY AND GEOGRAPHY, TRIGONOMETRY IS
APPLICABLE IN VARIOUS FIELDS LIKE SATELLITE NAVIGATION,
DEVELOPING COMPUTER MUSIC, CHEMISTRY NUMBER THEORY,
MEDICAL IMAGING, ELECTRONICS, ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING,
CIVIL ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE, MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING, OCEANOGRAPHY, SEISMOLOGY, PHONETICS,
IMAGE COMPRESSION AND GAME DEVELOPMENT.

TRIGONOMETRY IN AVIATION
AVIATION TECHNOLOGY HAS EVOLVED WITH MANY
UPGRADATIONS IN THE LAST FEW YEARS. IT HAS TAKEN INTO
ACCOUNT THE SPEED, DIRECTION AND DISTANCE AS WELL AS THE
SPEED AND DIRECTION OF THE
WIND. THE WIND PLAYS A VITAL
ROLE IN WHEN AND HOW A FLIGHT
WILL TRAVEL. THIS EQUATION CAN
BE SOLVED BY USING
TRIGONOMETRY.
FOR EXAMPLE, IF AN AEROPLANE IS
TRAVELLING AT 250 MILES PER
HOUR, 55° OF THE NORTH OF EAST
AND THE WIND BLOWING DUE TO
SOUTH AT 19 MILES PER HOUR. THIS CALCULATION WILL BE
SOLVED USING THE TRIGONOMETRY AND FIND THE THIRD SIDE OF
THE TRIANGLE THAT WILL LEAD THE AIRCRAFT IN THE RIGHT
DIRECTION.

TRIGONOMETRY IN CRIMINOLOGY
TRIGONOMETRY IS EVEN USED IN THE INVESTIGATION OF A
CRIME SCENE. THE FUNCTIONS OF TRIGONOMETRY ARE HELPFUL
TO CALCULATE A TRAJECTORY OF A PROJECTILE AND TO
ESTIMATE THE CAUSES OF A COLLISION IN A CAR ACCIDENT.
FURTHER, IT IS USED TO IDENTIFY HOW AN OBJECT FALLS OR IN
WHAT ANGLE THE GUN IS SHOT.

TRIGONOMETRY IN MARINE BIOLOGY

TRIGONOMETRY IS OFTEN
USED BY MARINE
BIOLOGISTS FOR
MEASUREMENTS TO FIGURE
OUT THE DEPTH OF
SUNLIGHT THAT AFFECTS
ALGAE TO
PHOTOSYNTHESIS. USING THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION AND
MATHEMATICAL MODELS, MARINE BIOLOGISTS ESTIMATE THE
SIZE OF LARGER ANIMALS LIKE WHALES AND ALSO UNDERSTAND
THEIR BEHAVIOURS.

TRIGONOMETRY IN NAVIGATION
TRIGONOMETRY IS USED IN NAVIGATING DIRECTIONS; IT
ESTIMATES IN WHAT DIRECTION TO PLACE THE COMPASS TO GET
A STRAIGHT DIRECTION. WITH THE HELP OF A COMPASS AND
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS IN NAVIGATION, IT WILL BE EASY TO
PINPOINT A LOCATION AND ALSO TO FIND DISTANCE AS WELL TO
SEE THE HORIZON.

OTHER USES OF TRIGONOMETRY

 THE CALCULUS IS BASED ON TRIGONOMETRY AND ALGEBRA

 THE FUNDAMENTAL TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS LIKE SINE
AND COSINE ARE USED TO DESCRIBE THE SOUND AND LIGHT
WAVES
 TRIGONOMETRY IS USED IN OCEANOGRAPHY TO CALCULATE
HEIGHTS OF WAVES AND TIDES IN OCEANS
 IT USED IN THE CREATION OF MAPS
 IT IS USED IN SATELLITE SYSTEMS
THUS, HERE WE HAVE DISCUSSED TRIGONOMETRY AND ITS
IMPORTANCE ALONG WITH THE APPLICATIONS OF THIS BRANCH
OF MATHEMATICS IN DAILY LIFE, ABOUT WHICH EVERY STUDENT
OF MATHS IS EXPECTED TO KNOW.
GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS
1. GRAPH OF THE SINE FUNCTION
y=sinx, domain: x∈r, range: −1≤sinx≤1

2. GRAPH OF
THE
COSINE
FUNCTION
y=cosx, domain: x∈r, range: −1≤cosx≤1
3. GRAPH OF THE TANGENT FUNCTION
y=tanx, domain: x∈r, x≠(2k+1)π/2, range: −∞<tanx<∞

4. GRAPH OF
THE COTANGENT
FUNCTION
y=cotx,
domain: x∈r, x≠kπ, range: −∞<cotx<∞

5. GRAPH OF THE
SECANT
FUNCTION
y=secx,
domain: x∈r, x≠(
2k+1)π/2, range: secx∈ (−∞,−1]∪[1,∞)

6. GRAPH OF THE
COSECANT
FUNCTION
y=cosecx,
domain: x∈r, x≠k
π,
range: cscx∈ (−∞,−1]∪[1,∞)
 CONCLUSION
TRIGONOMETRY HAS LEFT NO FIELD UNTOUCHED. MAJOR PART
OF THE MOB IS UNAWARE WHAT TRIGONOMETRY DOES FOR US.
EVERYONE TODAY ASSUME A CAR, FURNITURE A PIECE OF LAND
ALL THESE THINGS INCLUDE TRIGONOMETRY. LACK OF ITS
KNOWLEDGE CUTS YOUR HAND, EVEN TO GIVE THE ROOF TO
YOUR BUILDING. BE ITS ARCHITECTURE, ASTRONOMY THE
OCEANS, IN AIRCRAFT, BIOLOGY, CARTOGRAPHY, CHEMISTRY,
CIVIL ENGINEERING, OCEANOGRAPHY, COMPUTER GRAPHICS,
GEOPHYSICS, ECONOMICS, ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING,
ELECTRONICS, LAND SURVEYING, MANY PHYSICAL SCIENCES,
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, MACHINING, MEDICAL IMAGING.

METEOROLOGY, MUSIC THEORY, NUMBER THEORY, OPTICS,

PHARMACOLOGY, PHONETICS, PSYCHOLOGY, SEISMOLOGY,
STATISTICS, AND VISUAL PERCEPTION, EDUCATION
TRIGONOMETRY ARE ALL AROUND.

THOUGH, TRIGONOMETRY EXISTS EVERY-WHERE, BUT, IT GOES

UNNOTICED SOMETIMES FOR THE WHOLE LIFE. THE BUILDINGS,
NATURE, THE THINGS AROUND ALL GIVE A GLANCE OF IT IF WE
NOTICE, BUT WHO CARES TO GIVE IT SUCH A DEEP THOUGHT.
SUCH UNNOTICED LIFE ACTUALLY MISSES THE DELICIOUS RECIPE
SERVED BY THE NATURE, BUT WHEN PAID ATTENTION IT
GENERATES THE INTERESTS AND ITS KNOWLEDGE LEAVES A
GREAT MARK TO PRECEPT THE THINGS LOGICALLY.