Disaster Management Reference Handbook

MYANMAR
Disaster Management Reference Handbook
March 2020
Acknowledgements
CFE-DM would like to thank the following people for providing support and valuable inputs to this document:
Dr. Sithu Pe Thein

Christine Rivera Torres
Alan Aoki
Ranya Ghadban
Cover and section photo credits
Cover Photo: Bagan Myanmar by Yoshitaka Ando. 2 May 2017. CC

https://flickr.com/photos/jenlung-box/34587536486
Country Overview Section Photo: Young Monk in the Window.

Photo courtesy of Christine Rivera Torres. 8 February 2020
Disaster Overview Section Photo: Fighting Floods in Myanmar by EU/ECHO/Pierre Prakash. Civil Protections Humanitarian
Aid. 8 September 2015.
https://flickr.com/photos/eu_echo/30145370151
Organizational Structure for Disaster Management Section Photo: Yangon by Rayesh-India. 4 October 2014. CC
https://flickr.com/photos/pamnani/15437975075
Infrastructure Section Photo: Inle Lake, Myanmar Fisherman Rowing with Food so Hands are Free to Fish.
Health Section Photo: Fighting Floods in Myanmar by EU/ECHO/Pierre Prakash. Civil Protections Humanitarian Aid. 8
September 2015.
https://flickr.com/photos/eu_echo/30196045456
Women, Peace, and Security Section Photo: Burmese Woman Wearing Thanaka.
Conclusion Section Photo: Sulamani Phaya Temple With Local Nuns.

Appendices Section Photo: Mandalay Kuthodaw Pagoda – World’s Largest Book.

2 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

Table of Contents
Welcome - Note from the Director............................................................................................................9
The Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance................. 10
Disaster Management Reference Handbook Series Overview.................................................... 11
Executive Summary..................................................................................................................................... 12
Country Overview...................................................................................................................................... 14
Culture........................................................................................................................................................ 17
Demographics.......................................................................................................................................... 18
Ethnic Makeup.................................................................................................................................. 18
Key Population Centers................................................................................................................. 18
Language............................................................................................................................................ 18
Religion............................................................................................................................................... 19
Vulnerable Groups.......................................................................................................................... 19
Economics................................................................................................................................................. 21
Government.............................................................................................................................................. 21
Environment............................................................................................................................................. 22
Geography......................................................................................................................................... 22
Borders................................................................................................................................................ 22
Climate................................................................................................................................................ 23
Climate Change................................................................................................................................ 24
Disaster Overview..................................................................................................................................... 26
Hazards....................................................................................................................................................... 26
Recent History of Natural Disasters.................................................................................................. 27
Country Risks............................................................................................................................................ 30
Country Risk Profile......................................................................................................................... 30
Myanmar Disaster Management Reference Handbook | March 2020 3

Organizational Structure for Disaster Management...................................................32
Lead Government Agencies in Disaster Response..................................................................... 32
National Disaster Management Committee.......................................................................... 32
Key Disaster Management Partners................................................................................................. 33
United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs........................... 33
Myanmar Humanitarian Country Team................................................................................... 34
ASEAN.................................................................................................................................................. 34
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement......................... 36
Myanmar Red Cross Society........................................................................................................ 36
International Organization for Migration (IOM)................................................................... 37
U.S. Government Agencies in Myanmar......................................................................................... 38
Participation in International Organizations................................................................................. 39
Foreign Disaster Relief and Emergency Response................................................................ 40
Laws, Policies, and Plans on Disaster Management................................................................... 41
Education and Training......................................................................................................................... 44
Disaster Management Communications....................................................................................... 45
Early Warning Systems................................................................................................................... 45
Responsible Agencies for Warnings.......................................................................................... 46
Armed Forces’ Role in Disaster Response................................................................................ 46
Information Sharing....................................................................................................................... 47
Infrastructure..................................................................................................................52
Airports....................................................................................................................................................... 52
Seaports..................................................................................................................................................... 53
Roads.................................................................................................................................................... 53
Railways............................................................................................................................................... 53
Waterways.......................................................................................................................................... 53
Schools....................................................................................................................................................... 54
Disaster Risk Reduction in the Education Sector................................................................. 54
Communications..................................................................................................................................... 55

Utilities........................................................................................................................................................ 55
Power................................................................................................................................................... 55
Water and Sanitation...................................................................................................................... 56
Health..............................................................................................................................58
Health Overview..................................................................................................................................... 58
Health Care System Structure............................................................................................................ 58
Health Challenges.................................................................................................................................. 58
Health Cooperation................................................................................................................................ 59
Communicable Diseases...................................................................................................................... 59
Non-Communicable Diseases............................................................................................................ 60
Training for Health Professionals....................................................................................................... 60
Women, Peace, and Security..........................................................................................62
Conclusion.......................................................................................................................64
Appendices.....................................................................................................................66
DOD DMHA Engagements in the Past Five Years (FY 2014-2019)......................................... 66
International/Foreign Relations......................................................................................................... 67
Force Protection/Pre-Deployment Information.......................................................................... 68
Passport/Visa..................................................................................................................................... 68
Safety and Security......................................................................................................................... 68
Emergency Contact Information............................................................................................... 68
Currency Information..................................................................................................................... 68
Travel Health Information............................................................................................................. 68
Sendai Framework.................................................................................................................................. 72
HFA Country Progress Report............................................................................................................. 74
Country Profile......................................................................................................................................... 77
Acronyms and Abbreviations............................................................................................................. 91
References (Endnotes).......................................................................................................................... 94

List of Figures
Figure 1: Overview of Myanmar’s History............................................................................................ 16
Figure 2: Population Pyramid for Myanmar (2019).......................................................................... 18
Figure 3: Religions in Myanmar (2014)................................................................................................. 19
Figure 4: Map of Administrative Districts in Myanmar................................................................... 23
Figure 5: Map of Myanmar and Surrounding Countries................................................................ 24
Figure 6: Disasters in Myanmar by Frequency and Type (1970-2015)....................................... 26
Figure 7: INFORM Risk Index..................................................................................................................... 30
Figure 8: Myanmar’s Disaster Management Structure.................................................................... 32
Figure 9: Humanitarian Response Plan Strategic Goals.................................................................. 35
Figure 10: Overview of One ASEAN One Response......................................................................... 36
Figure 11: U.S. Foreign Aid Explorer (Myanmar)................................................................................ 39
Figure 12: ASEAN SASOP Request for Assistance............................................................................. 41
Figure 13: Myanmar Humanitarian Country Team Inter-Agency SOP....................................... 42
Figure 14: Phased Approach to Disaster Resilient Myanmar........................................................ 43
Figure 15: Myanmar TB Incidence Rates from 2000-2018............................................................. 59
Figure 16: UN Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction..................................................... 73
Figure 17: HFA Level of Progress Achieved........................................................................................ 74
List of Tables
Table 1: Myanmar’s Most Populous States and Populations........................................................ 18
Table 2: List of Airports in Myanmar (Burma)..................................................................................... 52
Table 3: Myanmar Education Sector...................................................................................................... 54
Table 4: Health Workers in Myanmar 2006-2007 and 2015-2016............................................... 60
Table 5: CDC Travel Health Information for Myanmar..................................................................... 69
Table 6: National Progress Report on the Implementation of the HFA..................................... 74
Table 7: HFA Country Progress Report Future Outlook Areas, Myanmar................................. 76

List of Photos
Photo 1: National Flag of Myanmar 1974-2010................................................................................. 17
Photo 2: National Flag of Myanmar....................................................................................................... 17
Photo 3: Shwedagon Pagoda in Yangon.............................................................................................. 17
Photo 4: CFE-DM Disaster Management Reference Handbooks................................................ 50
Photo 5: UNICEF Teaching Children WASH Practices....................................................................... 56

Disclaimer
This report has been prepared in good faith based primarily on information gathered from open
source material available at the date of publication. Most of the information is considered to be in
the public domain. Such sources include PreventionWeb, Reliefweb, United Nations Programs, the
World Health Organization, the USAID Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster Assistance (USAID/ OFDA),
International Organization for Migration (IOM), the International Federation of Red Cross and
Red Crescent Societies (IFRC), the World Bank, and various academic institutions. Information
was also gathered from local and government sources in the affected country. We also reach out
to subject matter experts and incorporate feedback and additional sources listed in the reference
section of this document. Where possible, a link to the original electronic source is provided
in the endnote (reference) section at the end of the document. While making every attempt to
ensure the information is relevant and accurate, Center for Excellence in Disaster Management
and Humanitarian Assistance (CFE-DM) does not guarantee or warrant the accuracy, reliability,
completeness or currency of the information in this publication. Any necessary updates will be
incorporated in a future version.

Welcome - Note from the Director
While there have been significant positive developments in Myanmar with a historic
parliamentary election and a nationwide ceasefire agreement, the country continues to face multiple
distinct humanitarian crises.1 Humanitarian needs in the country continue to persist primarily due
to ongoing localized conflicts, prolonged population displacement, and vulnerability to natural
disasters.2
Myanmar has a complex history as a recipient of humanitarian aid, such as in response to natural
disasters and conflict. Although questions remain about how to ensure that aid reinforces the
democratic transition and the peace process, millions of people across Myanmar are now benefiting
from better health, education, and infrastructure with the help of international development partners
including the United States (U.S.).3
Disasters in Myanmar have been met with assistance. In response to the devastating damage
caused by Cyclone Nargis in 2008, the U.S. Government contributed by providing assistance to
affected communities in Myanmar through the United States Agency for International Development
(USAID) and the Department of Defense (DoD). This included immediate relief items and
humanitarian assistance to victims. Working with UN agencies, the World Food Program (WFP),
and international Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO), USAID provided food assistance,
and the DoD provided non-food relief items and supported a critical air bridge for U.S. and other
international assistance donations in the immediate aftermath of the cyclone.4
While the country is particularly prone to cyclones, severe flooding caused by monsoon rains has
become an almost annual event for Myanmar. In July and August 2019, seasonal monsoons brought
strong winds and heavy rains across Myanmar causing increased water levels and severe flooding.5
This caused extensive damage in nine states and regions across the country, forcing thousands of
people to leave their homes.6
In an effort to enhance the Government of Myanmar’s resiliency by improving the nation’s
ability to plan against flood related disasters, the U.S. Army Corp of Engineers (USACE) Pacific
Ocean Division (POD) conducted a technical exchange on flood modeling in Yangon, Myanmar in
December 2018. USACE POD works to help developing Indo-Pacific countries build capacity and
resiliency to disasters. USACE partnered with the Myanmar Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, and
Irrigation (MOALI), and Irrigation and Water Utilization Management Department (IWUMD) to
provide flood modeling training to approximately 50 engineers and water resource experts from four
Myanmar ministries and academia.7 This exchange strengthens the relationships between our nations
and provides paths for continued regional engagement in the U.S. Indo-Pacific Command.
Sincerely,
Joseph D. Martin, SES

Director

The Center for Excellence in Disaster Management
and Humanitarian Assistance
Overview
The Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance (CFE-DM) is
a United States (U.S.) Department of Defense (DoD) organization that was established by U.S.
Congress in 1994. The Center is a direct reporting unit to U.S. Indo-Pacific Command and is located
on Ford Island, Joint Base Pearl Harbor-Hickam, Hawaii.
CFE-DM was founded as part of the late Senator Daniel K. Inouye’s vision. The Senator had
witnessed the effects of Hurricane Iniki that struck the Hawaiian Islands in 1992 and felt the civil-
military coordination in the response could have been more effective. He set about to establish
CFE-DM to help bridge understanding between civil and military responders, and to provide a DoD
platform for building Disaster Management and Humanitarian Assistance (DMHA) awareness and
expertise in U.S. forces, and with partner nations in the Asia-Pacific. While maintaining a global
mandate, the Asia-Pacific region is our priority of effort and collaboration is the cornerstone of our
operational practice.
Vision
The Joint Force, allies, and partners are fully prepared to conduct and support foreign
humanitarian assistance.
Mission
CFE-DM builds crisis response capacity, enhances coordination and collaboration, and
strengthens relationships to save lives and alleviate human suffering before, during, and after
humanitarian crises.
Contact Information
Center for Excellence in Disaster Management and Humanitarian Assistance
456 Hornet Ave
JBPHH HI 96860-3503
Telephone: +1 (808) 472-0518
https://www.cfe-dmha.org

Disaster Management Reference Handbook Series Overview
The Disaster Management Reference Handbook Series is intended to provide decision makers,
planners, responders and disaster management practitioners with an overview of the disaster
management structure, policies, laws, and plans for each country covered in the series. Natural and
man-made threats most likely to affect the country are discussed. The handbooks also provide basic
country background information, including cultural, demographic, geographic, infrastructure, and
other relevant data.
Conditions such as poverty, water and sanitation, vulnerable groups, and other humanitarian
issues are included. A basic overview of the health situation in the country and disease surveillance
is also covered. The handbooks include information on key national entities involved in disaster
management, disaster response and preparation, and the military’s role in disaster relief. Information
is also provided on United Nation agencies, international non-governmental organizations (NGOs),
major local NGOs, and key U.S. agencies and programs in the country.
The overall aim is to offer a guide that brings together important information about disaster
management and response for each country in an effort to provide a basic understanding for the
reader. Each handbook is a working document and will be updated periodically as new, significant
information becomes available. We hope that you find these handbooks informative, relevant,
reliable, and useful in understanding disaster management and response for this country. We
welcome and appreciate your feedback to improve this document and help fill any gaps to enhance
its future utility. Feedback, comments, or questions can be emailed to cfe.dmha.fct@pacom.mil. You
may also contact the Center at: (808) 472-0518. Please visit our website (https://www.cfe-dmha.org)
to view the latest electronic versions available or to request a hard copy of a disaster management
reference handbook.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Executive Summary
of agriculture has been declining, and now
represents 36% of GDP.18 An emerging economy,
Myanmar has had relative high annual GDP
growth rate in the last several years: 8.0% in
The Republic of the Union of Myanmar 2014, 7.0% in 2015, 5.9% in 2016, 6.8% in 2017,
(also known as Burma) is one of the largest 6.8% in 2018, 6.6% forecast for 2019, and 6.8%
countries in Southeast Asia, with an estimated forecast for 2020.19
population between 54 and 56 million people.8 Tourism is significantly increasing, and
It is one of the least developed countries in the estimates place Myanmar as approximately the
region, although its emerging economy has world’s seventh-fastest growing economy. Among
been consistently growing.9 Myanmar is one the economic challenges are that large portions
of the world’s most disaster prone countries of the wealth remain among the military and
with its geographical location exposing it to business elite. The average income in Myanmar
multiple hazards including floods, cyclones, is less than half that of Thailand.20 Despite
earthquakes, landslides, strong wind, lightening, the economic growth of recent years, poverty
soil erosion, forest fire, drought, and industrial remains a significant issue. Myanmar is one of
and technological hazards.10 Poverty and the least developed countries in Southeast Asia,
poor infrastructure compound Myanmar’s with a quarter of the population living below
vulnerability to natural hazards.11 the poverty line and total poverty estimated at
Myanmar ranks third out of 184 countries 32%. Additionally, Myanmar’s rural areas which
most affected by climate change in the last 20 are susceptible to various natural hazards –
years in the 2019 Global Climate Risk Index. The tropical cyclones, flooding, drought, etc., has a
country is also one of the five priority countries substantially higher (38.8%) rate of poverty than
in Asia that are highly vulnerable to large-scale that in its urban areas (14.5%). Disaster risk is
natural disasters.12 exacerbated for these populations by the lack of
Myanmar’s predominant ethnic group is resources accompanying poverty.21
Burmese (Burman/Bamah/Bamar), who are Myanmar joined the Association of Southeast
Buddhist, although it is very ethnically diverse Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 1997. The country is
with more than 135 officially recognized ethnic one of the three most disaster-prone countries in
groups in addition to others. The dynamic the ASEAN region, alongside Indonesia and the
of myriad ethnic groups plays a significant Philippines, with a high probability of disaster
role in armed conflict between the Tatmadaw occurrence and the possibility to severely impact
(Myanmar Armed Forces) and various ethnic the population.22 In 2008, Cyclone Nargis, a
armed organizations, particularly near the category 4 storm struck Myanmar’s Irrawady
border areas. While some of the ethnic conflict Delta resulting in the deaths of 140,000 people,
dynamics are a partial legacy of divide-and-rule displacement of 800,000 and devastation of the
tactics from the era of British colonialism, it does area affecting millions. The initial government
not entirely explain the complex ways ethnic response was slow and the delays left millions
and religious factors have continued to infuse of people injured, without food and clean water
internal conflict for more than the past seventy or shelter. Under pressure from regional leaders
years.13 Imposed categories were used to treat and the international community, ASEAN
different groups differently in Myanmar. Ethnic brokered an agreement to allow international
categorization and ethnic identity narratives has organizations to provide food and other relief. As
also contributed to systems and structures that a result of this tragedy, laws were passed aimed
have produced a country with deep fractures, at building national, state, and local disaster
inter-group competition, and distrust.14 response mechanisms in the country. In recent
Myanmar’s largest group, the Bamar, make years, the country has made significant progress
up approximately 68% of the population.15 in disaster preparedness including several
They comprise the main holders of government regional storm risk-reduction programs signed
power, and Burmese has long been the national into international agreements to boost its disaster
language.16 Myanmar is categorized as a lower resiliency and joined the Paris Agreement on
middle income country, with gross domestic Climate Change.23 Myanmar participates in
product (GDP) per capita of US$1,326 in national and regional humanitarian assistance
2018.17 The economy is relatively diversified, and disaster relief exercises.24
with the most important sector being services,
which accounts for over 38% GDP. The share

MYANMAR
Country Overview
Disaster Management Reference Handbook | March 2020

COUNTRY OVERVIEW
Country Overview
notes to replace these demonetized large bills.
This wiped out the savings of many people.30
Widespread discontent regarding economic
mismanagement and perceived government
Myanmar’s history dates back centuries when corruption led to protests in 1988 for democracy
rival kingdoms fought and claimed rule until and an end to military rule, culminating in
overthrown by the next power and changing mass student-led demonstrations on 8 August
hands over hundreds of years. In the 9th century, 1988. The active support of monks lent the
the Himalayan Bamar people who made up 8/8/88 uprising additional legitimacy, and
two-thirds of the population fought the Mon the participation of regular citizens gave the
people of the Tibetan Plateau in a conflict that movement a broad base. Aung San Suu Kyi
eventually merged into two distinct cultures, emerged as a protest leader during this time, as
the Bamar and the Mon. In the 11th century, the demonstrations escalated until 18 September
Bamar king Anawrahta converted the country to 1988, when a new junta government was
Theravada Buddhism and inaugurated the golden announced and cracked down on protests across
age of Burma and built the first Bagan temples. the country. Hundreds of protesters had been
In 1287, Kublai Khan and his Mongol armies killed or wounded up to this point, and during
raided Bagan, and a long line of colonialism the crackdown hundreds more were rounded up
followed including the Portuguese in the 16th and thousands fled the country. However, Aung
century and in the 1800s, Great Britain.25 The San Suu Kyi stayed, became the general secretary
British controlled Myanmar (then Burma) from of the newly established National League for
1824-1886 as part of its colonial empire. In 1937, Democracy (NLD), and was placed under house
Burma became a self-governing colony, and on 4 arrest in 1989.
January 1948 gained independence as the Union That same year, 1989, the ruling junta changed
of Burma. General Aung San (father of current the name of the country from the Union of
State Counsellor Aung San Suu Kyi) was key Burma to the “Union of Myanmar” and renamed
in obtaining the country’s autonomy. He allied Rangoon to “Yangon,” the capital at the time. This
with the Japanese, and then with the British move was perceived as signaling distance from
after Japan invaded Burma, changing alliances the British colonial past. The United Nations
as he navigated a path to independence between and many countries switched to using the new
two colonial powers.26 The new country was a name. However, the United States and the United
fragile civilian-led democracy, which struggled Kingdom did not recognize the junta’s leadership
with ethnic divisions as exacerbated by foreign and continued to call the country Burma. The
powers frequently supporting minority ethnic use of Burma could be seen as supporting the
rebellion efforts. The British backed the Karen distancing from the colonial past; the use of
group; Bangladesh (then East Pakistan) backed Myanmar could be seen as non-recognition
the Muslim Rohingyas; China assisted the Naga, of the junta in support of the pro-democracy
the Kachin, and the communist insurgency; and movement. But many, including media
Thailand supported various rebel groups.27 organizations, may use both nomenclatures to
The young democratic period ended in 1962 show no preference or use some older names that
with a military coup led by General U Ne Win, were more familiar to a readership. Adding to
who established a socialist regime until 1988. the confusion, both names have also historically
Prior to this period, the country was one of the been used within the country for many years.
stronger economies in the region, previously While the issue is somewhat less potent since the
referred to as the “rice bowl” of Southeast transition to civilian-led government in 2011,
Asia. However, under the “Burmese Way to some, including the U.S.,31 continue to use the
Socialism,”28 Ne Win pursued an isolationist older nomenclature. [Note: This handbook’s
policy, nationalized major industries, and three usage of names is not indicative of political
rounds of demonetization, or stripping of legal preference but facilitates consistency with
tender, leading to drastic economic deterioration international sources and reflects familiarity for
marked by food shortages.29 Myanmar did this an international readership.]
in 1964, and 1985, but the most disruptive round In 1990, the NLD won the majority of the
of demonetization was in 1987, which seemed to popular vote and parliamentary seats, but the
catch senior officials by surprise when Ne Win junta did not recognize the electoral results,
announced that three high-denomination would imprisoned many NLD politicians and forced
no longer be circulated, without offering new

others into exile. The junta remained in power first ambassador to the country in over two
for the next two decades, during which time decades, restarted a USAID mission, increased
Aung San Suu Kyi remained under house arrest development aid, and eased the investment ban.
for much of that period until 2010. She was still In 2015 the NLD won majorities in both
under house arrest when she was awarded the houses of parliament in a decisive victory, in
Nobel Peace Prize in 1991 for non-violently what was widely considered the most free and
pursuing democracy and human rights, though fair election in Myanmar in 25 years. Despite
the international image of her as a human rights the landslide, Aung San Suu Kyi was unable
activists was tarnished following the Tatmadaw’s to become president at the time due to a
attacks on Rohingya communities from August constitutional clause barring anyone with a
2017. spouse or children holding foreign passports.
In 2007, the Saffron Revolution marked (Her two children by academic Michael Aris,
another significant wave of public dissent, deceased in 1999, are British.) But the role of
after the government removed fuel subsidies, state counselor was created for her the following
leading to a dramatic rise in fuel prices. The year.34 In October 2015, ceasefire talks initiated
name came from the prominent participation of three years prior led to eight armed groups
many Buddhist monks, visually associating the signing the Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement.
movement with the color of the monks’ robes. This represented very significant progress toward
As venerated as the monks were, the protests peace, but was still quite limited. Back in 2012,
ended with thousands of monks being rounded twice as many rebel groups had started with the
up, and a heavy military presence lingering in talks, but half of them did not sign.35
Yangon.32 The junta’s international image took Myanmar had been making incredible
another hit in 2008, when Cyclone Nargis killed progress in transitioning to a civilian-led
about 140,000. The worst devastation was in the democracy, achieving a ceasefire agreement
densely populated, rice-growing Irrawaddy delta. with numerous armed ethnic organizations,
However, the government responded slowly and opening up its economy. However, the
and sporadically outside Yangon and refused crackdown on the Rohingya (referred to
international assistance during the critical initial as “Bengalis” within Myanmar) beginning
days of the response, exacerbating the storm’s in 2017 tarnished much of its reputation
impacts and leading to widespread international internationally. On 25 August 2017, Rohingya
criticism.33 insurgents with the Arakan Rohingya Salvation
In 2010, Aung San Suu Kyi was released Army (ARSA) coordinated attacks on police
from house arrest, days after the first elections outposts, killing a dozen security officers.
in two decades. The NLD had boycotted the However, the disproportionate response by the
elections for not being free and fair. However, Myanmar military (Tatmadaw) far surpassed
in an unexpected move, in March 2011 the counterinsurgency operations by committing
military government was officially dissolved, extensive human rights atrocities, including
and a civilian parliament established, although indiscriminate killings of civilians and systematic
the military was still guaranteed 25% of sexual violence against women. Within the first
parliamentary seats by the constitution and month alone, at least 9,400 people were estimated
continued to wield significant influence. to have lost their lives, “of whom at least 6,700
President Thein Sein, former prime minister died from violence, including at least 730
and retired general, started a process of reform, children under the age of five.”36 This sparked
releasing some political prisoners, and initiating the largest forced exodus of Rohingya refugees,
talks with more than a dozen ethnic armed as more than 740,000 fled across the border
organizations. In 2012, the government began into Bangladesh. Combined with Rohingya that
economic reforms, including encouraging previously moved to Bangladesh from Myanmar
foreign investment with tax breaks and allowing before 2017, there are more than 900,000
foreign ownership of businesses. In the 2012 by- Rohingya refugees living in refugee camps in
elections, the NLD won the seats it contested by a the Cox’s Bazar area of Bangladesh.37 In addition
landslide, although this did not change control of to the Rohingya displacement crisis, skirmishes
the national parliament at this time. During the have been increasing between the Tatmadaw
period of reform and opening from 2011 onward, and other armed ethnic groups, including the
relations with the U.S. improved dramatically. Kachin Independency Army, the Ta’ang National
The U.S. lifted some sanctions, appointed its Liberation Army, the Shan State Army and the

COUNTRY OVERVIEW
Arakan Army.38 development projects with China, which is

Myanmar continues to face significant already Myanmar’s largest foreign investor and
challenges in creating conditions that can views the country as an important piece of
consolidate peace with the various armed ethnic its “One Belt One Road” global trade strategy
organizations that remain active, particularly including infrastructure development projects.39
in border areas. In addition to dealing with Figure 1 shows a brief overview of Myanmar’s
relations that have chilled with many Western historic events.40
countries since 2017, Myanmar is also navigating In 1948, the independence of Burma was
Figure 1: Overview of Myanmar’s History

recognized by Britain and the country adopted largely informed by Burmese values. A critical
a national flag based on the banner of the part of Burmese courtesy is the concept of ana
resistance forces with a red background and or ana-deh, which includes the avoidance of
dark blue canton bearing one large white star doing anything that would offend, embarrass,
and five smaller stars symbolizing the union or cause someone to lose face. It may emphasize
of the country’s ethnic groups including encouraging the other person to agree with you.
Burman, Karen, Sha, Kachin, and Chin. A As a country heavily influenced by Buddhism,
new flag (depicted in Photo 1) was adopted the culture also widely regards the Buddhist
in 1974 replacing the five stars with 14 stars idea of hpon, or power, which is a result of merit
for the country’s subdivisions and a cogwheel earned in previous lives, and is sometimes used
representing industrial workers framing two ears to explain or justify socioeconomic differences
and four leaves of rice, to represent peasantry. between people. Children are taught to respect
This was the National Flag of Myanmar their elders, particularly as old age is associated
from 1974-2010 remaining even post the with wisdom and experience.42
establishment of the new military government In terms of manners and etiquette, it would be
and the name change from Burma to Myanmar rude to touch the top of a person’s head, as the
in 1988. highest point of the body. Also considered rude
is touching another person’s feet, and especially
pointing with the foot or sitting with the feet
pointing at another, particularly an older person.
Buddhist monks are held in high regard, and it
is considered quite disrespectful to photograph
meditating monks. It is against the legal code
to “insult religion,” which can include using the
image of the Buddha in a manner perceived as
Photo 1: National Flag of Myanmar 1974-2010 disrespectful.43
Myanmar is also known as the ‘Land of
However, following the ratification of the Pagodas’ and is home to some of the oldest and
new constitution in 2008, a provision called for most majestic pagodas in the world. One of
the adoption of a new national flag. The new the most famous pagodas in the country is the
flag (depicted in Photo 2) was hoisted on 21 Shwedagon Pagoda in Yangon and is believed
October 2010 and is the current National Flag of to be 2,500 years old. It stands 326 feet tall,44
Myanmar.41 is adorned with 27 metrics tons of gold leaf
along with thousands of diamonds and other
gems and is believed to enshrine hair from the
Gautama Buddha as well as relics from three
former Buddha. Shwedagon is the most revered
Buddhist monument in the country and is visible
from afar and many pilgrims travel from across
the country to worship and offer their prayers.45
Photo 3 shows the beautiful landmark.46
Photo 2: National Flag of Myanmar
Culture
While Myanmar lies between the influences
of the civilizations of China and India, its own
culture is a unique blend including native traits
and characteristics. The national culture is Photo 3: Shwedagon Pagoda in Yangon

COUNTRY OVERVIEW
Additionally, many indigenous or minority

Demographics languages are also spoken in Myanmar by various
ethnic groups.59
Myanmar’s population as of the 2014 census Myanmar’s local languages belong to three
was over 51 million,47 although current numbers language families. Burmese and most of the other
estimate from approximately 54 million48 to 56 local languages belong to the Tibeto-Burman
million49 people. With land size of 261,228 square subfamily of Sino-Tibetan languages. The Shan
miles, Myanmar’s population density is roughly language belongs to the Tai family. Languages
three times that of the U.S.50 The country’s age spoken by the Mon of southern Myanmar and by
demographics are depicted in the population the Wa and Palaung of the Shan Plateau are part
pyramid in Figure 2.51 of the Mon-Khmer subfamily of Austroasiatic
languages. Over 100 local languages are spoken
Ethnic Makeup in Myanmar. English is also widely spoken, due
Myanmar is one of Asia’s most ethnically to the former British colonial influence. 60
diverse nations and has also dealt with ethnic
conflict. The largest group, the Bamar,
Male Female
make up approximately 68% of the 100+ 0.0% 0.0%
population. They comprise the main

52 95-99 0.0% 0.0%
holders of government power, and 90-94 0.0% 0.0%
Burmese has long been the national

85-89 0.1% 0.1%
language. The government officially

80-84 0.2% 0.3%
75-79 0.4% 0.6%
recognizes 135 ethnic groups, though 70-74 0.6% 0.9%
there are also additional groups not given 65-69 1.1% 1.6%
official status. 60-64 1.6% 2.1%
Significant minority ethnic groups 55-59 2.0% 2.5%
include the Shan, or Tai Yai as they refer 50-54 2.5% 3.0%
to themselves (9%); Karen or Kayin 45-49 3.0% 3.3%
(7%); Kachin (2%); Rakhine or Rakhaing 40-44 3.3% 3.6%
(4%); Chin (1%); Mon (2%);53 and 35-39 3.6% 3.7%
Rohingya (formerly 1-2%, but currently 30-34 3.7% 3.9%
significantly less than 1%, as 90% of

25-29 4.0% 4.1%
20-24 4.3% 4.4%

the Rohingya population of Rakhine 15-19 4.7% 4.7%
State are estimated to have fled the 10-14 4.6% 4.5%
country following clearance operations 5-9 4.3% 4.2% Myanmar - 2019
by government security forces targeting 0-4 4.2% 4.1%

Population: 54,045,422
them in August 2017.)54 There are also 10% 8% 6% 4% 2% 0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10%
immigrant communities of ethnic

Indians (2%) and ethnic Chinese (3%).55 Figure 2: Population Pyramid for Myanmar (2019)
Key Population Centers 1 Yangon (Rangoon) 5,998,000

Myanmar carried out its most recent 2 Mandalay 1,225,133
Population and Housing Census in
2014, the first to be conducted in three 3 Naypyidaw (Nay Pyi Taw) 1,158,367
decades.56 71% of the population are 4 Mawlamyine 491,130
living in rural areas and 29% in urban
areas. The ten largest population centers 5 Taunggyi 380,665
and their populations are shown in Table 6 Monywa 371,963
1.57 7 Meiktila 309,465
8 Bago 288,120
Language
Myanmar’s official language is 9 Pathein 286,684
Myanmar (Burmese)58 and it is spoken 10 Mergui (Myeik) 284,037
by more than 40 million people, of whom
it is a native language to 30 million. Table 1: Myanmar’s Most Populous States and Populations

Religion they cultivate. They are generally less integrated
About 88% of the population is Buddhist. into the formal economy and have limited
There is a small proportion of Christians (6%) access to official documents needed to avail
and Muslims (4%). The remaining 2% are themselves of public services, formal credit
comprised of Hindus, Animists, and followers sources, and enforce claims and rights. The poor’s
of other religions.61 The pie chart in Figure 3 marginalization regarding the socioeconomic
displays a breakdown of religious affiliations in structures further increases their vulnerability
Myanmar, as of 2014.62 not just to an immediate disaster but being able
to recover livelihoods in the longer term during
disaster recovery. 65
Women
Historically, the status of Burmese women
was generally higher than women in other
cultures. Traditionally, they usually married of
their own will, had equal inheritance right with
their brothers, and kept control over their own
dowries, even in the event of divorce, which
helped keep divorce rates low. Early in the
Figure 3: Religions in Myanmar (2014) colonial period, some English observers believed
the Burmese women’s status in society was higher
than European women’s status at that time.66 Girls
Vulnerable Groups are educated alongside boys, and the number of
According to the World Health Organization women now outnumbers that of men enrolled
(WHO), vulnerability is the degree to which a in colleges and universities. Most women in
population, individual or organization is unable professional, managerial or administrative work
to anticipate, cope with, resist and recover from receive six weeks of paid maternity leave before
the impacts of disasters.63 This section will birth and one to two months afterward. In the
discuss the vulnerable groups in the Myanmar private sector, large commercial interests are
which include the poor, women and children, dominated by men, although women manage
and internally displaced persons. many small and medium-sized businesses and
often manage family finances.67
The Poor In Buddhism, nuns have significantly lower
Despite the economic growth of recent years, status than monks in Myanmar. To attain
poverty remains a significant issue in Myanmar. nibbana (Buddhist nirvana), a nun must first be
It is one of the least developed countries in reincarnated as a man.68 There are also notable
Southeast Asia, with a quarter of the population gender gaps in the military and parliament.
living below the poverty line. A 2017 poverty Women account for 0.2% of the total estimated
estimate based on 2015 living conditions released personnel strength of the Myanmar armed
by the Ministry of Planning and Finance found forces, officially known as the Tatmadaw. In
that poverty was estimated at 32%. Poverty in 2014, 92 female military cadets graduated from
Myanmar’s rural areas (38.8%) is substantially Myanmar’s Army Officer Training School in
higher than that in its urban areas (14.5%). Yangon, for the first time in more than half a
Poverty is geographically spread out: 40% are century.69 The Tatmadaw has received heavy
poor in the coastal and mountainous areas, while international criticism for sexual violence against
65% of the poor live in the Dry Zone and Delta. ethnic minority women in border areas that
These areas are susceptible to various natural see conflict with ethnic armed organizations,
hazards including tropical cyclones, flooding, and particularly for widespread sexual violence
and drought. Disaster risk is exacerbated for against Rohingya (referred to as Bengali) women
these populations by the lack of resources since August 2017.70 In parliament, there was an
accompanying poverty.64 increase in women following the 2015 general
Poor households typically have more family election. Women Members of Parliament (MPs)
members, including more children and elderly represent about 13.7 % (67 out of 591) of the
dependents that working adults support. Poor elected seats at the Union Assembly, though this
households are disproportionately represented falls to 10.7% of all seats (69 out of 757) when
in agriculture yet are less likely to own the land

COUNTRY OVERVIEW
including the one-fourth of seats appointed by the female perspective on what it takes to
the military. At the state and regional parliament be resilient and its potential benefits are
level, women MPs comprise about 12.5% (79 out underrepresented. 75
of 630) of elected seats and 9.5% (81 out of 851)
of all MPs.71 Children
In line with global patterns, women in Myanmar has made considerable gains in
Myanmar are generally more vulnerable to improving health care, education, and water and
natural disasters. Globally, as a direct result sanitation for children and communities, though
of gaps in social and economic rights between many challenges remain. Myanmar is still dealing
women and men, women are more likely than with widespread poverty, and approximately 55%
men to die in natural disasters,72 and women of children live in poverty. Many areas continue
surviving disasters are more likely to experience to be affected by long-standing conflicts, and an
domestic or sexual violence afterward.73 In estimated 460,000 children affected by conflicts
Myanmar, various socioeconomic factors or natural disasters required humanitarian
increase women’s vulnerability to natural assistance in 2019. More than 4 million children,
hazards, as outlined in the Myanmar National approximately 25% of the children in the country,
Framework for Community Disaster Resilience:74 live in households that do not use improved toilet
• Women are often viewed as laborers rather facilities. Some 5 million children lack access to
than farmers and are often paid less than men an improved water supply.
for the same work. Thus, women are less able The under-five mortality rate births is one
to build up sustainable livelihoods, savings, of the highest among ASEAN states, at 50
and assets that can help build resilience to per 1,000 live births. Half of the deaths occur
disaster. among newborns and many of the deaths are
• Women have less opportunity to own land, preventable. However, children are a part of
which leaves them in a more precarious the Myanmar Sustainable Development Plan,
position of dependency – women that work particularly regarding education and social safety
on others’ land are limited in their income net. This provides an opportunity to incorporate
and corresponding capacity to invest in risk children’s welfare holistically into long-term
reduction measures and are vulnerable to development planning. Moreover, it is feasible,
post-disaster layoffs. with continued and increased commitments
• Women have limited access to credit, which and budgets for children, that Myanmar can
restricts the availability of options that could achieve wider national goals for growth and
help them sustain their livelihoods despite prosperity and achieve targets for the Sustainable
shocks and day-to-day stresses. Development Goals by 2030.76
• Women are likely to spend much more
time than men on care work, limiting Internally Displaced Persons
their productive time and mobility, which There are an estimated 401,000 internally
impinges upon income with implications for displaced persons (IDPs) in Myanmar, as of the
resilience. end of 2018.77 The military has been engaged
• Most households headed by poor women do in conflict with ethnic armed groups since the
not own a phone, and many women do not country’s independence in 1948. Although there
know how to use phones as these are owned was a nationwide ceasefire agreement in 2015,
by their husbands. This lack of easily available several armed groups in the north-east remain in
access to information undermines decision active conflict with the Tatmadaw, including the
making on a day-to-day basis, and renders Kachin Independency Army, the Ta’ang National
women less connected with early warning Liberation Army, the Shan State Army and the
system and therefore less aware of pending Arakan Army. In 2017-2018, conflict increased
crises. in Kachin, northern Shan and Chin states,
• Women-headed households tend to have which caused a fresh wave of displacements.
less sturdy houses because they are likely to Construction of a road in Karen State spurred
be poorer. This increases the likelihood of clashes in Hpapun between the Tatmadaw and
damage such as in a flood or cyclone. the Karen National Liberation Army, resulting in
• Women are less aware of their rights and the most significant displacement of civilians in
have less representation in leadership that state in years.78
and decision making. This means that Displacement in Rakhine goes back further

than August 2017 when the world became last few years and accounts for over 38% of GDP.
aware of the most recent exodus of Rohingya The share of agriculture has been declining, and
(referred to in Myanmar as “Bengali,” a term the now represents 36% of GDP. Finally, industry
Rohingya object to) into Bangladesh, following contributes the remaining 26% of GDP.83 An
the insurgent Arakan Rohingya Salvation emerging economy, Myanmar has had relative
Army’s (ARSA) attacks on security forces, which high annual GDP growth rate in the last several
triggered a major military crackdown and attacks years: 8.0% in 2014, 7.0% in 2015, 5.9% in 2016,
on civilians. Rakhine is one of the poorest, 6.8% in 2017, 6.8% in 2018, 6.6% forecast for
least developed states in Myanmar. Chronic 2019, and 6.8% forecast for 2020.84
poverty and perceived competition of resources Myanmar has a wealth of mineral deposits,
exacerbated religious and ethnic tensions metal ores, petroleum, natural gas, and some
between Rakhine state’s minority Muslim precious and semiprecious stones. While
Rohingyas and majority Buddhist Rakhine (who production has generally been increasing for
are not ethnically Burmese), leading to inter- many years, mining accounts for only a tiny
communal violence in 2012. Cycles of ethnic fraction of the country’s GDP and a comparable
conflict and Rohingya displacement also repeated portion of the workforce.85
in Rakhine in 1978, 1991, and 2016. Since 2017, Myanmar has travelled a turbulent economic
the majority of Rohingya from Rakhine fled to road in the last 60 years. From 1962-1988, the
Bangladesh, where they remain in refugee camps. country was a socialist regime established by
Those remaining in Rakhine live in camps; General U Ne Win who rose to power leading a
more than 100,000 Muslims, mostly Rohingya military coup led by General U Ne Win. Referred
but also Kaman, were put in IDP camps around to as the “Burmese Way to Socialism,” the
the state capital, Sittwe, after their homes were economic policies led the country from having
destroyed in Rakhine’s 2012 violence. The one of the stronger economies in the region,
government declared it would start closing referred to as the “rice bowl” of Southeast Asia,
down the camps in 2017 and relocating IDPs to one of the poorest.86 During that period, the
to other locations.79 Treatment of Muslim IDPs state’s major industries were nationalized,87 and
in Rakhine and ethnic minority IDPs in other the economic situation deteriorated significantly,
states is a continuing source of tension and policy resulting in food shortages. Resentment
disagreement between the Myanmar government against government corruption and economic
and international aid organizations.80 mismanagement, which included three rounds of
In 2019, additional displacement was caused demonetization,88 played a significant part in the
by a new round of armed conflict in Rakhine protests of 1988.
between the Tatmadaw and the Arakan Army With the civilian, reformist government
(AA). Unlike ARSA, which is ethnically leading since 2011, the economy has continued
Rohingya and predominantly Muslim, AA is to grow, though results are mixed across society.
ethnically Rakhine, Buddhists who comprise the Tourism is significantly increasing, and estimates
majority ethnic group in Rakhine State but are an place Myanmar as approximately the world’s
ethnic minority overall in Myanmar. Hundreds seventh-fastest growing economy. Among the
of people were displaced Rakhine and Chin states economic challenges are that large portions of
due to Tatmadaw clashes with the AA toward the the wealth remain among military and business
end of 2019.81 elite, the average income is less than half that of
Thailand, and approximately 25% of people in
Myanmar still live below the poverty line.89
Economics
Since the civilian-led, reformist government Government
took charge in 2011, Myanmar has been opening
up to foreign direct investment. Myanmar is The Republic of the Union of Myanmar has
categorized as a lower middle-income country, a parliamentary republic type of government.
with gross domestic product (GDP) per capita In accordance with the 2008 constitution,
of US$1,326 in 2018.82 GDP has been steadily the legislature is the Assembly of the Union
has been steadily increasing throughout the (Pyidaungsu Hluttaw), consisting of a 224-seat
last couple decades. The economy is relatively House of Nationalities (Amyotha Hluttaw) and
diversified, with the most important sector being a 440-seat House of Representatives (Pyithu
services, which has been growing steadily in the Hluttaw). One-fourth of the seats in each house

COUNTRY OVERVIEW
are appointed by the military, and the remaining British colonial past.
three-fourths of each house are directly elected, In 1990, the NLD won 60% of the popular
with all members serving five-year terms. The vote and 80% of the parliamentary seats, but the
president has executive authority, heads an junta did not recognize the results, imprisoned
11-member National Defense and Security many NLD politicians and forced others into
Council (cabinet), and is elected to a five-year exile. The military government stayed in power
term by the House of Representatives. for the next two decades.93 Aung San Suu Kyi
Myanmar is divided for administrative was released again from house arrest in 2010,
purposes into 15 States/Regions including, just days after the first elections in two decades.
Kachin State, Kayah State, Kayin State, Chin The NLD boycotted the elections, which the
Stake, Sagaing Region, Tanintharyi Region, Bago UN human rights envoy for Burma expressed
Region, Magway Region, Mandalay Region, concern for not being “inclusive, free and fair.”94
Mon State, Rakhine State, Yangon Region, Shan However, in an unexpected move in March 2011,
State, Ayeyarwady Region, and Nay Pyi Taw the military government was officially dissolved
Union Territory. In April 2014, Myanmar divided and a civilian parliament established.95
the 15 States/Regions into 74 Districts, 330
Townships, and 83 Sub-Townships. In November
2014, the Ministry of Home Affairs’ General Environment
Administration Department restructured the
system by absorbing the Sub-Township level into Geography
the adjusted Townships. The 74 Districts and Myanmar covers 261,228 square miles
regions are depicted in Figure 4.90 (676,577 sq. km.), making it slightly larger than
Until 1988, at each level of local government Afghanistan or France, or a bit smaller than the
there had been a People’s Council, following U.S. state of Texas.
the pattern of the People’s Assembly. Local and The country has three major rivers, which
national elections were held simultaneously. are all fed by monsoon rains and Himalayan
In 1988 the State Law and Order Restoration snowmelt, flowing southward toward the ocean.
Council (SLORC) dissolved these bodies The Ayeyarwady (Irrawaddy) River is the longest
and assumed control of local administration, sat 1,240 miles. One of Asia’s most navigable
establishing in their place military-dominated big rivers, it traverses across the center of the
Law and Order Restoration Councils.91 country to flow into the Ayeyarwady Delta,
1988 was a pivotal year for government and where it irrigates much of the rice fields there.
society, as mass student-led protests started The Chindwin River is 850 miles long along the
on 8 August 1988, following public dissent western side of Myanmar, flowing from Kachin
culminating against perceived corruption and State and joining the Ayeyarwady River between
economic mismanagement. The 8/8/88 uprising Mandalay and Bagan (Pagan). The Thanlwin
comprised hundreds of thousands of students, (Salween) River flows from the Tibetan Plateau
monks, and regular citizens participating in into Myanmar and runs along the eastern side
nationwide general strikes. Protests continued of the country, including a small section of the
almost daily through September, and it was Thai border, before emptying into the Gulf of
during this period that Aung San Suu Kyi Martaban (Mottama).96
emerged as a protest leader in Rangoon.
Demonstrations and violence escalated until
18 September 1988, when the government Borders
Myanmar shares land borders to the west
announced a new junta government, returning with Bangladesh (168 miles/ 271 km), to the
to martial law. Hundreds of protestors were northwest with India (912 miles/ 1,468 km), to
rounded up and thousands more fled the the northeast with China (1,323 miles/ 2,129
country.92 Aung San Suu Kyi stayed, became the km), to the east with Laos (148 miles/ 238 km),
general secretary of the newly formed National and to the southeast with Thailand (1,501 miles/
League for Democracy (NLD), and was placed 2,416 km). The country also has 1,199 miles
under house arrest in July 1989. The ruling junta (1,930 km) of coastline, facing the Andaman
changed the country’s name from the Union of Sea to the south, and the Bay of Bengal to the
Burma to the “Union of Myanmar” and renamed southwest. Figure 5 depicts Myanmar in relation
the capital Rangoon as “Yangon,” in a move to surrounding countries and waters.97
perceived as intended to signal distance from the Myanmar’s territorial sea extends 12 nautical

Kachin Bago Yangon
1. Myitkyina 26. Bago 49. North
4 2. Mohnyin 27. Toungoo 50. Yangon
3. Bhamo 28. Pyay 51. East Yangon
4. Putao 29. Thayawady 52. South Yangon
21
53. West Yangon
1
DI
A
2 Kayah Magway
IN
5. Loikaw 30. Magway Shan
CH
IN
6. Bawlakhe 31. Minbu 53. Taunggyi
A
19 3
17
20
57
60
32. Thayet 54. Loilin
12 59 Kayin 33. Pakokku 55. Linkhe`
BA
18 15 61
7. Hpa-An 34. Gangaw 56. Lashio
NG
58
56
LA
11
8. Pharpon 57. Muse
DE
36
16 62
SH
22
14
34 35
37 63
9. Myawady Mandalay 58. Kyaukme
38
13 33
39
54 66 10. Kawkareik 35. Mandalay 59. Kunlon
46 41
44
53 65
36. Pyin Oo 60. Laukine
45 40 64 LAOS
31
30 55 Chin 37. Lwin 61. Hopan
73
47 74 5
11. Haka 38. Kyaukse 62. Makman
32
D 12. Falam 39. Myingyan 63. Kengtung
7 6 L AN
48 28
27
TH
AI 13. Mindat 40. Nyaung U 64. Minesat
29 8
41. Yame`thin 65. Tachileik
72
26 Sagaing 42. Meiktila 66. Minephyat
Bay
of
69
49
43
7
14. Sagaing
Bengal 67 52 50
70 51 15. Shwebo Mon Ayeyawady
71 68
42 9
16. Monywa 42. Mawlamyine 67. Pathein
10
17. Katha 43. Thaton 68. Phyapon
Andaman Sea
18. Kalay 69. Maubin
19. Tamu Rakhine 70. Myaungmya
20. Mawlaik 44. Sittway 71. Labutta
23
21. Hkamti 45. Myauk U 72. Hinthada
22. Yinmarpin 46. Maungtaw
47. Kyaukpyu Nay Pyi Taw
24
Tanintharyi 48. Thandwe 73. Ottara (North)
23. Dawei 74. Dekkhina (South)
25
24. Myeik
25. Kawthoung
0 50 100 Miles
161 Km
Figure 4: Map of Administrative Districts in Myanmar
miles (nmi) from its baseline, and its exclusive in May, the southwest monsoon starts bringing
economic zone extending 200 nmi from its rain, peaking June to August. Winds carrying
coast,98 in line with the 1982 United Nations moisture in from the Indian Ocean create daily
Convention on the Law of the Sea.99 afternoon showers, particularly in the coastal and
delta regions.100 Heavy rain during this period
Climate can make roads impassable in many places due
Myanmar’s climate can be generally described to flooded roads and railway lines across the
as having three seasons. Although there are country, and particularly in the Ayeyarwady
regional variations, in general May to October Delta.
sees the highest temperatures and heaviest Although the central inland region (roughly
rainfall, it is cooler and dry from November to from Mandalay to Pyay), is the driest zone, it is
February (and peak season for visitors), and subject to a significant amount of rain during
hot and dry from March to April. Beginning the summer monsoon season. The hottest period
for central and southern areas tend to be from

COUNTRY OVERVIEW
increasing intensity of storms and increasing

the frequency with which storms occur. This in
turn increases extreme temperatures, and alters
precipitation patterns. Climate change is forecast
to impact Myanmar significantly enough that
the government has prepared a National Climate
Change Strategy for 2018-2030, in consultation
with a wide range of local and national
stakeholders. The report observes that the effects
of climate change “have already undermined
development outcomes and will continue to do
so for future development outcomes if these
impacts are not managed or addressed.”102
Although it is difficult to link an individual
extreme event to climate change, Myanmar has
experienced several significant events in recent
years. In Chin State, during the last seven days of
July 2015, the recorded rainfall was 30% higher
than in any other month over the past 25 years.
The monthly rainfall of July measured at the
weather station in Hakha was equal to a 1-in-
1000-year rainfall.103 In July 2009, 434 mm (17
inches) of rainfall fell in a single day in Launglon,
which was the highest rainfall recorded in the
country during a 24-hour period. In August
2009, the Bago Region experienced the highest
amount of rainfall in a 24-hour period that had
occurred in 45 years. On 21 July 2011, 739 mm
(29 inches) of rainfall within a 24-hour period in
Taungoke, Rakhine, was recorded as the highest
rainfall in the country. On 14 May 2010, the
highest temperature, reaching 47.2°C (117°F),
was recorded in Myanmar.104
A recent study on climate risk in Myanmar
found that the climate is projected to shift
dramatically in the coming decades, with some of
the forecasts predicting the following: 105
• In every region in Myanmar, temperatures
Figure 5: Map of Myanmar and Surrounding are expected to soar by the middle of the 21st
Countries century by 1.3°C–2.7°C (2.3–4.9°F);
• The eastern and northern hilly regions are
October to November, and March to April, with projected to see the most dramatic warming,
temperatures rising around Bagan and Mandalay, with temperatures rising as much as 3°C
and in Yangon often reaching 40°C (14°F). (5.4°F) during the hot season;
However, temperatures generally remain cooler • In the future, the country can experience
in the hilly plateau and mountainous area of anywhere from 4–17 days of extreme heat
Shan State.101 every month, in contrast to one day a month
during the period between 1981–2010; and
Climate Change • Projections on rising sea levels for the
Studies have found that climate change is coastline, range from 20–41 cm (8-16 inches)
reconfiguring hazards and increasing the risks of by mid-century.
disasters worldwide, including rising sea levels,

MYANMAR
Disaster Overview

DISASTER OVERVIEW
Disaster Overview
various magnitudes. Myanmar’s western region
is also seismically active due to the collision
between the India and Burma plates where both
shallow and intermediate earthquakes frequently
Myanmar is one of the five priority countries occur.109
in Asia that are highly vulnerable to large- Two main sources of earthquakes and
scale natural disasters (along with Bangladesh, tsunamis in Myanmar are the Sagaing fault and
Indonesia, Nepal, and the Philippines), according the Sunda subduction mega thrust zone. Four
to the Regional Consultative Group (RCG) on areas are designated as destructive zones: 1),
Humanitarian Civil-Military Coordination Bago-Phyu, 2) Mandalay-Sagaing-Tagaung, 3)
for Asia and the Pacific. 106 The country is Putao-Tanaing, and Kale-Homalin. Although
exposed to natural disasters and is affected by the latter two have major earthquake hazards,
ongoing conflict and high levels of population their risk-level is low because they are sparsely
displacement. Poverty and poor infrastructure populated. In the coastal areas, Rakhine Coast
compound Myanmar’s vulnerability to natural falls in the Strong Zone with MMI 8, and the
hazards. Depicted in Figure 6, is a history of Ayeyarwady Delta and Tanintharyi coasts fall
Myanmar’s disasters from 1970-2015, broken in the Moderate Zone with MMI 7. (Note: The
down by frequency, type and impact.107 Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale (MMI) is used
for measuring the intensity of shaking produced
Hazards by an earthquake).110
Myanmar is prone to many types of natural Drought

hazards including earthquakes, tsunamis, tropical Approximately 51 townships spread across
cyclones, storm surges, floods, landslides, Magway, Mandalay and Sagaing (lower)
droughts, and forest fires, as well as industrial regions are prone to drought. Extreme El Niño
and technological hazards. Medium to large-scale conditions can exacerbate drought issues across
natural disasters are likely to occur every couple Southeast Asia. Vulnerable sectors of society and
of years, based upon historical data.108 economy due to drought are agriculture, food
production, fresh water supply, andfisheries. The
Earthquake and Tsunami dry zone stretches across the southern part of
A large part of Myanmar lies in the southern Sagaing Division, the western and middle part
part of the Himalaya and the eastern margin of Mandalay Division and most parts of Magway
of the Indian Ocean. As a result, the country is Division. Water is scarce in this harsh landscape
exposed to the hazards of large earthquakes and covered by thin vegetation and dry, wind-
tsunamis. Tectonically, the Himalaya orogeny is beaten soil. Chronic poverty is now coupled
still an active process producing earthquakes in with increasingly hotter dry seasons and more
FREQUENCY OF DISASTERS: 1970-2015
r.'6· ,
A
�
• � & �
Flood Storm Landslide Earthquake Wildfire Epidemic
x25 x9 x6 x5 x2 x2
51% 18% 12% 10% 4% 4%
•9 Storms ► t X 139, 075 Fatalities ► >U5$4 billion

Economic loss and damages
Source: Emergency Management Database (EM-DATI Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CREDI. 2016
Figure 6: Disasters in Myanmar by Frequency and Type (1970-2015)

frequent and longer periods of drought posing Deforestation
considerable livelihood challenges for many rural Myanmar is making efforts to replant coastal
communities.111 mangrove forests. Deforestation of this critical
ecosystem along the coastline was a contributing
Forest Fires factor to the effects of storm surge Cyclone
Forest fires are among the most frequent Nargis in 2008.117
hazards occurring in Myanmar. From 2007-
2016, there were 12,000 recorded cases, mostly
affecting Yangon, Mandalay, Ayeyarwady, Recent History of Natural Disasters
Sagaing and Bago.
Myanmar has suffered from many natural
Landslide disasters in recent history including earthquakes,
Mountainous regions are prone to landslides, cyclones, floods, droughts, and landslides. The
especially in the western ranges and some 2008 Cyclone Nargis has had the most impact
localities in the eastern highlands. The western on the way disaster management and disaster
ranges have experienced a variety of earth risk reduction is handled in the country. In
movements, such as rock falls, rockslides, soil 2008, Cyclone Nargis, a category 4 storm struck
avalanches and mud flows. Myanmar’s Irrawaddy Delta resulting in the
deaths of 140,000 people, displacement of
Floods 800,000 and devastation of the area affecting
The threat of flooding is highest from June - millions. The initial government response
October, with the biggest threat in August when was slow and the delays left millions of people
monsoon rains typically peak. Most of Myanmar injured, without food, clean water, or shelter.
is prone to flooding, but particularly the central Under pressure from regional leaders and the
part of the Ayeyarwady region. Parts of Myanmar international community, ASEAN brokered an
flood annually during monsoon. Seasonal agreement to allow international organizations
flooding in 2015 killed 100 people and displaced to provide food and other relief to Myanmar.
200,000. In 2018 10 were killed and 100,000 As a result of this tragedy, Myanmar passed
displaced due to villages flooding after monsoon laws aimed at building national, state, and local
rain in central and southern Myanmar.112 In disaster response mechanisms in the country.
2019, flooding due to seasonal monsoons affected Additionally, the political climate changed and
over 230,000 people, and caused 75 deaths.113 restrictions on foreign access to the country were
eased allowing support of the U.S., Japan, the
Tropical Cyclones and Storm Surge Myanmar Red Cross, the U.N. and other relief
Myanmar is highly vulnerable to tropical agencies. In recent years, the country has made
cyclones and accompanying storm surge, significant progress in disaster preparedness
particularly from April to May, and from October including several regional storm risk-reduction
to November. Tropical cyclones often occur in programs signed into international agreements
the middle of the monsoon season, though they to boost its disaster resiliency and joined the
don’t usually reach their maximum strength then. Paris Agreement on Climate Change. Below
118
Climate change is likely to worsen the risk of are some of the more recent disasters to affect the
tropical cyclones. In May 2008, Cyclone Nargis country.
made global headlines when it struck Myanmar’s
Ayeyarwady Delta, killing 84,500 people July-September 2019 – Monsoon Flooding and
according to official figures, though other
114 Landslides
estimates placed the death toll much higher. 115 Seasonal monsoons brought strong winds and
heavy rains across Myanmar increasing water
Industrial and Technological Hazards levels in major rivers and flooding. Over 231, 000
Myanmar has at least 51 industrial parks, people were affected in various states and regions
primarily located in the Yangon and Mandalay including Chin, Kachin, Magway, Mandalay,
regions. Most of the companies are small to Sagaing, Rakhine, Ayeyarwady, Bago, Kayin,
medium enterprises, lacking disaster risk Mon, Tanintharyi and Yangon in the first round
management and business continuity plans. of flooding in July, and affected Ayeyarwady,
There is a need to further profile industrial and Bago, Kayin, Mon, Tanintharyi and Yangon in the
technological hazards. 116 second round from August-September.119 Floods
caused more than 500 schools to close and

DISASTER OVERVIEW
destroyed infrastructure, crop harvests, livestock regions in Myanmar. Three people were killed
and approximately 375 homes. 75 people were and almost 200 houses were damaged in Rakhine
confirmed dead and 40 were reported missing.120 State. In Yangon region, two people were
The Mon State was severely affected by torrential injured and more than 750 houses and other
monsoon rains which triggered a landslide buildings were damaged. Local organizations
leaving more than 70 people dead. Additionally, and the Government’s Department of Disaster
approximately 110,000 were evacuated.121 Management (DDM) provided assistance
MRCS provided assistance in the evacuation including food, construction materials and cash
process, managing evacuation sites, rapid to affected families in both areas.
needs assessment, first aid services and The heavy monsoon rains subsequently led to
psychosocial support. Additionally, MRCS floods and landslides in 10 states and regions of
Emergency Operation Centres monitored and Myanmar resulting in 8,000 houses damaged or
disseminated early warning information and inundated, 23,000 people temporarily evacuated,
key department representatives from Disaster 12,000 acres of farmland damaged, and 11 people
Management, Health, First Aid and Safety died due to floods and landslides. Government
Services and WASH Unit aided in facilitating authorities, the Myanmar Red Cross Society
the MRCS response.122 Local, national and state (MRCS), and local organizations provided
first responders including the Fire Services, the assistance to flood-affected people, including
local administration and the Military, as well as food and other relief items. Heavy rain continued
the Myanmar Red Cross Society, monasteries, through the fourth week of June, triggering
churches and other faith groups, civil society landslides and causing additional casualties. A
and private individuals responded. Additionally, 25 June report from national authorities listed at
UNICEF provided water storage containers, least six people killed in the Phakant township
water purification supplies and hygiene (Mohnyin district, Kachin State) due to a
kits. WHO assisted with water purification, landslide. 126
emergency medical kits and providing technical
guidelines on snake bite management with health August 2017 – Floods
partners. WHO also supported the mobilization Seasonal flooding affected 13 of the country’s
of mobile health clinics. UNFPA supplied 14 states and regions including Magway,
dignity kids, including hygiene items specifically Ayeyarwady, Sagaing, Bago and Mandalay
for women. Government funding for rice was which were the most affected regions with tens
recorded as US$ 200,000 and government of thousands of people displaced or evacuated.
assistance was at $US 26,000.123 The Government of Myanmar’s Relief and
Resettlement Department (RRD) in Nay Pyi
Authorities called the flooding and landslides Taw, reported the cumulative number of people
the deadliest natural disaster to strike Myanmar’s who were temporarily displaced or evacuated in
southeast side in decades. Additionally, flood-affected states and regions between 1 July
environmentalists point to rampant deforestation and 12 September as more than 320,000. This
as a factor in both floods and drought in number also includes people who were displaced
Myanmar.124 a second time in mid-August. Additionally, at
least eight people were reported to be killed due
July 2018 – Floods to the flooding.127
Seasonal heavy monsoon rains resulted in
floods in seven states and regions in Myanmar. July 2017 – Floods and Landslides
The states most affected by the floods were Monsoon rains and increased water levels in
Bago Region, Kayin State and Mon State. major rivers caused seasonal floods in Magway
Approximately 268,000 people were displaced and Sagaing regions beginning in early July 2017.
by the flooding and at least 16 people died. The Flooding also affected, Ayeyarwady, Bago and
Government led the response in cooperation Mandalay regions, as well as Kayin State, due
with state/regional authorities as well as the UN, to continuous heavy rains. The Government of
NGOs and civil society.125 Myanmar’s Relief and Resettlement Department
(RRD) in Nay Pyi Taw, reported more than
June 2018 – Floods and Landslides 91,000 people across 29 townships in Magway,
A tropical storm made landfall on the coast Sagaing, Bago and Ayeyarwady regions, as well
of Rakhine State in late May 2018, bringing as in Kayin State, as temporarily displaced/
strong winds and heavy rains to nine states and

evacuated and at least two people died due to the one in Yangon. Many schools remained closed
floods and landslides. across affected areas. Flood waters were gradually
Magway was the most severely affected region drained, moving south towards the Ayeyarwady
with approximately 63,000 people, temporarily Delta.131
displaced/evacuated across 12 townships.
Pokkoku and Yesagyo were the townships July 2016 - Floods
most affected with 34,000 and 13,000 people Heavy rain across the country, caused flooding
temporarily displaced, respectively. In both and landslides in Rakhine, Sagaing, and Kachin.
townships, evacuation sites were built with The Rakhine State Government reported that
support from civil society organizations. By more than 24,306 people were displaced across
mid-August, over 74,000 people still remained the four most affected townships, Minbya
displaced in 49 evacuation sites in Sagaing, and (13,123 people), Ann (4,659 people), Mrauk-U
Ayeyarwady regions, and in Kachin and Mon (3,696 people), and Kyauktaw (2,828 people).
states in Myanmar due to seasonal floods. The As of 29 July, 15,000 people were displaced due
cumulative number of people who have been to monsoon flooding in Sagaing, Mandalay,
temporarily displaced/evacuated between 1 July Magway, Kachin and Chin. The Relief and
and 16 August was over 214,000, although most Resettlement Department (RRD) faced logistical
were able to return to their homes. 128 challenges due to limited road access and flooded
rivers in some areas.132
May 2017 – Tropical Cyclone Mora
In Myanmar, Tropical Cyclone Mora affected June 2016 -Tropical Cyclone Roanu
Northern Rakhine impacting 12 of 17 townships. Monsoon rains brought higher rainfall
The Government of Myanmar and international intensity and triggered flooding in several areas
and national humanitarian partners conducted in Sagaing, Rakhine, Ayeyarwady, and Bago.
assessments and responded to requests for Based on the RRD, the incidents caused eight
aid. Over 4,600 houses were destroyed and deaths and affected 27,757 people. The flood
11,700 houses damaged. In the IDP camps in also submerged 5,685 houses and damaged 246
central Rakhine State, hundreds of shelters, houses in the Bago and Sagaing regions, as well
temporary learning spaces and latrines also as Chin and Rakhine states. A total of 14 deaths
suffered damage or collapsed due to the strong were reported from the Union-level Relief and
winds. In Maungdaw District, an inter-agency Resettlement Department, media sources and the
rapid damage and needs assessment conducted Rakhine State Government.133
from 31 May to 6 June indicated that there are
a total 21,504 houses that were damaged; the 2015-2016 - Drought
government’s assessment indicated that a total of In Myanmar, a total of 146 villages suffered
14,990 houses were damaged.129 from water shortages during the 2015 summer
season. In 2016 roughly 300 villages had
2016 – 2017 – Drought shortages, with the majority of those villages
According to the Myanmar Department of located in the townships of Ngapudaw,
Meteorology and Hydrology, beginning in mid- Thabaung, Kyaunggone and Yekyi, according
February 2016 and recurring during summer to the records of the Directorate of Water
seasons through 2017, Myanmar experienced Resources and Improvement of River Systems
severe impacts of El Niño including extreme (Gov’t of Myanmar, 14 Mar 2016). According to
temperatures, unusual rainfall patterns, dry the Myanmar Department of Meteorology and
soil, high risk of fires and acute water shortages Hydrology, since mid-February 2016, Myanmar
affecting a total of 146 villages.130 has been experiencing severe impacts of El Niño
including extreme temperatures, unusual rainfall
August 2016 - Monsoon Floods patterns, dry soil, high risk of fires and acute
Monsoon conditions persisted as moderate water shortages.134
to strong over the Andaman Sea and the Bay
of Bengal, which created flood conditions July 2015 - Tropical Cyclone Komen
impacting approximately 377,000 people who In July 2015, Tropical Cyclone Komen
were displaced from their homes in six states. produced high winds and heavy rain in several
Magway was the most affected area, where states and regions in western and northern
approximately 60,000 people were displaced. Five Myanmar. Twelve out of the fourteen regions
people died: two in Sagaing, two in Kachin, and

DISASTER OVERVIEW
and states were affected by flooding. On 31 July, and disasters that could overwhelm national
Myanmar’s President declared Chin and Rakhine response capacity in 191 countries. The INFORM
states and the regions of Sagaing and Magwa, to GRI supports a proactive crisis management
be natural disaster zones.135 framework. It identifies the countries at a high
risk of humanitarian crisis that are more likely
July 2015 - Myanmar: Floods and Landslides to require international assistance. INFORM
Heavy rains caused floods and landslides GRI will be helpful for an objective allocation
in several parts of Myanmar in June 2015. of resources for disaster management as well as
On 30 July, Cyclone Komen made landfall for coordinated actions focused on anticipating,
in Bangladesh, bringing strong winds and mitigating, and preparing for humanitarian
additional heavy rains to the country, which emergencies. The INFORM GRI model is based
resulted in widespread flooding across 12 of the on risk concepts published in scientific literature
country’s 14 states and regions (Ayeyarwady, and envisages three dimensions of risk: Hazards
Bago, Chin, Kachin, Kayin, Magway, Mandalay, & Exposure, Vulnerability and Lack of Coping
Mon, Rakhine, Sagaing, Shan, Yangon). On Capacity. The INFORM GRI model is split into
31 July, the President declared the Chin and different levels to provide a quick overview of the
Rakhine states, as well as the regions of Magway underlying factors leading to humanitarian risk
and Sagaing a natural disaster zone. According as seen in Figure 7. 139
to the National Natural Disaster Management INFORM gives each country a risk score of
Committee (NNDMC), 125 people were 1-10 (1 being the lowest and 10 the highest)
killed and 1.7 million people were temporarily for each of the dimensions, categories, and
displaced by floods and landslides.136 components of risk, as well as an overall risk
score. The higher the score the more vulnerable
a country is, and a higher risk indicates a higher
Country Risks probability of needing international assistance for
Myanmar is one of the world’s most disaster a humanitarian crisis.
prone countries with its geographical location In the 2018 INFORM Global Risk Index,
exposing it to multiple hazards including floods, Myanmar had an overall risk of 6.4/10, which
cyclones, earthquakes, landslides, strong wind, INFORM categorizes in the high risk class but
lightening, soil erosion, forest fire, drought, and trends toward decreasing in risk based on a
industrial and technological hazards.137 The three year trend (2016-2018) and dropping 0.3
country has also witnessed localized disasters or more points. Myanmar’s risk score for Hazard
such as lightening which led to 175 lives lost and Exposure was 7.5/10, for Vulnerability was
between the years of 2014-2017, and in that 5.5/10, and for Lack of Coping Capacity was
same period, riverbank erosion and strong 6.4/10.140
winds caused 261 and 782 deaths respectively.138
Myanmar also ranks third
out of 184 countries most
affected by climate change
in the last 20 years in the
2019 Global Climate Risk
Index. Some additional
risks are highlighted in the
following section.
Country Risk Profile

Risk involves exposure
to hazards, vulnerability,
as well as lack of coping
capacity, all of which
are important factors in
Disaster Risk Management.
The INFORM Global Risk
Index (GRI) measures the
Figure 7: INFORM Risk Index
risk of humanitarian crises

MYANMAR
Organizational Structure

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE
Organizational
supporting NDMC through the implementation
and coordination of disaster management
activities. 142
Structure
Disaster management bodies are constituted
at the regional/state, self-administered zone,
district, township, ward and village tract
levels143 The subnational disaster management
Lead Government Agencies in Disaster committees, the Relief and Resettlement
Department (RDD), the Disaster Risk Reduction
Response Working Group, and the U.N.’s Myanmar
Humanitarian Country Team all work together
National Disaster Management Committee to provide disaster risk management and
The National Disaster Management humanitarian assistance to the country.
Committee (NDMC) is the leading body
for Disaster Risk Management in Myanmar. Subnational Disaster Management Committees
The NDMC reports to the chair of the Vice The National Disaster Management Law
President and there are 12 work committees provides for the establishment of subnational
and an advisory committee under the NDMC. Disaster Management Committees (DMCs)
Figure 8 shows the NDMC and its sub- that operationalize the response. DMCs are
committees.141 The NDMC was established constituted at the region/state, district, city/
by Decree No. 30/2016 of the Cabinet of the town, and ward/village-tract levels.
Republic of the Union of Myanmar on 31
May 2016, and is made up of 28 members Department of Disaster Management (DDM)
including state and region representatives and The Department of Disaster Management
the Ministers of Home Affairs, Foreign Affairs, (DDM), previously the Relief and Resettlement
Information, Rail Transportation, Energy; Department (RRD) is part of the Myanmar
Health, National Planning and Construction; Ministry of Social Welfare, Relief and
Education, Communications, Post and Resettlement. DDM was established to provide
Telegraphs; Transport, Commerce, Border Areas, victims of natural disasters with relief and ease
National Races, and Development Affairs and their suffering by providing precautionary steps
Social Welfare and; Relief and Resettlement. to minimize loss of lives and property.144
Additionally, there are 12 Working Committees
National Disaster Management Committee
Advisor Group
State/Region Disaster Disaster Management Work International Relation Work

Management Body Committee Committee
District Disaster Financing and Financial Search and Rescue Work

Management Body Management Work Committee Committee
Township Disaster
Security Work Committee Logistic Work Committee
Management Body
Rehabilitation and
Ward/Village Tract Disaster News and Information Work
Reconstruction Work
Management Body Committee
Committee
Initial need Assessment,

Health Care Work Committee Damage and Loss Verification
and Need Identification
Livelihood Restoration Work Environmental COnservation

Committee Work Committee
Figure 8: Myanmar’s Disaster Management Structure

The DDM does the following: professional organization. The DRR WG Chair
I. coordinates with the governmental is selected from the Steering Committee and
departments, UN agencies, international currently UNDP is the chair. Director General
non-governmental organizations, local of Relief and Resettlement Department (RRD),
NGOs and social organizations for the the focal department for disaster management
disaster prevention, preparedness and as well as the secretariat of the National Disaster
disaster risk reduction measures Management Working Committee (NDMWC), is
II. provides emergency assistance for the the honorary chair of the DRR Working Group.
disaster victims The DRR Sub-Sector Working Group (DRR
III. reintegration for the drifters who stranded SSWG) which is co-chaired by the RRD and
to oversea countries because of various UNDP, includes a member from an international
reasons organization, a local NGO, a professional
(iv) provision of assistance for the organization and the Myanmar Red Cross, which
Internally Displaced Persons due to armed are also members of the DRR WG.
conflict, social conflict In 2013, the DRR WG developed its 2014-18
IV. provision of assistance to the populations Strategic Framework and Plan which aims to:
who suffer from famine as a consequence • Strengthen the policy and institutional
of damage of crops due to abnormal framework for DRR;
weather or insect infections • Build capacities of government officials to
V. coordinates with the governmental implement DRR and mainstream DRR into
departments, UN agencies, international development;
NGOs, local NGOs, social organizations • Support the government to develop a
and donors for implementing recovery community-based disaster risk reduction
programs with a view to gaining better framework and a public awareness strategy
lives of the disaster affected people.145 on DRR;
• Engage with and strengthen capacities of
The DDM is also Myanmar’s disaster risk local NGOs working on DRR;
management and focal point for the ASEAN • Build partnerships with the private sector
Committee on Disaster Management. The DDM and academia and
established a Disaster Management Training • Strengthen the internal coordination of the
Centre to train, education, and research risk DRR WG so that effective support is provided
reduction.146 Among the disaster risk reduction to the government.
networks in Myanmar is the Disaster Risk
Reduction Working Group, and the Myanmar
Humanitarian Country Team.147 Key Disaster Management Partners
Disaster Risk Reduction Working Group (DRR United Nations Office for the Coordination of
WG)
Established in 2008 to support recovery and Humanitarian Affairs
The United Nations Office for the
reconstruction efforts following Cyclone Nargis, Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)
the Disaster Risk Reduction Working Group established a Country Office in Myanmar in mid-
(DRR Working Group) serves as a platform for 2008 with the immediate priority to facilitate
information sharing and coordination among and support the Government-led humanitarian
development partners working on disaster response in Ayeyarwady Delta affected by
risk reduction issues. The UNDP chairs the Cyclone Nargis.149
DRR Working Group at the national level In 2012, OCHA supported the development
and the Swiss Development Cooperation, the of the Disaster Management Law that passed in
Community Development Association and August 2013 as well as the Disaster Management
the International Organization of Migration, Rules finalized in April 2015. OCHA works
head the DRR Working Groups of Chin State, closely with the Government focal point for
Kayin State, and Rakhine State respectively.148 Disaster Preparedness and Response and
The DRR WG is led by an 11 member Steering the Ministry of Social Welfare, Relief and
Committee which includes three UN agencies, Resettlement (MSWRR) to ensure a more
three international NGOs, three local NGOs, systematic, inclusive and coordinated approach
the Myanmar Red Cross Society and one in disaster management and preparedness and

response initiatives and mobilizes resources for to assist approximately 941,000 crisis-affected
the humanitarian partners. 150 people. The Humanitarian Plan focuses on
The coordination and management states with the most urgent humanitarian needs
arrangements during a response phase of a stemming from conflict, movement restrictions
disaster affecting Myanmar includes OCHA. and discriminatory policies or practices such as
The Myanmar Information Management Unit Kachin, Shan, Rakhine and Kayin states. Of the
(MIMU), HCT, OCHA, the UN Resident and 941,000 people, 49% are children and 76% are
Humanitarian Coordinator (RC/HC), the women and children. The Humanitarian country
inter Cluster Coordination Group (ICCG), the Team is committed to carrying out humanitarian
Humanitarian Advocacy and Communications action in Myanmar in accordance with principles
Group (HACG) and the UN Department of of humanity, neutrality and impartiality. The
Safety and Security (DSS) work together during scope and objectives of the plan are detailed in
disaster response.151 Figure 9.153
Myanmar Humanitarian Country Team ASEAN

Myanmar’s Humanitarian Country Team The Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(HCT) is a strategic humanitarian coordination (ASEAN) was formed in 1967. It aimed to reduce
and decision-making body seeking to optimize regional hostilities and to prevent communism
the collective efforts of the United Nations, other from spreading across Southeast Asia to
international and national organizations, NGOs Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia, the Philippines,
and the Red Cross Movement. It oversees the and Indonesia. Brunei Darussalam, Vietnam,
development of sector and cluster response plans Lao PDR, Myanmar, and Cambodia later joined
and provides oversite and advice to cluster/sector ASEAN. However, that focus has changed to the
leads and humanitarian-focused geographic threat of natural disasters.154 These ten-member
and subsidiary groups. It also leads decision states recognize the importance of ensuring the
making on inter-agency coordination in regard safety of its citizens from challenges and threats.
to assessments, joint monitoring and evaluation The ASEAN region is vulnerable to several
missions.152 natural disasters including typhoons, floods,
The Myanmar HCT implemented the drought, earthquakes, and volcanic eruption.
2019 Humanitarian Response Plan to assist ASEAN has experienced three catastrophic
the Myanmar Government in ensuring that disasters in the past 15 years. These include the
emergency needs of men, women and children Indian Ocean Tsunami (2004), Cyclone Nargis
are met despite the political transition of the (2008), and Typhoon Haiyan (2013). The need
country. The plan was jointly developed by for a coordinated ASEAN response to major
members of the Humanitarian Country Team disasters in the region gained momentum after
in Myanmar in consultation with a wide the Indian Ocean Tsunami. Because of this,
range of stakeholders including Government regional cooperation towards addressing the
counterparts, local civil society, representatives rising frequency of natural disasters is of vital
of affected communities including the Rohingya, interest to ASEAN. ASEAN has set out to
development actors, donors and others. develop a regional framework covering aspects of
The 2019 Humanitarian Response Plan aligns disaster management with many tools, initiatives,
with other key documents and strategies that platforms, and mechanisms.155
aim to enhance coherence and complementarity The ASEAN Secretariat’s role is to provide
across a wide range of humanitarian, greater efficiency in the coordination of ASEAN
development, human rights and peace-building organs and more effective implementation of
challenges in Myanmar. The plan is part of a ASEAN projects and activities. A Secretary-
broader engagement by the United Nations and General is appointed by the ASEAN Summit
its partners to ensure that all people affected for a five- year term and serves as the ASEAN
by conflict, violence, insecurity and/or natural Humanitarian Assistance Coordinator and
disasters have access to the protection and oversees the ASEAN Secretariat’s Disaster
assistance they need with particular focus on Management and Humanitarian Assistance
vulnerable populations including women, (DMHA) Division. The ASEAN Secretariat is also
children, the sick, elderly and people with responsible for providing policy coordination
disabilities. support, conducting monitoring and evaluation
The Plan requested US$202 million dollars of the of the Agreement on Disaster Management

HUMANITARIAN RESPONSE PLAN OPERATIONAL PRESENCE: NUMBER OF PARTNERS
AT A glANCE 62 42
STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 1 PEOPLE IN NEED
941,000 27
Promote respect for human rights,
ensure protection of civilians,
and support durable solutions for
internally displaced people and
other crisis-affected populations
26
STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 2 PEOPLE TARGETED
4
941,000
Ensure that vulnerable, crisis-affected
people have access to assistance,
services and livelihoods opportunities
STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 3
Contribute to strengthening the
resilience of communities and REQUIREMENTS (US$)
building national capacities to
202.2M
prepare for and respond to natural
disasters and other emergencies
$
Figure 9: Humanitarian Response Plan Strategic Goals (2019)
and Emergency Response (AADMER) and Standby Arrangements and Coordination of
serving on the ASEAN Committee on Disaster Joint Disaster Relief and Emergency Response
Management (ACDM) and as a member of the Operations (SASOP). In addition, the AHA
Governing Board of the AHA Centre.156 Centre can help mobilize ASEAN’s standby
Additionally, the ASEAN Coordinating assets and personnel, since they have the capacity
Centre for Humanitarian Assistance on Disaster to send relief items and deploy the ASEAN
Management (AHA Centre) was established Emergency Response and Assessment Team
in 2011. It coordinates most of the operational (ASEAN-ERAT).
activities under the ASEAN Agreement on During a disaster, the AHA Centre will also
Disaster Management and Emergency Response deploy personnel, which will become the In-
(AADMER). The AHA Centre is key in Country Liaison Team (ICLT). The ICLT will
facilitating cooperation and coordination within coordinate with the government at the national
ASEAN Member States. It also coordinates with level. If needed, and the affected Member State
other important agencies such as the United approves, the AHA Centre will coordinate the
Nations and international organizations. The deployment of the ASEAN-ERAT to support the
governing body of the AHA Centre is made up local agencies responding to the event. This aims
of National Disaster Management Organizations to increase preparedness and response capacity,
(NDMO) representatives from all Member States. while delivering humanitarian assistance through
During a disaster, the AHA Centre is the first the ASEAN Standby Arrangements and/or other
point of contact for all ASEAN Member States.157 mechanisms. In addition, to the AHA Centre, the
The AHA Centre’s primary focus is to facilitate ICLT will collect information from the affected
regional cooperation for disaster management, Government, as well as other humanitarian
joint emergency preparedness and response, agencies in the country and they will then
and to operationalize regional coordination provide recommendations for the Emergency
mechanisms for emergency preparedness and Operation Centre (EOC) to revise the initial
response. After a disaster affects Southeast ASEAN Emergency Response Action Plan if
Asia, the AHA Centre will then relay the need be.158
information by following precise communication The vision of ‘One ASEAN, One Response’
and coordination protocols as defined by the is for ASEAN Member States to coordinate
Standard Operating Procedure for Regional a collective effort in mobilizing resources for

an ASEAN response, as part of international well as long-term assistance. Their works aims
assistance from assisting Member States, the to improve access to clean water, health-care
private sector, civil society organizations, and facilities and better living conditions, promote
the International Red Cross and Red Crescent international humanitarian law and spread
Movement.159 The ‘One ASEAN One Response’ education about risks related to landmines. They
Declaration increases the effectiveness of also visit places of detention with an aim to
humanitarian assistance and it reduces the secure better living conditions for all detainees,
impact on the affected country, as well as restore communication between them and
alleviating suffering of the affected population.160 their loved ones, and reunite families. Many of
Figure 10 depicts the overview of ‘One ASEAN their programs are jointly carried out with the
One Response’. Myanmar Red Cross Society (MRCS).
Myanmar joined ASEAN in 1997. A large- Since December 2018, the ICRC partnered
scale cyclone in Myanmar was the focus of a with MRCS to visit over 30 locations in Rakhine
National Workshop for the Development of and provided assistance to over 24,000 people
the ASEAN Regional Contingency Plan in from all communities supporting them with
December 2017. This scenario, along with two basic and essential services. The ICRC remains
other scenarios, were endorsed by the ASEAN concerned about the humanitarian issues of
Committee on Disaster Management (ACDM) all communities and impact of conflict on the
Working Group on Preparedness and Response. civilian population, find ways to reduce ways to
Myanmar is one of the three most disaster- risk to which they are exposed and reconnect
prone countries in the ASEAN region, along separated families.163
side Indonesia and the Philippines, with a
high probability of disaster occurrence and the Myanmar Red Cross Society
possibility to severe impact to the population.161 As the leading and oldest humanitarian
organization in Myanmar, the Myanmar
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Red Cross Society (MRCS) is committed
Crescent Movement to improving the health and well-being of
The International Federation of Red Cross vulnerable people. They began their operations in
and Red Crescent Movement (IFRC) is a 1920 as a branch of the Indian Red Cross Society.
humanitarian organization that After Burma formally separated from British
provides assistance and promotes
humanitarian activities by their
National Societies, with a focus
on preventing and alleviating
human suffering. It was founded
in 1919 and includes 192
National Societies. The IFRC
carries out relief operations to
assist victims of disasters and
combines this with development
work to strengthen the capacities
of its member National
Societies.162
In Myanmar, the International
Committee of the Red Cross
(ICRC) provides humanitarian
assistance to people affected
by armed conflict and other
situations of violence. The
organization has been present
in Myanmar for over 30 years,
including Kachin, Shan and
Rakhine states, with response
inclusive of emergency aid as
Figure 10: Overview of One ASEAN One Response

India in 1937, the Society obtained official, Crescent Societies (IFRC) which aimed for
national status in 1939 and was admitted to the better coordination, cooperation for delivering
International Federation of Red Cross and Red humanitarian assistances at local level in times of
Crescent Societies in 1946. emergencies/ disasters.165
Following this, the Burma Red Cross Act was
enacted in 1959 (with additional amendments International Organization for Migration (IOM)
in 1964, 1971, and 1988), which conferred Established in 1951, IOM is the leading
responsibility to the National Society in inter-governmental organization in the field of
implementing humanitarian activities and migration and works closely with governmental,
alleviating human suffering. Additionally, intergovernmental and non-governmental
under this act, the St. John Ambulance Brigade partners.
Overseas was taken over by the Society as the With 173 member states, 8 states holding
Burma Ambulance Brigade. The organization observer status, and offices in over 100 countries,
was renamed the Myanmar Red Cross Society IOM is dedicated to promoting humane and
in accordance with the legislative name change orderly migration by providing services and
from Burma to Myanmar in 1989. The MRCS advice to governments and migrants.
new law was enacted in August 2015 and it has IOM works to promote international
been introduced to Red Cross Red Crescent cooperation on migration issues, to assist in
Movement partners, UN organizations, the search for practical solutions to migration
international and local NGOs, civil society problems and to provide humanitarian assistance
organizations and media groups in October.164 to migrants in need, including refugees and
The Myanmar Red Cross is an auxiliary internally displaced people.
to the government and has been providing IOM works in the four broad areas of
significant technical contributions to the migration management:
Country’s disaster management law, policies, • Migration and development;
and strategies. MRCS assists the government • Facilitating migration;
in supporting humanitarian actions. At the • Regulating migration; and
national level, MRCS is a member of National • Forced migration.
Search & Rescue Committee and also a member
of three subcommittees of the National Disaster IOM activities that cut across these areas
Management Committee (NDMC). include the promotion of international migration
There are 28 warehouses in strategic locations law, policy debate and guidance, protection of
and with reserves of 21,500 packages of disaster migrants’ rights, migration health and the gender
preparedness stocked. In terms of disaster dimension of migration.166
preparedness and response capacity, as of June IOM works with its partners to meet the
2016, MRCS has 10 trained Regional Disaster growing operational challenges of migration,
Response Team (RDRT) members, 130 National advance understanding of migration issues,
Disaster Response Team (NDRT) members, encourage social and economic development
and 1,082 Emergency Response Team (ERT) through migration and uphold the well-being
members. MRCS has a reserve Emergency and human rights of migrants.
Management Fund (EMF) used for small scale Migration within Myanmar and across its
relief activities. MRCS Disaster Risk Reduction long borders, which cover Thailand, Lao PDR,
(DRR) programs target community members China, India and Bangladesh, is very complex.
across urban, rural and coastal areas. Currently, The major shifts that the country is experiencing,
MRCS is running two Recovery Operations industrialization, urbanization, greater
(Communal violence and Conflict) in 2 States connectivity, peace process, regional integration
(Rakhine and Kachin States). Annually MRCS and climate change, will continue to create
assists an average of 500,000 of people. an environment prone to greater movements
The Government Relief and Resettlement of people. The prospect of economic growth
Department (RRD) established an Emergency suggests that nearly one-third of Myanmar’s
Operation Center (EOC) at Naypyidaw. In rural population will migrate from villages to
2014, RRD and Myanmar Red Cross jointly cities to take up non-farm employment in the
organized a workshop on international coming decades. Of the approximately 54-55
disaster law (IDL) with technical support from million people living within Myanmar, 70% live
International Federation of Red Cross and Red in rural areas. Following the general election

held on 8 November 2015 there have been to improve migrant health outcomes. Migrants,
dramatic economic and cultural changes which whether travelling regularly or irregularly can
have brought an increase in foreign investment become victims of trafficking and even smuggled
and has also been a driver of urbanization migrants are exposed to abuses such as extortion,
and rural to urban migration. Many people debt bondage and physical exploitation.
migrate internally as they want to improve their However, the majority of migrants do not
livelihoods, to follow their family members, for experience these issues. Migration brings huge
marriage, for education or to avoid poor socio- benefits, fueling growth and innovation in
economic conditions. In 2014, 9.4 million people both their host and source countries. Myanmar
were internal migrants (which is approximately migrants in the region send large amounts of
20% of the population). In addition, over remittances which help boost the economy,
13 million Myanmar people, or 25% of its much of it through unofficial channels. While
population, are migrants whether they migrate official estimates are that Myanmar only receives
internally or internationally. 167 US$118 million in remittances in 2015, the then
Regionally, Myanmar has grown to be the Ministry of Labour, Employment and Social
largest migration source country in the Greater Security estimated that remittances could be as
Mekong Sub-region (GMS). The Myanmar high as US$8 billion.1
Government estimate that there are 4.25 million Promoting the mainstreaming of migrant
Myanmar nationals living abroad. Regionally, issues into government policy and programs,
drivers of migration can include higher building capacity of IOM partners and ensuring
wages in neighboring countries, conflict and effective advocacy and protection of Myanmar
environmental migration due to natural disasters migrants are national priorities for the
among other factors. management of migration in Myanmar.169
It is also reported that up to 70% of migrants
living abroad are based in Thailand, followed by
Malaysia (15%), China (4.6%), Singapore (3.9%) U.S. Government Agencies in
and the USA (1.9%). IOM estimates there could
be as many as 3 million Myanmar migrants living
Myanmar
in Thailand as of 2016. The highest numbers of USAID
migrants, according to the latest census, came The U.S. Agency of International
from Mon State (427,000), Kayin State (323,000) Development (USAID) partners with a broad
and Shan State (236,000). range of stakeholders to promote reforms that
IOM Myanmar has expanded to cover all empower and address the economic drivers of
aspects of migration including labor mobility, conflict and advance democracy. Additionally,
human development, migration health, USAID promotes tolerance and inclusion, and
immigration and border management, migrant encourages citizen participation in national
protection, counter trafficking, emergency, efforts to address intercommunal conflict,
preparedness and post crisis migration including in Rakhine State.
management. IOM strives for promoting Between 2017 and 2018, USAID funded
migration mainstreaming into government 1,300 trainings and events to build support
policy and programs, building capacity of our for peace and reconciliation and trained
partners and ensuring effective advocacy and 94 local organizations to improve conflict
protection of Myanmar migrants. resolution skills. To help empower civil society
Today, IOM has a strong presence in and restore basic freedoms, USAID trained
Myanmar with over 580 staff working nationwide 135 independent media outlets on unbiased
across 12 offices which are located in Bogale, reporting, strengthened the capacity of 235 civil
Hpa‘an, Kalay, Mawlamyine, Mawlamyinegyun, society organizations to advocate for democratic
Myawaddy, Myitkyina, Nay Pyi Taw, Myingyan, reforms, and trained 649 judges and lawyers in
Kaw Lin, Sittwe and Yangon.168 efficient and transparent administration of justice
The protection of migrants within Myanmar between 2017 and 2018 to assist with the millions
and in their destination countries is a national of Burmese who lacked access to basic health
priority for the government. Migrants are often care.
vulnerable to poorer health access and treatment USAID works in underserved areas to
and IOM works with the Myanmar Government improve access to health care that reduces
and a range of international and local partners maternal and child mortality and the burden

of infectious diseases like malaria, tuberculosis
and HIV. Thanks in part to USAID’s assistance, Participation in International
malaria cases declined by 82% between 2012
and 2017. USAID also helped treat 1.4 million
Organizations
people for malaria in 2,472 Burmese villages Myanmar participates in the following
between 2017 and 2018.170 Figure 11 details the international organizations:
total of all the agency’s foreign aid contributions Asian Development Bank (ADB), ASEAN
to Myanmar for 2018. At the time of publication, Regional Forum (ARF), Association of
2019 total costs were not yet available. Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Bay of
Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical
USAID Mission Contact is listed below: and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC), East
Asia Summit (EAS), Extractive Industries
Mission Contact Transparency Initiative (EITI candidate
Teresa McGhie, Mission Director country), Food and Agriculture Organization
USAID/Burma of the United Nations (FAO), Group of 77 (G-
110 University Avenue 77), International Civil Aviation Organization
Kamayut Township, Rangoon (ICAO), International Bank for Reconstruction
Burma and Development (IBRD), International Civil
63903 Aviation Organization (ICAO), Institute
of Catastrophe Risk Management (ICRM),
Phone International Development Association
+95 (1) 536-509 (IDA), International Fund for Agricultural
Development (IFAD), International Finance
Email Corporation (IFC), International Federation
yaye@usaid.gov of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies
(IFRCS), International Hydrographic
USAID Contact Organization (IHO), International Labour
Kimberley Lucas, Burma Desk Officer Organization (ILO), International Monetary
U.S. Agency for International Development Fund (IMF), Interpol, International Olympic
1300 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW Committee (IOC), International Organization
Washington, DC 20523 for Migration (IOM), Inter-Parliamentary
USA Union (IPU), International Organization
for Standardization (ISO correspondent),
Phone International Telecommunications Union (ITU),
202-712-0848 Telecommunication Standardization Sector of the
International Telecommunications Union (ITUT
Email NGOs), National Association of Manufacturers
klucas@usaid.gov (NAM), Organisation for the Prohibition of
Chemical Weapons (OPCW signatory), South
Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
Figure 11: U.S. Foreign Aid Explorer (Myanmar)

(SAARC observer), United Nations (UN), the procedures for the facilitation and utilization
UN Conference on Trade and Development of military and civilian assets and capacities, and
(UNCTAD), UN Educational, Scientific, (iv) the methodology for the periodic conduct
and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), UN of the ASEAN Regional Disaster Emergency
Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), Response Simulation Exercises (ARDEX) which
World Tourism Organization(UNWTO), shall test the effectiveness of this. 171
Universal Postal Union (UPU), World Customs Figure 12 details the steps that ASEAN
Organization(WCO), World Health Organization Member States take in the event of a request for
(WHO), World Meteorological Organization assistance after a declaration of disaster.172
(WMO), World Trade Organization (WTO). In the event that large numbers of people
are affected by natural disaster, the Myanmar
Foreign Disaster Relief and Emergency Response government
assistance to
may decide to request international
support their efforts in responding
As a member of ASEAN, Myanmar is a
signatory to the ASEAN Agreement on Disaster to the disaster. International assistance is likely
Management and Emergency Response to be negotiated bilaterally and with a preference
(AADMER), which was signed by all ASEAN for assistance from ASEAN Member States.173
members on 26 July 2005, and upon ratification The humanitarian community in Myanmar,
went into force 2009. In line with AADMER represented by the HCT, developed and
articles, ASEAN developed the Standard regularly updates the inter-agency Emergency
Operating Procedure for Regional Standby Response Preparedness (ERP) Plan to support
Arrangements and Coordination of Joint Disaster the Government of the Union of Myanmar in
Relief and Emergency Response Operations preparing for, and responding to, any hazards
(SASOP) in 2009. Myanmar accordingly also that may affect the country.174
conforms to procedures laid out in SASOP with During a disaster, the Area Humanitarian
regard to foreign disaster relief and emergency Country Team, comprised of UN agencies, IOM,
response among the 10 ASEAN member states. INGOs, ICRC and IFRC will coordinate the
The Agreement seeks to provide effective response among humanitarian partners. Clusters/
mechanisms to achieve substantial reduction sectors including Camp Coordination and Camp
of disaster losses in the social, economic, and Management (CCCM), Shelter, Shelter and Non-
environmental assets of the Parties, and to food items (NFI), Education, Nutrition, Health,
jointly respond to disaster emergencies through Protection, WASH, and Food Security which can
concerted national efforts, as well as intensified all be used to support a coordinated response.
regional and global efforts. The Relief and Resettlement Department
SASOP guides ASEAN states, on a voluntary (RRD), under Myanmar’ Ministry of Social
basis, in identifying and earmarking assets and Affairs remains the main counterpart for State
capacities, which may be made available and level coordination of humanitarian assistance.
mobilized for disaster relief and emergency Depending on the State affected in Myanmar, the
response. Specifically, SASOP outlines the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian
actions of the ASEAN Member States and the Affairs (OCHA) will coordinate directly with
ASEAN Coordinating Centre for Humanitarian the State government and other relevant State
Assistance on disaster management (AHA ministries such as Security Ministry and others.
Centre) in implementing (i) the regional Clusters/sectors will coordinate their work
standby arrangements for disaster relief and and support to the response with relevant line
emergency response; (ii) the utilization of Departments of State ministries. Figure 13
military and civilian personnel, transportation represents the coordination and management
and communication equipment, facilities, good arrangements during a response phase of a
and services, and the facilitation of their trans- disaster affecting Myanmar. This includes the
boundary movement; and (iii) the co-ordination Myanmar Information Management Unit
of joint disaster relief and emergency response (MIMU), HCT, OCHA, the UN Resident and
operations. This Standard Operating Procedure Humanitarian Coordinator (RC/HC), the
(SOP) provides (i) the guides and templates to inter Cluster Coordination Group (ICCG), the
initiate the establishment of the ASEAN Standby Humanitarian Advocacy and Communications
Arrangements for Disaster Relief and Emergency Group (HACG) and the UN Department of
Response, (ii) the procedures for joint disaster Safety and Security (DSS). 175
relief and emergency response operations, (iii)

Flowchart 1: Notification of Disaster & Situation Updates implementation. These laws were put into action
Requesting / Receiving Party Assisting Entity AHA Centre
with the 2012 Disaster Risk Reduction Plan, and
building on the momentum of that plan, new
Start action plan was developed in 2017.176
The NFP provides an initial
Update to the AHA Centre Myanmar Action Plan on Disaster Risk
within 3 hours of the occurrence
of the incident Reduction 2017 (MAPDRR)
Analyse the Initial The Myanmar Action Plan on Disaster Risk
Update Update and notify
other Party /Entity
Reduction 2017 (MAPDRR) is a comprehensive
[via email/phone or official social media
accounts]
of the disaster
action plan for risk reduction and management
with prioritized interventions with overall
The NFP provides Situation
Situation
Update
targets through the year 2030. The previous
Updates to the AHA Centre
(a) periodically as significant
plan, (MAPDRR, 2012) provided a framework
developments occur, or (b) daily
by 9:00am (Jakarta time)
for multi-stakeholder engagement in disaster
Analyse each
Situation Update and
risk reduction. It was established in 2012 and
“Update” to the
immediately notify
the other Party/
identifies projects that need to be committed
AHA Centre Entity of the
significant
to meet the government’s commitment to
developments
(a) periodically, or
the Hyogo Framework for Action and the
(b) daily by 14:00
(Jakarta time)
ASEAN Agreement on Disaster Management
and Emergency Response. The current Plan
(MAPDRR, 2017) aims to better align DRR
“Update” from
the AHA
priorities with medium term development
Centre policies such as five-year development/sectorial
plans. 177
The scope of the Plan covers the entire
country and its most frequent hazards and
Party/ Entity receive the
notification of disaster and identified 32 actions under 4 pillars. Each pillar
situation updates
has 6 to 9 priority actions referencing the Sendai
Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction. The
Pillars are as follows:
Figure 12: ASEAN SASOP Request for Assistance • Pillar 1: Assessing disaster risk including
extreme weather events and creating public
awareness on DRR in Myanmar
Laws, Policies, and Plans on Disaster • Pillar 2: Strengthening disaster risk
Management governance to reduce and manage risk
• Pillar 3: Mainstreaming disaster risk
Building a resilient disaster response and reduction for resilient development
disaster risk reduction strategy has been a • Pillar 4: Enhancing disaster preparedness for
demonstrated necessity for the country of effective response and resilient rehabilitation
Myanmar. Following the 2004 Indian Ocean and reconstruction
Tsunami, the National Disaster Preparedness
Central Committee, the policy formulating The current (2017-2020) Plan’s focus is on
body, was formed with the Chairmanship of the implementation of a number of global and
the Prime Minister. Myanmar’s precarious regional development and DRR frameworks,
location exposing it to risk and hazards, as well declarations, action plans and work programs
as its focused strategy to protect its people, at the national level as well as strong linkages
and economy, and its position as a Member of between global and regional commitments not
the ASEAN States drives continued pursuit of only on the Sendai Framework for Disaster
its current laws, policies and plans on disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030, but also the Paris
management and disaster risk reduction. The Agreement on Climate Change to monitor and
Disaster Management Law and Rules in 2013 evaluate the success of the Plan.
and 2015 provide legal basis to set up disaster The Plan also aims to provide a base for
management bodies based on various roles mobilizing and leveraging national and external
and defines those roles and responsibilities and resources and indicators in three phases detailed
creation of funds for disaster management and its in the following bullets and shown in the
timeline in Figure 14:
ACTIVITY WHO
E Upon receipt of early warning information on an imminent threat
A Contact OCHA to inform on the threat and cross-check information at field level All & OCHA
R Alert RC/HC OCHA
L
Contact GoUM (MoSWRR) to inform/verify threat RC/HC & OCHA
Y
W Alert HCT and ICCG OCHA
A Send Flash Update (email) to key partners OCHA
R Inform OCHA Regional Office and HQ OCHA & RC/HC
N
I Inform UNDAC of potential threat and analyze possible need for UNDAC deployment OCHA
N Alert HACG to be on standby OCHA
G Review capacity to respond (information on available stocks, personnel for assessments, staff deployable for
ICCG
P a possible response, including capacity of donors/embassies, AHA Center)
H Share information on MRCS capacity OCHA
A Gathers secondary relevant data OCHA & MIMU
S
Convene HCT meeting (define inter-agency response plans and additional cluster leads on standby) OCHA
E
Identify potential mitigating measures and agencies to implement them HCT
Assign/confirm reporting and information management focal points ICCG
Identify constraints for accessing potential affected populations HCT
Advocate for simplified visa, travel authorization to affected areas and customs (as system in place 2015
RC/HC
floods response)
Coordination & Management Arrangements
Once the threat is confirmed contact the government to know:
R 1. National capacity to deal with the emergency
E 2. Intent to declare a state of emergency
S 3. Intent to request, welcome or decline international assistance.
RC/HC & OCHA
P - If welcomed, outline support options available, request approval for additional humanitarian staff's entry
into the country, and the need for UNDAC team or Search and Rescue assistance (ideally INSARAG
O
members) in case of earthquake or collapse or urban structures
N - If assistance is declined but nonetheless required, HCT to increase their capacity to respond
S
Initiate regular HCT and ICCG meetings HCT & ICCG
E
Agree on response coordination structure at the areas affected in case not being in place, and leading
HCT & ICCG
coordinating organization (based on presence in the affected areas)
P
Analyze possible need for additional resources from regional/HQ level RC/HC & HCT
H
A Organize a briefing for in-country donors and ascertain intentions to fund the response OCHA
S Operational Capacity & Arrangements to deliver relief and protection
E Identify capacity to respond and quantify the gaps ICCG & OCHA
Identify required government support at national level (EOC) ICCG
Initiate regular cluster/sector meetings ICCG
Request Government logistical assistance for site visits if required HCT
Based on situation and gender analysis identify the most appropriate activities needed to reach potential ICCG & Protection
beneficiaries (including vulnerable groups) Sector
Ensure there is a clear protection strategy in place. Ensure appropriate prevention and response
Protection Sector
mechanisms for sexual and gender based violence
Identify potential partners in the areas affected, and its capacities to support assessments and response ICCG
Contact with private sector partners and identify channels for coordination (UMFCCI) OCHA & UNDP
Hold an inter-agency logistics coordination meeting to determine existing logistics capabilities and Logistics sector &
additional needs ICCG
If stocks are being brought from outside the country, advocate with Government authorities on fast- Logistics sector &
track for custom and importation procedures. RC/HC
Review security plans to see that they are up- to-date and relevant for the area of planned operation DSS
Liaise with appropriate Government institutions on security matters DSS
Figure 13: Myanmar Humanitarian Country Team Inter-Agency SOP

DSS to regularly update HCT on security situation in the country DSS
Assessment & Information Management
Based on secondary data available, develop a preliminary scenario definition OCHA & MIMU
Analyze the need for launching a joint multi-sector rapid needs assessments using agreed methodology.
OCHA & ICCG
Ensure coordination with local NGOs
Disseminate MIRA revised form (hard and soft copies) OCHA
Confirm IM focal points from sector/clusters to coordinate under IM Network OCHA & MIMU
Identify required IM support at EOC MIMU & OCHA
Analyze and share information from assessment as soon as possible OCHA & ICCG
Reporting
Confirm sector reporting focal points ICCG
Issue regular Situation Reports (daily if necessary) OCHA
Public Information & Communications with Communities
Develop talking points and Q&As for RC/HC and HCT HACG
Resource Mobilization
Analyze and agree on the need to launch a Flash Appeal HCT
Identify emergency funds capacities (ERF, CERF) and agree on priorities OCHA
Figure 13: Myanmar Humanitarian Country Team Inter-Agency SOP ( cont.)
• Phase-I until 2020 aims to create and • Phase III until 2030 will draw lessons from
strengthen systems and generate disaster risk risk reduction interventions of Phases I
information for undertaking risk reduction and II based on the development trajectory,
programs. It will also include setting up including underlying risk drivers. It will
systems and drafting policies and procedures further institutionalize the actions and
related to disaster risk management, undertake additional measures towards
undertaking some pilot projects and ensuring enhancing resilience.178
continuity of the actions from the last action
plan. The priorities identified under Phase-I Disaster Management Law and Rules (2013 and
has been grouped under four themes: risk 2015)
assessment, risk governance, mainstreaming The Law provides legal basis to set up disaster
DRR into development and preparedness for management bodies based on various roles.
response and recovery. The Law also defines roles and responsibilities
• Phase II until 2025 will primarily focus and creation of funds for disaster management.
on the application of risk information The provisions of the Law empowers disaster
for risk reduction and will build on the management bodies to clearly discharge duties
pilot interventions of Phase-I. It will and define areas of accountability. The Disaster
primarily include disaster and climate risk Management Rules, 2015 defines provisions of
information in development planning and the law towards its implementation.179
implementation and large-scale DRR targeted
investments.
Development
Timeline Global & Regional Framework MAPDRR
Framework, Myanmar
SFDRR 2020 (1 Target) Phase I: Systems & enabling

2020 Five year plan: 2020
AADMER WP (2016-20) environment
2025 Phase II: Application and

Five-year plan: 2025
up-scaling
SDG 2030 Phase-III: Continued up-scaling

2030 SFDRR 2020 (6 Targets) & alignment Five year plan: 2030
Figure 14: Phased Approach to Disaster Resilient Myanmar

Standing Order on Natural Disaster ASEAN Regional Disaster Emergency Response

Management (2011) Simulation Exercise (ARDEX)
The Standing Order specifies the mandates, The ASEAN Regional Disaster Emergency
roles and responsibilities of national level Response Simulation Exercise (ARDEX), is a
institutions in disaster management. The full-scale simulation exercise that tests, practices,
Standing Order reflects on lessons from Cyclone and evaluates ASEAN’s emergency response
Nargis and includes actions to be taken by and disaster management mechanisms. The
government agencies in the course of future latest iteration of ARDEX was in 2018. It is
disasters. The responsibilities of the Ministry of conducted every two years, to test regional
Defense and Tatmadaw are delineated according processes and capabilities. The scenario changes
to four disaster phases – Normal Times, Alert depending on the regional priorities and the
and Warning, During Disaster, and Relief and need to test specific emergency procedures.
Rehabilitation. The Standing Order is being ARDEX is co-organized by the AHA Centre,
updated in accordance with the new Disaster and the Host Country is the co-chair alongside
Management Law and Rules established under the AHA Centre.182 It is a multi-day field
this law, and the Sendai Framework.180 simulation event where they generate practical
inputs for the effective implementation of
Emergency Response Preparedness Plan (ERPP, AADMER, with a focus on using the ASEAN
2017) Standby Arrangements and Standard Operating
The Emergency Response Preparedness Procedures (SASOP).183
Plan (ERPP) was developed by the UN ARDEX 2018 was attended by over 100
Humanitarian Country Team (HCT) in delegates from the ASEAN Member States as well
Myanmar in collaboration with the government, as partner nations such as Australia, Canada,
and establishes predefined roles, responsibilities the E.U., Great Britain, Japan, New Zealand,
and coordination mechanisms for disaster Norway, Russian Federation, Switzerland, and
response. The ERP has four main components: the U.S.184 ARDEX provides an opportunity to
i) Risk Assessment, ii) Minimum Preparedness practice, evaluate and review the ASEAN SASOP,
Actions, iii) Standard Operating Procedures, and including the newly-endorsed Chapter VI of
iv) Contingency Plans for the initial emergency the SASOP. Chapter VI on the Facilitation and
response. The HCT regularly updates the inter- Utilisation of Military Assets and Capacities
agency Emergency Response Preparedness (ERP) has been included as an integral part of SASOP
Plan to support the Government of the Union of since 2016. Chapter VI provides information
Myanmar in preparing for, and responding to, and instruction to the role of the affected state,
any of the hazards that may affect the country. 181 the role of the state’s military, the use of military
assets, guidelines for medical assistance, military-
to-military coordination, and military-to-civilian
Education and Training coordination, among others.185
In addition to testing the SASOP, ARDEX also
As a member of ASEAN, Myanmar is involved tests regional response mechanisms, the ASEAN-
in a myriad of disaster management and disaster ERAT, the AJDRP, the JOCCA, the ASEAN-
risk reduction training and education. The UN interoperability in field operation, and the
ASEAN Regional Disaster Emergency Response ARDEX Handbook.186
Simulation Exercise (ARDEX) and the ASEAN
Regional Forum Disaster Relief Exercise (ARF The ASEAN Regional Forum Disaster Relief
DiREx) are examples of these education and Exercise (ARF DiREx)
training opportunities. The ASEAN Regional Forum Disaster Relief
The ASEAN Emergency Response Assessment Exercise (ARF DiREx) is held every two years
Team (ASEAN-ERAT) also provides training to opposite to ARDEX. ARF DiREx 2015 was the
ASEAN members for those members to be able third multilateral tabletop and field exercise
to respond to disasters not only in their country conducted to test the implementation of regional
but to be able to deploy to assist relief efforts in arrangements, international agreements, and
other ASEAN countries. local disaster management and relief operations.
It was co-chaired by Malaysia and China and
continued the progress made by previously
held ARF DiRExs held in 2009, 2011, and 2013.

The main focus of ARF DiREx 2015 was to the Standing Order on Disaster Management
test the civil-military coordination efforts, and put in place in 2009 (later updated in 2011),
synchronize efforts towards supporting the highlighting the role of early warning systems
effective implementation of the AADMER as the and instilled the utilization of risk, forecasting,
common platform for disaster management of warning information for informed decision
the region.187 making. These lessons learned facilitated the
enactment of the Disaster Management Rules
ASEAN Emergency Response Assessment Team in 2015.189 Later disasters including Cyclone
(ASEAN-ERAT) Mahasen (2013) and Cyclone Komen (2015)
The ASEAN Emergency Response Assessment highlighted the need for more efficient risk
Team was first formed as a response for requests communication systems. Additionally, the
for daily situation updates following the Cyclone expansion of smartphones in Myanmar have
Nargis event in Myanmar in May 2008 which left significantly impacted communications. In
140,000 dead or missing and adversely affected 2008, only 3% of the population had mobile
approximately 2.4 million people. The resulting phones compared to approximately 90% in 2017.
mission report was delivered in a Special Citizens in Myanmar are now able to receive
ASEAN Foreign Minister’s meeting providing storm warnings directly via a smartphone app.190
key findings involving humanitarian access,
logistics, shelter, water, health, food security and Early Warning Systems
education following the disaster and solidifying Early Warning Systems are an indispensable
the need for this functionality. In March 2010, component of disaster risk reduction and a key
the AADMER Work Programme was formally pillar for reducing risks to lives, livelihoods and
adopted finalizing guidelines for the Deployment assets resulting from natural hazards facilitating
of ASEAN-ERAT and specific training for preparedness actions based on approximation of
volunteers. In November 2011, the AHA Centre potential hazard impacts.191
took management of the ASEAN-ERAT.
The “One ASEAN One Response” Declaration Disaster Alert Notification (DAN)
is affirmed by the role ASEAN –ERAT plays In October 2016, a mobile application called
to manage and coordinate disaster response the Disaster Alert Notification (DAN) was
to the region as the official ASEAN resource released providing warnings, notifications,
under AADMER. ASEAN-ERAT was designed important news, Dos and Don’t for prevalent
to provide rapid response to disaster events hazards and contact phone numbers to
affecting any of the ASEAN Member States. Their communities in times of disaster.
role includes support to emergency logistics, The application also provides a link to the
communications, and coordination on behalf Department of Meteorology and Hydrology
of the affected states. The Team consists of (DMH) website which users can use to find
individuals that have experience and have been weather forecasts and early warning information.
trained in responding to disaster incidents in The application was developed by the
the region. The function of the ASEAN-ERAT Department of Relief and Resettlement as part of
is to support the Disaster Management Office the Ministry’s 100 days plan with support from
(NDMO) of the disaster affected Member the United Nations Development Programme
States in the initial phases of the disaster. There (UNDP) through the joint Adaptation Fund,
are currently more than 200 ASEAN-ERAT Government of the Union of Myanmar and the
members ready to respond to major disasters UNDP project- Addressing Climate Change
in the ASEAN region. In order to be activated, risks on Water Resources and Food Security in
ASEAN-ERAT must confirm there is a need for the Dry Zone of Myanmar. The application is
deployment, then selected team members will be available in android accessed from Google Play
mobilized within eight hours of notification. All Store or downloaded directly through, https://
team members are prepared to be deployed in chalkandslate.co/rrd/dan.apk and also available
position for a minimum of two weeks.188 in iOS version from the App Store.192
Disaster Management Communications NEO

Myanmar’s weather conditions have a direct
Lessons learned from devastations caused by impact on the agriculture section and thus the
Cyclone Nargis in Myanmar in 2008 initiated country’s economy. Additionally, with 70% of the

population residing in rural areas, having access warning development and communication of
to reliable and accurate weather information information. DMH has 8 divisions including:
is essential. Thus, the United Nations Office meteorology, hydrology, agro-meteorology,
for Project Services (UNOPS) launched a aviation meteorology, seismology, upper
modernization project to update Myanmar’s Myanmar, lower Myanmar, and engineering.
National Metrological Service (NMS). DMH’s key mandates for generation and
The project, a forecasting web application provision of forecast/ warning / information
called NEO allowed upgraded water level, include:
weather observation, early warning stations,
and a component to monitor and issues early • Taking precautionary measures by society
warnings to the public. Commissioned in against, and minimize the impacts of natural
August 2017, DMH headquarters, forecasters, hazards
climatologists, hydrologists and other end-users • Promotion of safety, comfort, efficiency and
have easy and reliable access to weather data and regularity of air, land, sea and inland water
information can be received by personal screen transportation
or devices including smartphones and tablets. • Bringing sustainable development and
The system benefits to the overall country utilization of natural resources to include
providing public notification of weather hydro-power generation, production from
conditions and incoming natural hazards as well forests, and utilization of water, energy and
as providing farmers with information decisions other available resources
to protect crops and livestock which supports the • Promotion of agricultural and food
country’s food security, food transport and ability production; and
to export and overall economy of Myanmar. • Ensuring efficient operation, planning and
NEO allows the DMH to collect and centralize development of activities in defense, industry,
data on water levels, agrometeorology, weather health, social welfare, and other relevant
and early warnings to provide direct warnings sectors in Myanmar
to the public. Since it commissions forecasters,
climatologists, and hydrologists, end users can Armed Forces’ Role in Disaster Response
easily and reliably access weather data from Myanmar’s Disaster Preparedness Agency was
personal screens or devices including PC, established in April 2011 to focus on disaster
smartphone and tablet.193 risk reduction in the country but the country
is not new to disaster and disaster response.
Responsible Agencies for Warnings Prior to implementation of the government’s
The Department of Meteorology and administrative reforms which were a direct
Hydrology (DMH) is responsible for monitoring response to the aftermath of the devastation
and providing warning services for both hydro- of 2008 Cyclone Nargis, the most destructive
meteorological and geological hazards in disaster in Myanmar’s history resulting in
Myanmar. The DMH falls under the Ministry approximately 140,000 deaths and affecting
of Transport and Communications and has a 2.4 million people, the military bore the
long history of providing multi-hazard, multi- responsibility of safe guarding the country.
timescales information for preparedness to The military plays a major role in various
various stakeholders in the country. aspects of humanitarian assistance because of its
DMH was originally established in 1937 as readiness, preparedness, facilities, capabilities,
the Burma Meteorological Department (BMD) mobility and systemic organizational structure.
and became a member of the International The military can be mandated statutorily or
Meteorological Organization in 1938. On requested by civilian authorities on the basis
October 1972, BMD was reorganized and of the military’s physical assets. Although
renamed as the DMH in 1974. disaster management is now primarily led by
DMH established the National Earthquake local government and authorities and relevant
Data Center (NEDC) as its division dedicated government agencies function as responders to
to earthquake monitoring and tsunami small scale disasters for local resources, large-
early warning services. Additionally, DMH scale disasters, especially those needing a timely
is mandated for undertaking international response still requires the support of the military.
collaboration for capacity development in The military’s primary objective in disaster
multi-hazard observation, monitoring, analysis, response is creating a secure environment

that can be accessible to relief organizations Myanmar UN Office for the Coordination of
operating disaster response, transportation Humanitarian Affairs Information (UNOCHA)
and communication. A secondary objective Website: https://www.unocha.org/myanmar
is to provide assistance in disaster areas for
rehabilitation.194 Myanmar Humanitarian Fund (MHF)
Website: https://www.unocha.org/myanmar/
Information Sharing about-mhf
Understanding how to overcome the
information challenges that civilian and military Myanmar World Bank Information
agencies experience during a typical disaster Website: https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/
response mission is important. Knowing what myanmar
the available information resources are will assist
Joint Task Force leaders and staff during mission Myanmar Logistics Capacity Cluster
planning.195 Website: https://dlca.logcluster.org/display/
The sharing of information is critical because public/DLCA/Myanmar
no single responding entity (host government,
NGO, international organizations or assisting Myanmar Information Management Unit
state government, including foreign military (MIMU)
forces) can be the source of all the required The Myanmar Information Management
information.196 Unit is a comprehensive, reliable and accessible
Collaboration, information sharing (IS) and body of knowledge to support situational
networking have been the backbone of successful analysis, operational planning and inter-agency
disaster response and preparation. Disseminating coordination among humanitarian, development
information not only to those in country and peace actors in Myanmar. It maintains
and threatened by disaster but also to those a common data and information repository
responding to the emergency has been crucial to with data from various sources on all sectors,
timely, efficient and effective disaster response. countrywide, at the lowest administrative unit
Recent technology has advanced to aid in both available. The information is made widely
prediction and communication, including accessible to UN, NGO, donor and Government
when and how to send alerts regarding disasters stakeholders in the form of maps, databases and
around the world. other tools which support the coordination,
These advances have resulted in improved planning and implementation of humanitarian,
early warning and evacuation measures and development and peace focused activities.
opportunities to react and prepare for incoming Website: https://themimu.info/about-us
threats to countries. The following are some of
the ways in which information regarding disaster Myanmar Disaster Loss and Damage
risk management and response are shared. Database (MDLD) – This database is hosted
There are many resources, stakeholders and by the Department of Disaster Management
components to consider regarding information (formerly Relief and Resettlement Department
sharing before, during and after a natural of the Government of Myanmar) in partnership
disaster. This section will discuss government, with United Nations Development Programme
country specific, humanitarian and regional to better understand loss and damages incurred
sources. during past disasters by monitoring and
analyzing risks and vulnerabilities to support
Myanmar Information Sources: disaster risk reduction, mitigation, preparedness,
response and recovery. Data on disasters will
Myanmar Government Page serve to generate risk information and contribute
Website: https://www.myanmar.gov.mm/en/ to informed decision making and planning at
government-website national and sub-national levels.197
Website: http://www.mdld-rrd.gov.mm/
Myanmar’s Department of Disaster DesInventar/main.jsp?countrycode=mmr
Management’s Facebook Page is also an
official source of information related to disasters
but is only available in Myanmar (Burmese).
Website: https://www.facebook.com/ddmmswrr/

Humanitarian Information Sources representatives of the U.S. and Asia-Pacific

nations to its comprehensive program of
ReliefWeb is a service of UNOCHA that executive education and workshops.
consolidates information and analysis from Website: https://apcss.org/
organizations, countries and disasters for the
humanitarian community. Global Disaster Alert and Coordination
Website: https://reliefweb.int/ System (GDACS)/Virtual OSOCC is a
cooperation framework between the United
PreventionWeb is provided by UNISDR to Nations, the European Commission and
consolidate disaster risk reduction information disaster managers worldwide to improve alerts,
into an online, easy to understand platform. information exchange and coordination in the
Website: https://www.preventionweb.net/english/ first phase after major sudden-onset disasters.
Website: https://vosocc.unocha.org
International Federation of Red Cross and The latest alerts can be found here: http://
Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) is the world’s www.gdacs.org/Alerts/default.aspx
largest humanitarian network, with over 13.7 To subscribe: http://www.gdacs.org/About/
million volunteers helping to reach 150 million contactus.aspx
people in 192 National Societies, including the
Myanmar Red Cross Society (MRCS). IFRC Consider other sources of information such as:
provides support to and coordination among
national societies as needed, working before, Humanitarian Country Teams (HCT)
during and after disasters and health emergencies The HCT is a strategic and operational
to meet the needs and improve the lives of decision-making and oversight forum established
vulnerable people. and led by the Humanitarian Coordinator
Website: https://media.ifrc.org/ifrc in each country. It is generally comprised of
representatives from the UN, IOM, international
Myanmar Red Cross Society (MRCS) was NGOs, and the International Red Cross and Red
established in 1920 as a branch of the Indian Red Crescent Movement. During a disaster response,
Cross Society and obtained official national status HCT’s often produce a Situation Report, often in
and was admitted to the International Federation conjunction with UNOCHA.
of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies in 1946. Most HCT SitReps can be found through
In 1959 the Burma Red Cross Act was enacted ReliefWeb: https://reliefweb.int/
conferring responsibility to the National Society
in implementing humanitarian activities and Humanitarian Data Exchange (HDX) is an
alleviating human suffering. In 1989 the Society open platform for sharing data across crises and
was renamed Myanmar Red Cross Society and organizations launched in 2014 with the goal of
a new law was enacted in August 2015 as the centralizing humanitarian data for easy access
MRCS and it was introduced to Red Cross Red and analysis. HDX is managed by OCHA’s Center
Crescent Movement partners, UN organizations, for Humanitarian Data in The Hague.
INFOs, LNGOs, CBOs and media groups. Website: https://data.humdata.org/
Website: https://www.redcross.org.mm/en_US/
Regional Information Sources
Joint Typhoon Warning Center provides
advanced warning for U.S. Government agencies Changi Regional HADR Coordination Centre
and organizations in relevant areas. (RHCC)
Website: https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/jtwc. RHCC was launched in September 2014 to
html support the military of a disaster affected state
Humanitarian Response is a platform in coordinating assistance with assisting foreign
providing the humanitarian community a means militaries. It aims to provide open, inclusive
to aid in coordination of operational information and flexible platforms that allow both regional
and related activities. and extra-regional militaries to work together
Website: https://www.humanitarianresponse.info effectively in a multinational disaster response.
DKI-APCSS is a U.S. Department of Defense RHCC manages the OPERA CIS web portal
institute that addresses regional and global to broadcast the updated situation status of
security issues, inviting military and civilian multinational military responses to disasters to

minimize duplication and gaps in the provision • Provide Humanitarian Assistance
of foreign military assistance. • Catalyze Innovation and Partnership
Website: https://www.changirhcc.org/ • Empower Women and Girls
To subscribe to RHCC Weekly and Spot USAID produces a monthly newsletter called
Reports, email: Changi_RHCC@defence.gov.sg USAID Newsletter which is available digitally
at, https://www.usaid.gov/news-information/
United Nations Office for the Coordination newsletter
of Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA) Regional More information and updates from USAID is
Office for Asia and the Pacific (ROAP) seeks available via their blog, IMPACT at, https://blog.
to optimize the speed, volume and quality usaid.gov/ and on Facebook, Instagram, Twitter,
of humanitarian assistance and coordinates and YouTube.
emergency preparedness and response in the Website: https://www.usaid.gov/
world’s most disaster-prone region in support of
national governments. ROAP covers 41 countries Pacific Disaster Center
partnering with them for coordinated and The Pacific Disaster Center (PDC) has
effective international responses to emergency trademarked an early warning and decision
situations. support system called DisasterAWARE®.
Website: https://www.unocha.org/roap DisasterAWARE® is primarily for disaster
For UNOCHA situation reports, click on management practitioners and senior decision
“Subscribe” button on bottom of page. makers. It supports disaster risk reduction and
best practices throughout all phases of disaster
U.S. Government (USG) Sources management from early warning to multi-hazard
monitoring. It boasts the largest collection
Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA) of scientifically verified, geospatial, data and
The U.S. Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance modeling tools to assess hazard risks and
is responsible for leading and coordinating the impacts.
U.S. Government response to disasters overseas. The PDC also hosts a public application,
OFDA responds to an average of 65 disasters Disaster Alert which is a free, early warning app
in more than 50 countries every year. OFDA to receive customizable map based visual alerts
fulfils its mandate of saving lives, alleviating of active hazards. The app offers the fastest,
human suffering and the reduction of the social most comprehensive global notification system
and economic impact to disasters worldwide in covering every type of natural and man-made
partnership with USAID functional and regional hazard to the public. It is available on both
bureaus and other U.S. government agencies. iPhone and Android. There is also a link to
OFDA works with the international population Disaster Alert without the app to view the world
to assist countries prepare for, respond to and map documenting 18 hazard types.199
recover from humanitarian crises.198 Website: https://www.pdc.org/
USAID/OFDA products are SitReps and maps https://www.pdc.org/apps/disasteraware/
which are available via email mailing lists. Emergency Operations (EMOPS) system:
For OFDA updates on a disaster response, ask (Request account): https://emops.pdc.org/emops/
the OFDA representative for USINDOPACOM
(whose Area of Responsibility includes the All Partners Access Network (APAN)
Federated States of Micronesia) to add you to the APAN is the Unclassified Information
email list: Sharing Service (UISS) for the U.S. Department
• OFDAindopacom@ofda.gov of Defense. APAN provides the DoD and
mission partners community space and
U.S. Agency for International Development collaboration tools to leverage information to
(USAID) effectively plan, train and respond to meet their
USAID is committed to responding to crises business requirements and mission objectives.
around the world to help people and places most Importantly, APAN’s technology team has been
in need. supporting humanitarian assistance and disaster
They aim to: response (HADR) operations for over 15 years.
• Promote Global Health APAN has played an integral role in the success
• Support Global Stability of disaster responses, such as the 2015 California

Wildfire Response and the 2013 Typhoon Haiyan efforts and promote U.S. involvement in civ-mil
Response in which they provided organizations consultations and dialogues with relevant HADR
and militaries a centralized location to share parties such as the AHA Center, UNOCHA and
information, increase situational awareness and the RHCC. CFE provides DMHA resources
decrease response time and duplicated efforts for and updates at its website, as well as via their
best practices in HADR services.200 Facebook and Twitter accounts.
Website: https://www.apan.org/
CFE-DM’s Disaster Management (DM)
Note: The Multinational Communications Reference Handbooks provide a baseline of
Interoperability Program (MCIP) has an APAN information regarding countries most prone
site used in planning exercises and real world to disasters. The handbooks offer readers an
HADR information sharing.201 operational understanding of a nation’s disaster
management capability and vulnerability, with
CFE-DM detailed information on demographics, hazards,
The Center for Excellence in Disaster infrastructure, DM laws and plans, regional
Management and Humanitarian Assistance and international assistance, and other areas
(CFE-DM) is a U.S. Department of Defense vital to a comprehensive disaster management
organization that was established by U.S. knowledge base. Photo 4 depicts covers for some
Congress in 1994 and is a direct reporting unit to of the Handbooks. They can be downloaded here:
U.S. Indo-Pacific Command. CFE-DM provides https://www.cfe-dmha.org/DMHA-Resources/
training and education to help U.S. and foreign Disaster-Management-Reference-Handbooks
military personnel navigate complex issues Additionally, CFE-DM Disaster Information
in DMHA. CFE-DM also works to improve Reports are available for download at: https://
cross-coordination and reduce duplication of www.cfe-dmha.org/Publications/Reports.
Photo 4: CFE-DM Disaster Management Reference Handbooks

MYANMAR
Infrastructure

INFRASTRUCTURE
Infrastructure
Myanmar is demanding more foreign financial
investment and technical assistance to enhance
its infrastructure construction.202
The World Bank 2014 Logistics performance
In Myanmar, citizens do not have adequate index scored Myanmar the lowest among
access to basic infrastructures and services Southeast Asian countries in overall logistics
such as electricity, transportation, and performance and quality of trade and
communication. The national transport network transport related infrastructure.203An improved
(road and railway) of Myanmar is outdated. infrastructure across all areas, power, water
The World Economic Forum Global and transportation seems to be Myanmar’s key
Competitiveness Report (2013) ranked the to faster and sustained economic growth and
overall quality of infrastructure in Myanmar provide the door to greater foreign investment
146th out of 148, suggesting it is necessary opportunity and improved connectivity for its
for the government to increase the number citizens.204
of construction projects and provisions to The following information regarding logistics
improve the quality of infrastructure. The lack capacity is sourced based on information from
of (soft and hard) infrastructure is significantly assessments completed in 2014 of coastal
impeding Myanmar’s development, and reducing Myanmar as well as a 2016 assessment of the
Myanmar’s attractiveness for foreign investment. central areas which were locations with the
Maritime transport is well-regulated and highest risk of natural disasters including
competitive and is growing rapidly and boosting cyclones, floods, and earthquake.205 The
the international cargo business. Additionally, government of Myanmar has two ministries
there has been a substantial increase in mobile controlling transportation which are the Ministry
services in recent years. of Rail and Transportation and the Ministry of
The current telecommunication system is Transport.206
only able to meet the minimum requirements
for local and intercity services for business and
government, yet not advanced enough to meet Airports
the communication needs of international
business. In most sectors, the provision of Myanmar has 41 airports. They are listed
infrastructure and services is dominated by by name and abbreviation in Table 2 below.207
state-owned enterprises, while the participation Mandalay International Airport is one the largest
of private investment and foreign investment and most modern of three International airports
are allowed under certain restrictions. In in Myanmar.208 The Nay Pyi Taw International
2012, the government put forward some new Airport (NYT), was expanded and renovated in
legislations (i.e. the Central Bank of Myanmar 2005. It serves 3.5 million passengers annually
Law 2013) to promote uniform treatment of who are primarily non-tourist residents and
all financial institutions, whether private or government workers.209
state-owned. Due to a lack of capacity itself,
All Airports in Burma:

Banmaw Airport (BMO) Kawthaung Airport (KAW) Momeik Airport (MOE) Pathein Airport (BSX)
Dawei Airport (TVY) Kengtung Airport (KET) Mong Hsat Airport (MOG) Pauk Airport (PAU)
Gangaw Airport (GAW) Kyaukpyu Airport (KYP) Mong Tong Airport (MGK) Putao Airport (PBU)
Gwa Airport (GWA) Kyauktu Airport (KYT) Myeik Airport (MGZ) Pyay Airport (PRU)
Heho Airport (HEH) Lashio Airport (LSH) Myitkyina Airport (MYT) Sittwe Airport (AKY)
Henzada Airport (HEB) Loikaw Airport (LIW) Namsang Airport (NMS) Tachilek Airport (THL)
Hommalinn Airport (HOX) Magway Airport (MWQ) Namtu Airport (NMT) Thandwe Airport (SNW)
Hpa-N Airport (PAA) Manaung Airport (MGU) Nay Pyi Taw International Tilin Airport (TIO)
Hpapun Airport (PPU) Mandalay International Airport (NYT) Yangon International Airport
Kalaymyo Airport (KMV) Airport (MDL) Nyaung U Airport (NYU) (RGN)
Kanti Airport (KHM) Mawlamyine Airport (MNU) Pakhokku Airport (PKK) Ye Airport (XYE)
Table 2: List of Airports in Myanmar (Burma)

government has plans to privatize 82 roads
Seaports and there is ongoing privatization of road
construction and maintenance.
There are nine maritime seaports in Myanmar The ambitious project highway connecting
including, (from north to south): India, Myanmar, and Thailand set to be the
• Rakhine state: Sittwe, Kyaukphyu, Thandwe ‘gateway to ASEAN’ was planned in 2012. On
• Ayeyarwady Division: Pathein port 8 August 2018, India and Myanmar opened
• Yangon Division: Yangon Ports (Asia World portions of this project comprised of two land
Port, Myanmar Industrial Port, Bo Aung crossings. One through Moreh in Manipur,
Kyaw Port) opposite Tamu in Myanmar’s north-western
• Mon State: Mawlamyine Sagaing division, and the other in Zokhawthar
• Tanitharyi region: Dawei, Myeik, Kawthoun in Mizoram opposite Rhikhawdar in Myanmar’s
Chin state. This is open to travelers with valid
Deep water port construction projects in visas and passports.211
Kyaukphyu in association with China in the
north and special economic zones in Dawei
in the south in association with Thailand are Railways
ongoing. International cargo typically arrives Myanmar Railways is the state-owned
via the Yangon ports while the others are mostly network which operates railways in Myanmar
used for inland transportation and not accessible under the responsibility of the Ministry of
for large ocean going vessels over 4-5 meters. 210 Rail Transportation. In 2014, railways in the
country ran a total length of 3,722km which
was an almost double expansion of the length in
Roads 1988. However, the expansion did not include
Road networks in Myanmar were expanded infrastructure and improvement of locomotives
in March 2012 from 90,713km in 2004 to or railway infrastructure. There are also no rail
148,690km (92,392 miles) yet the country links to adjacent countries although the cross
continues to have the most underdeveloped border rail connecting China, India and Thailand
roads among ASEAN countries. Only 26% of known as the Thanbyuzayet-Three Pagoda is still
roads (39,083 km) fall under the responsibility of in progress. Additionally, an improvement in
the Ministry of Construction. The main highways the quality of the Yangon-Mandalay-Mytkyina
are: and Bago-Mawlamyine sections are covered
1. (AH-1) Thaton-Payagyi-Nay Pyi Taw- under the framework for government economic
MeiktilaMandalay-Gangaw-Kale-Tamu and social reform. Additionally, plans to build
(India border). Runs from Myawadi (Thai a high speed railway connecting Kunming in
border) - 1577 km Southwest China with Vietnam, Lao PDF and
2. (AH-2) Keng Tung-Taunggyi-Meiktila- Myanmar is in the works which began with the
MandalayGangaw-Kale-Tamu (India border). section connecting to Myanmar, called the Dali-
Runs from Tachileik (Thai border) - 804 km Ruili railway which began construction in May
3. (AH-3) Runs from AH-2 at Keng Tung- 2011.212
Mongla (PR China border) - 90 km
4. (AH-14) Runs from Mandalay-Lashio-Muse
(PR China border) - 460 km. Waterways
5. (AH-112): Runs from Thaton-Mawlamyine- Myanmar’s rivers are an important mode of
Dawei-Myeik-Kawthaung - 250 km transportation to remote areas of the country.
6. (Western Union Highway) Runs from The primary river, Irrawaddy runs down the
Yangon-Kyaunggon-Pathein - 196 km center of the country from north to south.
7. (Route 2) Runs from Yangon-Tharrawaddy- Other rivers include the Kaladan, Chindwin,
Pyay - 279 km Paunglaung, Salween, and the Mekong river
8. (AH-123) Runs from Dawei-Sinbhyudaing which also borders Laos. In 2008, the county
(Tikee) (to Thai border) - 134 km had 12,800km of rivers of which 6,650 are
navigable by commercial vessels. In 2011, 4.7m
Myanmar also has one expressway, the tons of cargo had been transported by river.
Yangon-Mandalay expressway, stretching The Department of Inland Water Transport
587 km, featuring a double carriageway and owns over 400 river vessels for passengers and
four lanes on its entire length of 587km. The freights.213

INFRASTRUCTURE
critical sub-sector challenges (Phase 2); and

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Schools
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preventable illnesses, migration, violent conflict
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and displacement, and natural disasters.219

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development. The Ministry of Education (MOE)

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Humanitarian concerns including natural
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disasters as well as conflicts are adversely

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• Shan States approximately 184,000 children
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aged 3–17 are most at risk of missing out
organizations actively supporting communities
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on education, according to a UNOCHA

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• with the provision of ECCD services.214
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humanitarian needs survey of 2018. A lack of
Data varies regarding the country’s literacy
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resources results in insufficient facilities and

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• rate. According to the most recent census in
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materials to accommodate children within
2014, the average adult literacy rate (15 years
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minimum standards. Adolescents need learning

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• and above) was 89.52 % (males: 92.6%, females:
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opportunities and life-skills education as they are
86.9%).215 The education sector includes five
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the most vulnerable to forced labor, exploitation,

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• school categories and there are 47,363 basic
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and recruitment into armed groups.220
education schools in Myanmar reaching
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Myanmar needs humanitarian interventions

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• approximately 9.26 million students as seen in
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in education. The major needs include: (1)
Table 3. 216 In addition, Myanmar has 171 higher
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improved access to safe and equipped learning

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• education institutions, which are overseen by
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spaces and quality learning opportunities;
eight ministries. 217
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and (2) improved ability to cope with negative

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No. of basic
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No. of No. of basic
psychosocial effects and limit physical danger
caused by the crisis.221
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• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • education
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school
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education
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(2015-16)
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teachers (2015-16)
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(2015-16) Disaster Risk Reduction in the Education Sector
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• Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) in education
has multiple benefits. Not only will DRR help to
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
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3,513
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34,393 873,832
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• keep children safe in schools if there is a disaster
during school hours, but also in building the
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Lower secondary
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 6,224
• • • • • • • 129,945 2,795,607
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• capacity of children in understanding and by
sharing information in disaster awareness and
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Primary
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 35,650
• • • • • • • • 158,176 5,184,041
preparedness messages to other children, parents
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
and their communities.222

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Monastic
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1,538
• • • • • • • 11,044 297,039
The MOE is responsible for disaster risk
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
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438
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7,397 107,451
reduction in Myanmar schools and for the
implementation of school safety programs and
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Total
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47,363
• • • • • •
340,955 9,257,970
activities. The multi-stakeholder working groups
established under the MOE are comprised of
government offices, United Nations agencies,
Table 3: Myanmar Education Sector
NGOs, professional associations and academic
According to Myanmar’s National Education institutions. The MOE and the MSWRR issued
Strategic Plan (NESP) 2016-2021 created by their the Guidance on Mainstreaming Disaster Risk
MOE, the national education system needs to Reduction in the Education Sector, Myanmar-
undergo a major transformation over the next Rural Settings 2. It includes structural, non-
five years if it is to meet the life-long-learning structural and approaches for mainstreaming,
and career aspirations of their students, youth including the incorporation of disaster risk
and adults. The MOE has undertaken a three- reduction elements in school construction.
and-a-half-year comprehensive education sector The Disaster Management Law 3 was enacted
review involving three phases: a rapid assessment in 2013 with guidelines and regulations on its
(Phase 1); in-depth research and analysis of implementation provided in 2015. The NESP

2016-2021 integrates the Comprehensive School broadcast media. There are two state-controlled
Safety Framework (CSSF) with objectives, targets TV stations with one of the stations controlled
and program activities.223 by the armed forces. There is one state-controlled
Plan Myanmar, the Myanmar branch of Plan domestic radio station and nine FM stations that
International, is one of many organizations in are joint state-private ventures. Transmissions of
Myanmar to support DRR activities. The NGO several international broadcasters are available
works with 96 schools to carry out school based in parts of Myanmar. The Voice of America
DRR activities and they have also set up school (VOA), Radio Free Asia (RFA), BBC Burmese
disaster management committees in these service, the Democratic Voice of Burma (DVB),
schools, in partnership with local communities. and Radio Australia use shortwave to broadcast.
A “multi-hazard” approach includes how to react DVB produces daily TV news programs that are
to the danger posed by flooding, cyclones, and transmitted by satellite to audiences; however,
earthquakes. 224 access to satellite TV is limited. In addition, two
In addition, a local organization promotes pay-TV stations are joint state-private ventures.231
earthquake education. The Myanmar Earthquake UN agencies in Myanmar use VHF, HF,
Committee (MEC) is a non-profit organization HF-Repeaters and VSAT. Some agencies share
founded in 1999, which aims to develop their connections with sister agencies. For
knowledge in the areas of earthquake science and instance, UNDP share their VSAT connection
engineering for Myanmar.225 with UNFPA, UNDSS, UNHABITAT and
Myanmar is one of 18 countries to join UNESCO. In project operations area’s UNDSS
the regional project “Strengthening Schools and WFP have setup repeaters for the UN shared
Preparedness for Tsunamis in the Asia-Pacific frequencies, which can be used by other UN
region” The project is piloted in five schools in agencies.232
high tsunami risk areas, facilitated by UNDP and
supported by the Government of Japan. UNDP
prepares schools for natural hazards and raises Utilities
awareness among students to recognize and
respond to earthquake and tsunami warning, Power
including practicing evacuation drills.226 The country needs significant investment in
infrastructure, specifically in regard to energy
Communications efficiency, with the existing power generation
infrastructure outdated due to neglect. Recent
political reforms, the lifting of international
There are some barriers to the communication sanctions, and strong regional demand, have
infrastructure in Myanmar. Less than 1% of brought back foreign investment in energy
the country’s population has access to a fixed sectors such as oil and gas, and power generation.
telephone line. Myanmar has approximately 233
560,000 subscriptions to fixed phones lines, The total population with access to electricity
5.4 million mobile phone users, and over 1.1 is 57% (urban areas 89.5%, rural areas 39.8%).234
million internet users. 227 Approximately 30% Myanmar has gas reserves of 11.8 trillion cubic
of the population use the internet. Myanmar’s feet. Natural gas is the main export commodity
international country code is 95.228 for Myanmar at around 40% of all exports. The
Myanmar lags far behind the rest of Southeast Ministry of Energy is responsible for regulation
Asia, with the lowest internet, mobile, and of the fuel market. The state owned Myanma
telephone usage rates. Mobile sim-cards can be Oil and Gas Enterprise (MOGE) is responsible
bought easily, but it is difficult to get a landline. for quality and control of fuel and production of
The government enterprise Myanmar Post and refined petroleum products. Myanmar Petroleum
Telecommunication (MPT) has difficulties Products Enterprise (MPPE), a state-owned
extending the infrastructure for the landline company, is responsible for retail and wholesale
network. As a result, mobile sim cards cost distribution of petroleum products.235
approximately 1500 MMK while a new landline The country also has deposits of other
connection costs over 500,000 MMK. 229 The hydrocarbons, including 2.0 million tons of
mobile market has experienced rapid growth in coal and 206.9 million barrels of oil. It has rich
recent years due to foreign competition being mineral deposits, jade, copper, nickel, gold,
allowed to compete with the market in 2014.230 silver, lead, zinc, tin, and chromites. Myanmar
The government controls all domestic

INFRASTRUCTURE
has the potential for geothermal energy as well training and funding for infection prevention.240
as hydroelectric power with the four main rivers The Myanmar National WASH Strategy
that run through the country; however, only for 2016-2030 was established with support
10% is utilized.236 In addition, the government of UNICEF to outline key WASH actions in
has taken steps to improve transparency in the rural areas, schools, health-care facilities and in
mining and oil sectors through publication emergencies to raise the quality and quantity of
of reports under the Extractive Industries country wide WASH facilities. In 2018, through
Transparency Initiative (EITI) in 2016 and the construction of community managed
2018.237 household water connections, 110,000 people
gained access to basic water supply facilities.
Water and Sanitation Additionally, in 2018, schools saw improvement
Although there have been improvements, and provided basic WASH facilities to children.
Myanmar continues to struggle with providing Additionally, over 200 villages became open
basic water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) defecation-free providing 151,018 people with
services, especially to schools, and poverty, clean living environments.241
conflict, and natural disaster effected areas.238 UNICEF also supports the Government of
5 million children in Myanmar do not have Myanmar with initiatives to develop the capacity
sufficient water supplies at home and 25% live in of schools and parent-teacher associations with
homes without improved toilet facilities.239 Lack ensuring appropriate facilities and good hygiene
of access to adequate water and sanitation can via the Thant Shin Star (Mr. Clean) method of
lower children’s educational achievement and teaching healthy hygiene habits and integrating
reduce attendance rates. Health care facilities are them into daily school routines.242 Photo 5 shows
also struggling to provide adequate standards children being taught to properly wash their
and lack access to water for washing, drinking, hands by UNICEF Staff.243
adequate mosquito control, sufficient cleaning,
Photo 5: UNICEF Teaching Children WASH Practices

MYANMAR
Health

HEALTH
Health
The Government of Myanmar launched
Myanmar’s five-year NHP 2017-2021, providing
a strategic vision for health in Myanmar.
Universal health coverage by 2030 is key
Health Overview direction and aspiration for Myanmar. The NHP
will be operationalized through five annual
Despite limited resources, Myanmar operational plans. An Essential Package of Health
is consistently striving to attain its health Services (EPHS) is being developed with the
objectives and maintain its trends in key health $200 million World Bank loan for UHC and
indicators. Myanmar is facing a double burden implementation of the EPHS is linked to the
of communicable and non-communicable 5-year NHP cycle.249
diseases (NCDs). In regards to communicable
diseases, the leading causes of death and illness
are Tuberculosis (TB), HIV-AIDS, and malaria.
Health Challenges
Chronic NCDs include cardiovascular disease, The health status of the population is poor.
diabetes mellitus, cancer and chronic respiratory Life expectancy at birth in Myanmar is 64.7
disorders. Furthermore, emerging or re- years, which is the lowest among Association of
emerging infectious disease outbreaks do occur, Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) countries. The
as in the H1N1 outbreak in 2017. Poverty is also a maternal mortality ratio (MMR) is the second
principal constraint in Myanmar affecting overall highest among ASEAN countries at 200 deaths
health status.244 In addition, substantial health per 100,000 live births. The under-five mortality
disparities exist along geographic, ethnic and rate (U5MR) is 51 deaths per 1,000 live births,
socio-economic lines. 245 as compared with 12 in Thailand and 29 in
Cambodia. In addition, malnutrition is highly
Health Care System Structure prevalent with over a third of children under-five
stunted.250
The Ministry of Health is the major player in An estimated 649,000 people in Myanmar
the health sector as a governing agency as well continue to face obstacles in accessing health
as a provider of comprehensive health care. The care services. The main humanitarian needs
health system in Myanmar is decentralized, with include: (1) ensuring access to essential health
services being offered to patients at the ward/ care services, including a functional referral
village, township, district, state/regional and system; (2) improving reproductive, maternal,
national levels. Health services are provided adolescent and child health care (including
by the public, private and non-government family planning services and immunization); and
organization (NGO) sectors and ethnic health (3) maintaining an early warning and response
organizations (EHO). The Department of Health, system for communicable diseases of public
one of the seven departments of MOH, is the health concern.251
service provider and regulatory body of the Independent humanitarian agencies face
Ministry in protecting the health of the people.246 challenges because they remain largely blocked
In total, 16,292 medical doctors and 36,054 from accessing vulnerable communities in
nurses are working at 1,134 hospitals. 247 The northern Rakhine, raising major concerns about
current mix of the health workforce is skewed. unmet medical and humanitarian needs. In
The National Health Plan (NHP), 2017-2021 mid-2017, only 33% of the target population
notes that Myanmar had 1.33 health workers in Kachin and 93 per cent in Shan had access
per 1,000 population, compared with WHO’s to basic health care, mainly due to logistical
recommended threshold of 4.45 per 1,000 and security constraints, inadequate facilities,
population required for Universal Health medical supplies and skilled staff.252
Coverage. This includes midwives (61.78%), In regard to nutrition, more than 165,000
Public Health Supervisors 1 (1.74%), Public children and women require life-saving nutrition
Health Supervisors 2 (21.53%), Lady Health services. The main humanitarian needs include:
Visitors (9.71%), and Health Assistants (5.24%). (1) improved access to Integrated Management of
There are a total of 39,272 voluntary health Acute Malnutrition; (2) micronutrient support;
workers functioning across the country. Among and (3) protection, promotion and support
them, community health workers contributed of appropriate infant and young child feeding
to 62.55% and the remaining were auxiliary (IYCF) practices. 253
midwives.248 Since 2006, Myanmar has been listed as one
of the 57 crisis countries facing critical health

workforce shortages. Although the number of Prosperous Future for the People of Rakhine.
health professionals increased in recent years, The draft is being considered and debated among
the minimum standard level has not yet been different constituencies, including and beyond
met. In 13 out of 15 States and Region, Myanmar UN Myanmar country team. An example of
is below the WHO’s recommended minimum collaboration with multi-partners in improving
number of 1 per 1,000 population for medical health security was accomplishment of the Joint
doctor. The distribution of medical doctors per External Evaluation of the International Health
1,000 population in the public sector showed a Regulation (IHR) in 2017. 259
gradually decreasing trend since 2006. Urban
and rural medical doctor ratios observed wide
disparities. 254 Communicable Diseases
Myanmar is short of human resources for
health, due to poor supply and demand for Myanmar faces the threat of communicable
health professionals. Unequal distribution diseases including Tuberculosis (TB), HIV/AIDS,
of health professionals and increasing need Malaria, Hepatitis, Trachoma, and others.
for health professionals due to population
growth and increasing life expectancy remain Tuberculosis (TB)
challenging. Working in the public health sector Figure 15 shows the total TB incidence.260
is unattractive to health professionals due to long While the incidence is lower now than it was in
working hours, a heavy workload, unfavorable 2000, the TB prevalence rate is three times higher
working environments, and lower pay. 255 than the global average and one of the highest in
A critical challenge to the healthcare system Asia, and the incidence rate (373 per 100,000) is
is the lack of a central HRH database and lack the second highest respectively among ASEAN
of private sector information which makes countries.261 The probability of developing TB
it difficult to track current trends and health disease is much higher among people living with
workforce needs. Myanmar is in the process of HIV. It is also higher among people affected by
developing a Consolidated Human Resources risk factors such as undernutrition, diabetes,
for Health Information and Planning System smoking and alcohol consumption.262
(CHiPS) although this is not yet complete.256
POPULATION 2018 54 MILLION
Health Cooperation
Rate per 100 000 population per year
800
In Myanmar, health services are provided by 600

public, private and NGO sectors as well as ethnic
Incidence
health organizations in support of national health

priorities.257 One of the most significant external 400
partners is the UN World Health Organization

(WHO). The WHO works collaboratively with 200
the Government of Myanmar to help the country

pursue its national strategic priorities. WHO’s 0
General Programme of Work, regional flagships 2000 2009 2018
and priorities are important for the CCS. Social New and relapse TB cases notified Total TB incidence
developments emerging from the national HIV-positive TB incidence
reform process, and key health challenges and Figure 15: Myanmar TB Incidence Rates from 2000-2018
emergencies confronting the country, were
carefully synthesized to update major focus HIV/AIDS
areas. Close consideration was given to the The HIV-AIDS epidemic is considered to have
contributions by other external partners in stabilized nationally since 2000, with ‘hot spots’
identifying challenges and gaps in health sector of transmission in several locations. Estimated
cooperation, as well as to lessons learnt from a annual new HIV infections are significantly
review of WHO’s cooperation over the last CCS less than in 2000. Despite the stabilization, HIV
cycle. 258 prevalence (361 per 100,000) in Myanmar, is the
Joint UN efforts have been initiated third highest among ASEAN countries.263
in Myanmar. A strategic framework for
international engagement in Rakhine state Malaria
is currently underway with the purpose of Myanmar has made progress in reducing
a common vision for a Peaceful, Fair, and malaria morbidity and mortality and achieved

HEALTH
MDG targets ahead of its target year. In addition, Service Board (UCSB). HRH recruitment and
Malaria morbidity and mortality has declined deployment are guided by government protocols.
by 77% and 95% respectively by 2016 compared Doctors who have completed their internship
to 2012, and Myanmar is aiming for malaria apply individually for a license to practice. For
elimination by 2030 as per the National Strategic posting into the public service, they are required
Plan.264 to sit an examination set by the UCSB and apply
for a posting. Final recruitment is recommended
Hepatitis by the Cabinet. The public-sector recruitment
Recent surveys indicate high levels of viral processes for nurses, midwives and BHS are
hepatitis in Myanmar, including viral hepatitis managed by the Department of Medical Service
B (6.5%), and viral hepatitis C (2.7%) in general (DMS) and the Department of Public Health
population (2015). Viral hepatitis C infection (DPH) and in accordance with relevant approval
among people injecting drugs varied from 74% processes. 269
to 84% (2014). Co-infection of HIV & HBV is Health workforce density in Myanmar has
2.2%, HIV & HCV is 20.1% and HIV, HBV and increased in the past twelve years from 1.58 to
HCV is 20.7% respectively (Bio-behavioural 2.45 per 1,000 population (Table 4).270
survey, 2014). 265 Measures have been taken in the past to retain
health workers in rural areas. These include
Trachoma developing health professions’ training schools
Trachoma is a public health problem in 37 outside of major cities; nursing and midwifery
countries including Myanmar. Trachoma is schools at the States/Regions levels; recruiting
responsible for blindness or visual impairment local people to serve in their home towns
in 1.9 million people globally. Trachoma is a and villages; improving access to continuing
bacterial disease of the eye and is transmitted professional education (CPE) such as opening
from an infected person to another person career pathways for BHS with years of service
through contact with eye or nose.266 and completed trainings; and providing in-
service training for skill development and the
provision of double salary for BHS working
Non-Communicable Diseases in hard-to-reach areas. In-service training
is currently project oriented and is the joint
NCDs are estimated to account for 74% of responsibility of the DPH and the DMS; however,
all deaths in Myanmar. Cardiovascular diseases continuing medical education usually involves
account for 35% of all mortality rates, followed separate areas of health and is largely funded by
by 16% for cancers, 4% for chronic respiratory donor agencies.271
diseases, 3% for diabetes, 9% for injuries, and
16% for other NCDs.267 Despite
little available data, rates Health Occupational 2006-2007 2015-2016
of NCDs are believed to be Categories/Cadres
increasing rapidly.268 Total HW/1000 Total HW/1000

population population
(Pop. 46,605,278) (Pop. 51,486,253)
Training for Health
Professionals Medical practitioners
Health assistants
20,501
1,778
0.44
0.04
32,861
3,506
0.35 (0.63)*
0.06
The Myanmar Human Graduate/registered nurses 21,075 0.45 32,609 0.69 (0.63)*
Resources for Health (HRH) Midwives 17,703 0.38 22,258 0.43
Strategy 2018-21 is the reference
Dentists 1,732 0.04 9,603 0.18
document for health workforce
development in Myanmar for Lady health visitors 3,137 0.07 1897 0.03
the current National Health Public health supervisors I & II 1,923 0.04 16705 0.32
Plan (NHP) period 2017-
2021. The MoHS is responsible Traditional medicine
practitioners
5,841 0.13 7,200 0.13
for recruiting doctors and is Total 73,855 1.58 126,639 2.45

required to justify the need (73,690)*
for doctors to the Ministry * Note: Calculation error in reported figures
of Planning and Finance Source: HRDI 2017, CSO 2016
(MoPF) and the Union Civil Table 4: Health Workers in Myanmar 2006-2007 and 2015-2016

MYANMAR
Women, Peace and Security

WOMEN, PEACE, AND SECURITY
Women, Peace and Security

Myanmar faces difficulties establishing a peace health, economic activity, and empowerment
process for an enduring 70 year civil war. The measured by the share of parliamentary seats
democratic administration elected in 2015 still held by women. Female participation in the labor
governs partially as a remnant from the era of market is 47.7% compared to 77.3% for men.
military rule and ethnic conflicts in the country Only 10.2% of parliamentary seats are held by
continue to take a toll.272 women,278 and only 109 out of 16,829 village tract
International frameworks, such as the UN administrators are female. 279
Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Sexual violence against women and girls is
Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) and a public health emergency in Myanmar. This
United Nations Security Council Resolution is compounded by social taboos preventing
(UNSCR 1325) have provided a platform for survivors from seeking help. Marital rape is
collaboration on issues such as safeguarding legal, and sexual assault, particularly by domestic
women against conflict-related sexual violence. partners, largely goes unpunished.280 In addition,
The women, peace, and security (WPS) agenda, the country’s security forces have been repeatedly
established in 2000, seeks to elevate the role accused of human rights violations and abuses
of women in conflict management, conflict on various ethnic minorities including women,281
resolution, and sustainable peace. National particularly Rohingya refugee women.282
Action Plans (NAPs) are one way to promote the Human trafficking is rampant in the conflict-
agenda.273 affected state, especially in the northern region
Myanmar is currently drafting a NAP but does near China. Myanmar signed a 2004 anti-
not have one at this time. In 2016, the Myanmar trafficking agreement and passed a 2005 law,
National Human Rights Commission (MNHRC) but existing laws are not fully implemented. To
together with the ASEAN-CSR network and the combat this, ASEAN has many anti-trafficking
Union of Myanmar Federation of Chambers initiatives. According to the Htoi Gender and
of Commerce (UMFCCI) held a consultation Development Foundation in 8 out of 10 cases,
workshop focused on NAP development.274 The women are trafficked as brides and another 20%
country does have the National Strategic Plan are trafficked to birth babies.283
for the Advancement of Women (NSPAW). As funding and projects continue in
However, women’s use of the NSPAW in the Myanmar, certain regions remain inaccessible
context of peace and security has been limited. 275 or severely restricted to international
Women’s participation is critical to achieving organizations, including humanitarian aid.
sustainable peace, and yet women remain Recurrent national disasters also increase the
underrepresented in peacemaking.276 In vulnerability of residents in disaster-prone areas
December 2019, in Yangon, Myanmar with the further hindering women’s participation and
support of the Joint Peace Fund, the Alliance advancement.
for Gender Inclusion in the peace process UNDP has supported women’s access to
(AGIPP) held a forum on ‘Women’s Voices in justice. In 2018, 227 women were trained on
Peace and Security’. Dr. Min Thein, Director rule of law, human rights, gender and fair
from the Department of Disaster Management trial standards. In addition, UNDP helped the
representing Ministry of Social Welfare, Relief government and local communities empower
and Resettlement joined the forum and stated women to play a more equal role in Myanmar
how important peace was for the country to society and operate in a conflict sensitive way.
develop successfully.277 In Rakhine the Township Democratic Local
Myanmar has a Gender Inequality Index Governance (TDLG) provides grants to address
(GII) value of 0.458, ranking it 106 out of 162 the development challenges and the inequalities
countries in the 2018 index. The GII reflects women face.284
gender-based inequalities in reproductive

MYANMAR
Conclusion

CONCLUSION
Conclusion
Myanmar is a lower middle-income least Cross Movement. It oversees the development of
developed country which continues to navigate sector and cluster response plans and provides
multiple transitions from conflict to peace, from oversite and advice to cluster/sector leads and
military/autocratic rule to a democratic civilian humanitarian-focused geographic and subsidiary
Government, and from a largely closed economy groups. It also leads decision making on inter-
to an open market economy. These transitions agency coordination in regard to assessments,
are occurring in a complex development context joint monitoring and evaluation missions.288
where high concentrations of poverty in rural Myanmar ranks 145 of 187 countries in the
areas contrast with accelerated development in Human Development Index. While economic
urban centres; armed conflict is still occurring growth remains strong, limited job creation
in some parts of the country; and frequent potential poses long-term environmental risk
natural disasters pose an increasing risk. and regional disparities and inequality persist.
Myanmar’s development context underscores Approximately one quarter of the country’s
the interrelationship between peace, governance, population is considered poor, with the
environment and sustainable development. highest concentrations in rural areas, linked to
Achieving lasting peace and the emergence of a growing rural-urban migration. The country’s
union based on the principles of democracy and prevalence of natural disasters are leading
federalism will require an ongoing process of causes of people falling back into poverty and
political dialogue, leading to future constitutional why women lag behind men in labor force
reform. This will require a long-term trust- participation and financial inclusion. Though
building effort to resolve fundamental differences still underrepresented, women have made
between the parties on centre-periphery substantial gains in the Civil Society Forum and
relationships, especially regarding national in social sector discussions of the Panglong Peace
identity, citizenship and control over natural Conference. Additionally, some women play key
resources. The UNDP country programme will advising roles to the ethnic armed organizations
support the implementation of the 2030 Agenda that are negotiating peace and are engaged in
and Sustainable Development Goals within the formal peace process enabling them to stay
this framework of addressing the challenges of abreast of peace dynamics and to effectively
multiple transitions. participate in decision making.289
The National Disaster Management The health status of the population is poor.
Committee (NDMC) is the leading body for Life expectancy at birth in Myanmar is 64.7
Disaster Risk Management in Myanmar285 and years, which is the lowest among Association of
the Myanmar Action Plan on Disaster Risk Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) countries. The
Reduction 2017 (MAPDRR) is a comprehensive maternal mortality ratio (MMR) is the second
action plan for risk reduction and management highest among ASEAN countries at 200 deaths
with prioritized interventions with overall per 100,000 live births and malnutrition is highly
targets through the year 2030. Myanmar has prevalent with over a third of children under five
many collaborative relationships with a host of stunted. The under-five mortality rate (U5MR) is
humanitarian organizations.286 The leading and 51 deaths per 1,000 live births, as compared with
oldest humanitarian organization in Myanmar 12 in Thailand and 29 in Cambodia.290
is the Myanmar Red Crescent Society who is The country is working to achieve national
committed to improving the health and well- sustainable development goals in line with
being of vulnerable people. 287 the UNDP Strategic Plan, 2018-2021 in order
Additionally, Myanmar’s Humanitarian to increase peace and justice, strengthen
Country Team (HCT) is a strategic humanitarian institutions, address climate change and build
coordination and decision-making body disaster resilience, reduce poverty and inequality,
seeking to optimize the collective efforts of empower people, and increase women’s
the United Nations, other international and employment and inclusion.291
national organizations, NGOs and the Red

MYANMAR
Appendices

APPENDICES
Appendices
August 2018. The seminar discussed key
topics, including land forces response to HA/
DR (Humanitarian Assistance/Disaster Relief),
multilateral cooperation and enhancing roles
DOD DMHA Engagements in the Past in the Indo-Pacific regional HADR search
and rescue. Countries participating in this
Five Years (FY 2014-2018) year’s events included: Myanmar, Australia,
Bangladesh, Cambodia, Canada, Chile, China,
Pacific Partnership, March 2019 Fiji, France, India, Indonesia, Japan, Laos,
Pacific Partnership 2019 (PP19) kicked off Malaysia, Mongolia, New Zealand, Papua
in Majuro, Republic of the Marshall Islands in New Guinea, Philippines, Republic of Korea,
11 March 2019. Pacific Partnership began as a Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Tonga, United
response to the December 2004 tsunami which Kingdom, U.S. and Vietnam.296
devastated part of South and Southeast Asia. The
event has evolved over the years from focusing Pacific Partnership, March 2017
on direct care to an opportunity to enhance Pacific Partnership is a multinational HA/DR
partnerships through host nation subject matter preparedness operation that promotes greater
experts and civil-military exchanges.292 Myanmar cooperation between nations across the Indo-
participated in the event as an observer.293 Asia-Pacific. The U.S. Navy expeditionary fast
transport ship USNS Fall River visited Yangon,
ASEAN-U.S. Maritime Exercise (AUMX), Myanmar from 21-25 March, 2017 to enhance
September 2019 friendship and cultural exchange between
Myanmar participated in the ASEAN-U.S. Myanmar and U.S. service members. The ship
Maritime Exercise (AUMX) in September transited between mission stops in Sri Lanka and
2019. AUMX promotes shared commitments Malaysia for the annual mission.297
to maritime partnerships, security and stability
in Southeast Asia. Other participating nations Lower Mekong Initiative, December 2016
included Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, The Lower Mekong Initiative (LMI) and
Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, U.S. Disaster Response Exercise and Exchange
and Vietnam.294 (DREE), is a U.S. Army Pacific sponsored
workshop and conference intended to create
Flood Modeling Endeavor, December 2018 integrated regional cooperation between
The U.S. Army Corp of Engineers (USACE) Myanmar, Cambodia, Lao, Thailand, Viet Nam
Pacific Ocean Division (POD) conducted a and the U.S. to address and improve systems
technical exchange in Yangon, Myanmar from dealing with connectivity, education, energy
10-14 December, 2018 with a focus on flood security, environment and water, food security
modeling. The 3rd Myanmar-U.S. Technical and agriculture and health. HADR experts from
Exchange in Flood Modeling was designed to across the Indo-Asia-Pacific gathered in Nyi Pyi
enhance Government of Myanmar resiliency Taw, Myanmar, on 6 December 2016, for a four-
by improving the nation’s ability to plan against day workshop and conference to discuss ways
flood related disasters. USACE POD works to improve relief efforts and save human lives
to help developing Indo-Pacific countries during flood disasters.298
build capacity and resiliency to disasters.
USACE partnered with the Myanmar Ministry Pacific Resilience Disaster Response Exercise
of Agriculture, Livestock, and Irrigation and Exchange (PR DREE), October 2016
(MOALI), and Irrigation and Water Utilization The Pacific Resilience Disaster Response
Management Department (IWUMD) to provide Exercise and Exchange (PR DREE) brought
flood modeling training to approximately 50 together more than 250 participants from
engineers and water resource experts from four Myanmar, China, Maldives, Nepal, Sri Lanka,
Myanmar ministries and academia.295 the United Kingdom, the United Nations and the
U.S., as well as dozens of governmental and non-
Pacific Armies Management Seminar (PAMS), governmental and international organizations.
August 2018 The exercise included a phased tabletop exercise
The 42nd Pacific Armies Management (TTX) and a field training exercise (FTX).
Seminar (PAMS) took place from 20-23, The TTX familiarized participants with the

earthquake scenario and their various roles reform process had begun to bolster ties with
and responsibilities and coordination between the West. However, at present, the heavy-handed
international and domestic organizations and military against ethnic minorities has led to
agencies.299 significant criticism from the UN and Western
governments.305
Civil-Military Workshop, September 2016
From 15-19 August, 2016, The Daniel K. Relations with the U.S.
Inouye Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies There are growing tensions in the bilateral
(DKI APCSS) in Honolulu, Hawaii conducted a relationship between Myanmar and the U.S.
workshop titled “Building an Inclusive Security stemming from the ongoing Myanmar military
Sector in Myanmar” in partnership with the crackdown against the Rohingya Muslim
nation’s National Defence College (NDC). minority. In October 2017, the U.S. Government
Participants discussed measures Myanmar announced that it would be ending any assistance
officials can take to build greater collaboration to military forces involved in violence against
between military and civilian entities and across the Rohingya community. The U.S. rescinded
differing agencies.300 invitations for Myanmar security forces to attend
U.S.-sponsored events as well as announcing
Lower Mekong Initiative Disaster Relief Exercise an end to travel waivers for current and former
and Exchange (LMI DREE), September 2015 Myanmar military leaders. In July 2019, the U.S.
Participants, including Myanmar took part imposed new sanctions on Myanmar’s military,
in a group exercise during the Lower Mekong barring Army Chief Min Aung Hlaing and
Initiative Disaster Relief Exercise and Exchange three other military leaders and their families
opening ceremony in Vientiane, Laos PDR, on from entering the U.S. Relations between these
22, September 2015. The LMI DREE is part of the two countries transformed substantially under
U.S. Army Pacific “Pacific Resilience” initiative. It President Barack Obama’s policy of engagement,
is an annual civil-military disaster preparedness amid recognition that the sanctions regime
and response initiative between the governments employed by previous administrations had failed
of Myanmar, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand, to effect change. However, Washington is now
Vietnam, and the U.S.301 eager to maximize its business opportunities in
the region, and compete regionally with China.306
ASEAN Regional Coordination, 2014
The U.S. government supported Myanmar’s Relations with China
chairmanship of ASEAN in 2014 through China’s interests in Myanmar’s energy sector
dialogue with ASEAN-focused senior officials. remain a key link between the two countries.
Training on the principles, mechanisms, and Other sectors that have attracted substantial
protocols in ASEAN was also provided.302 Chinese investment include power generation,
infrastructure, jade mining, and real estate
Bilateral Meeting, November 2014 development. China was Myanmar’s main
Former U.S. President Obama and Daw Aung patron during its years of international isolation.
San Suu Kyi of Myanmar met on November 14, It is expected that China will continue to be
2014 in Yangon.303 They had a wide-ranging the Myanmar’s main international ally, despite
discussion about how the U.S. could help Myanmar’s ongoing efforts to re-engage with the
facilitate and bolster Myanmar’s democratic West. 307
transition. They also discussed the importance
free, fair and inclusive elections, continued Relations with India
constitutional changes moving Myanmar to a India’s interest with Myanmar is to balance
more fully civilian government, and the need China’s influence in the region and obtain
to find durable and effective solutions for the Naypyidaw’s support in countering insurgent
violence in Rakhine state.304 groups in its northeast border between them.
They also work together to tackle cross-border
drug smuggling. In addition, the two countries
International/Foreign Relations have signed a number of agreements on trade,
infrastructure projects, the construction
The National League for Democracy (NLD) of natural-gas pipelines and hydrocarbon
government has sought to improve relations exploration. However, the Rohingya refugee
with its immediate neighbors, and its gradual

APPENDICES
crisis is irritating to India and they have incidents involving attacks by taxi drivers and
threatened to prevent border crossings and turn muggings. Citizens are advised to take particular
away refugees. 308 care when taking taxis late at night.
Travel conditions deteriorate significantly
Relations with Russia and cyclones may occur in. In addition, intense
In recent years, Russia has been becoming a rainfall may occur during the rainy season
closer ally within the UN Security Council by (approximately June to October annually).
blocking punishing resolutions. Russia has also Travelers are encouraged to prepare for cyclone
increased material sales to Myanmar. Russia emergencies and monitor local news stations
and Myanmar established a working group for when cyclones are forecast. The Myanmar
nuclear technology co-operation in October Department of Meteorology and Hydrology has
2016 which covers research, nuclear medicine, a color- coded system for storm systems: red for
radioimmunotherapy, radiation risk assessment, storms approaching landfall in Myanmar, orange
and training. 309 for storms moving towards the country, yellow
for developing storms, and brown for current
storms. 311
Force Protection/Pre-Deployment
Information Emergency Contact Information
Victims of a crime should contact the local
The following information is provided for police at 199 or in person at the police station
pre-deployment planning and preparations. in the district where the crime took place, and
Visit www.travel.state.gov prior to deployments contact the U.S. Embassy at +(95) (1) 536-
for further up-to-date information. Embassy 509, ext. 4240, or the emergency After-Hours
requirements to enter Myanmar are listed in the Telephone: +(95) 1 500-547. Local authorities
Foreign Clearance Guide at www.fcg.pentagon. are responsible for investigating and prosecuting
mil crimes. You may also enroll in Smart Traveler
Enrollment Program (STEP) to receive security
Passport/Visa updates. 312
Travelers to Myanmar will need a valid U.S. citizen victims of assault, after contacting
passport for at least six months from the time of local police, should also contact the U.S.
entry. If visiting from an area affected by cholera Embassy: 313
or yellow fever, then vaccines are required for
those diseases.310 U.S. Embassy Rangoon
110 University Ave
Kamayut Township,
Safety and Security Rangoon, Burma
Fighting between the Burmese military and Telephone: (95) 1-536-509
various ethnic armed groups and militia forces Emergency After-Hours Telephone: (95) 1-536-
continues in several border regions including 509
parts of Kachin, Kayah, Kayin, Shan, Rakhine, Fax: (951)-511-069
and Chin states. Travelers should be careful ACSRangoon@state.gov
when traveling to these areas. The destinations https://mm.usembassy.gov
frequented by most U.S. citizen visitors, including State Department – Consular Affairs
Yangon, Bagan, Kalaw-Inle Lake region, Ngapali 888-407-4747 or 202-501-4444
Beach, Naypyitaw, and Mandalay are not affected
by this fighting.
Be aware of land mines and unexploded Currency Information
ordinance. Conflict-affected areas are of greatest The Myanmar Kyat (MMK) is the official
concern, particularly areas of Shan, Chin, and currency unit of Myanmar.314
Kachin States. Crime rates in Burma, especially
involving foreigners, are lower than those of Travel Health Information
many other countries in the region. Nevertheless, The CDC provides the following
the crime rate has been increasing, particularly recommendations for travel to Myanmar. The
home burglaries and petty crime. Violent crime information in Table 5 is taken directly from the
against foreigners is rare, but there have been CDC website.315

Measles (for all travelers) Make sure you are up-to-date on routine vaccines before every trip.
These vaccines include measles-mumps-rubella (MMR), diphtheria-
tetanus-pertussis, varicella (chickenpox), polio, and your yearly flu shot.
When traveling to Myanmar, travelers should ensure update to date
measles-mumps-rubella (MMR) vaccine before travel as follows:
• Infants (6 through 11 months old): 1 dose of measles-mumps-rubella
(MMR) vaccine before travel. This dose does not count as the first
dose in the routine childhood vaccination series.
Measles (all travelers) • People 12 months old or older, with no evidence of immunity or no
written documentation of any doses: 2 doses of MMR vaccine before
travel. The 2 doses must be given 28 days apart.
• People 12 months old or older who have written documentation of
1 dose and no other evidence of immunity: 1 additional dose before
travel, at least 28 days after the previous dose
Routine vaccines (for all Make sure you are up-to-date on routine vaccines before every trip.
travelers) These vaccines include the MMR vaccine, diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis
vaccine, varicella (chickenpox) vaccine, polio vaccine, and your yearly
flu shot.
Health recommendation: You may need a polio vaccine before your trip
to Myanmar.
• If you were vaccinated against polio as a child but have never had
a polio booster dose as an adult, you should get this booster dose.
Adults need only one polio booster dose in their lives (unless you are
fulfilling the country requirement listed below).
• If you were not completely vaccinated as a child or do not know
your vaccination status, talk to your doctor about getting vaccinated.
Polio (for all travelers) Country exit requirement: If you will be in Myanmar for more than
4 weeks, the government of Myanmar may require you to show proof
of polio vaccination when you are exiting the country. To meet this
requirement, you should receive a polio vaccine between 4 weeks and 12
months before the date you are leaving Myanmar. Talk to your doctor
about whether this requirement applies to you.
Once vaccinated, your doctor should provide you with an International

Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis (ICVP) yellow card. This will
serve as your official documentation of vaccination against polio.
Hepatitis A (for most The CDC recommends this vaccine because you can get hepatitis A
travelers) through contaminated food or water in Myanmar, regardless of where
you are eating or staying.
Typhoid (for most You can get typhoid through contaminated food or water in Myanmar.
travelers) The CDC recommends this vaccine for most travelers, especially if you
are staying with friends or relatives, visiting smaller cities or rural areas,
or if you are an adventurous eater.
Hepatitis B (for some You can get hepatitis B through sexual contact, contaminated needles,
travelers) and blood products, so the CDC recommends this vaccine if you
might have sex with a new partner, get a tattoo or piercing, or have any
medical procedures.
Table 5: CDC Travel Health Information for Myanmar

APPENDICES
Japanese Encephalitis You may need this vaccine if your trip will last more than a month,
(for some travelers) depending on where you are going in Myanmar and what time of year
you are traveling. You should also consider this vaccine if you plan to
visit rural areas in Myanmar or will be spending a lot of time outdoors,
even for trips shorter than a month. Your doctor can help you decide if
this vaccine is right for you based on your travel plans. See more in-
depth information on Japanese encephalitis in Myanmar.
Malaria (for some Talk to your doctor about how to prevent malaria while traveling. You
travelers) may need to take prescription medicine before, during, and after your
trip to prevent malaria, especially if you are visiting low-altitude areas.
Areas of Myanmar with risk of malaria: Present at altitudes <1,000 m
(3,281 ft), including Bagan. Rare transmission above 1,000 m (3,281 ft).
Rabies (for some Rabies can be found in dogs, bats, and other mammals in Myanmar, so
travelers) the CDC recommends this vaccine for the following groups:
• Travelers involved in outdoor and other activities (such as camping,
hiking, biking, adventure travel, and caving) that put them at risk for
animal bites.
• People who will be working with or around animals (such as
veterinarians, wildlife professionals, and researchers).
• People who are taking long trips or moving to Myanmar.
• Children, because they tend to play with animals, might not report
bites, and are more likely to have animal bites on their head and
neck.
Yellow Fever (for some Required if traveling from a country with risk of YF virus transmission
travelers) and ≥1 year of age, including transit >12 hours in an airport located in a
country with risk of YF virus transmission.
Note: Yellow fever vaccine availability in the U.S. is currently limited. If

you need to be vaccinated before your trip, you may need to travel some
distance and schedule your appointment well in advance. Find the clinic
nearest you.
Table 5: CDC Travel Health Information for Myanmar (cont.)
Most medical facilities in Myanmar are Eat

inadequate for routine medical care. If you are • Food that is cooked and served hot
seeking medical care you will be asked to pay • Hard-cooked eggs
cash for all health care services and medicines • Fruits and vegetables you have washed in
before receiving care; credit cards are not clean water or peeled yourself
accepted in most health care facilities and • Pasteurized dairy products
insurance will not be billed. Adequate emergency
medical services including ambulance care is Don’t Eat
not reliably available. Patients who are admitted • Food served at room temperature
to public hospitals typically need a family • Food from street vendors
member or friend to assist them with care in the • Raw or soft-cooked (runny) eggs
hospital, and food and medical supplies must be • Raw or undercooked (rare) meat or fish
purchased for use in the hospital. 316 • Unwashed or unpeeled raw fruits and
The following actions you can take to stay vegetables
healthy and safe on your trip include: 317 • Unpasteurized dairy products
• “Bushmeat” (monkeys, bats, or other wild
Eat and Drink Safely game)
Unclean food and water can cause travelers’
diarrhea and other diseases. Reduce your risk by
sticking to safe food and water habits.

Drink If you are bitten by bugs:
• Bottled water that is sealed • Avoid scratching bug bites, and apply
• Water that has been disinfected hydrocortisone cream or calamine lotion to
• Ice made with bottled or disinfected water reduce the itching.
• Carbonated drinks • Check your entire body for ticks after
• Hot coffee or tea outdoor activity. Be sure to remove ticks
• Pasteurized milk properly.
Don’t Drink Safety and Security

• Tap or well water Note that conditions can change rapidly in a
• Ice made with tap or well water country at any time. To receive updated Travel
• Drinks made with tap or well water (such as Advisories and Alerts for the countries you
reconstituted juice) choose, sign up at step.state.gov. 318
• Unpasteurized milk
Take Medicine
Talk with your doctor about taking
prescription or over-the-counter drugs with you
on your trip in case you get sick.
Prevent Bug Bites

Bugs (like mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas) can
spread a number of diseases in Myanmar. Many
of these diseases cannot be prevented with a
vaccine or medicine. You can reduce your risk by
taking steps to prevent bug bites.
To prevent bug bites:

• Cover exposed skin by wearing long-sleeved
shirts, long pants, and hats.
• Use an appropriate insect repellent (see
below).
• Use permethrin-treated clothing and gear
(such as boots, pants, socks, and tents). Do
not use permethrin directly on skin.
• Stay and sleep in air-conditioned or screened
rooms.
• Use a bed net if the area where you are
sleeping is exposed to the outdoors.
For protection against ticks and mosquitoes:

Use a repellent that contains 20% or more
DEET for protection that lasts up to several
hours.
For protection against mosquitoes only:

Products with one of the following active
ingredients can also help prevent mosquito bites.
Higher percentages of active ingredient provide
longer protection.
• DEET
• Picaridin (also known as KBR 3023, Bayrepel,
and Icaridin)
• Oil of lemon eucalyptus (OLE) or PMD
• IR3535

APPENDICES
Sendai Framework
The Sendai Framework is the global blueprint and fifteen-year plan to build the world’s resilience
to natural disasters.319 The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 outlines seven
clear targets and four priorities for action to prevent new and reduce existing disaster risks:
The Seven Global Targets include:

• Substantially reduce global disaster mortality by 2030, aiming to lower average per 100,000 global
mortality rates in the decade 2020-2030 compared to the period 2005-2015.
• Substantially reduce the number of affected people globally by 2030, aiming to lower average
global figure per 100,000 in the decade 2020 -2030 compared to the period 2005-2015.
• Reduce direct disaster economic loss in relation to global gross domestic product (GDP) by 2030.
• Substantially reduce disaster damage to critical infrastructure and disruption of basic services,
among them health and educational facilities, including through developing their resilience by
2030.
• Substantially increase the number of countries with national and local disaster risk reduction
strategies by 2020.
• Substantially enhance international cooperation to developing countries through adequate and
sustainable support to complement their national actions for implementation of this Framework
by 2030.
• Substantially increase the availability of and access to multi-hazard early warning systems and
disaster risk information and assessments to the people by 2030.320
The Four Priorities of Action include:

• Understanding disaster risk;
• Strengthening disaster risk governance to manage disaster risk;
• Investing in disaster reduction for resilience; and
• Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response and to “Build Back Better” in recovery,
rehabilitation and reconstruction.
The Sendai Framework aims to achieve the substantial reduction of disaster risk and losses in lives,
livelihoods and health and in the economic, physical, social, cultural and environmental assets of
persons, businesses, communities and countries over the next 15 years. It was adopted at the Third
United Nations World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction in Sendai, Japan in 2015.321 The Sendai
Framework is the successor instrument to the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) 2005-2015:
Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters.322 Figure 16 shows the Sendai DRR
Framework.323

Chart of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction
2015-2030
Scope and purpose
The present framework will apply to the risk of small-scale and large-scale, frequent and infrequent, sudden and
slow-onset disasters, caused by natural or manmade hazards as well as related environmental, technological
and biological hazards and risks. It aims to guide the multi-hazard management of disaster risk in
development at all levels as well as within and across all sectors
Expected outcome
The substantial reduction of disaster risk and losses in lives, livelihoods and health and in the economic, physical,
social, cultural and environmental assets of persons, businesses, communities and countries
Goal
Prevent new and reduce existing disaster risk through the implementation of integrated and inclusive economic,
structural, legal, social, health, cultural, educational, environmental, technological, political and institutional
measures that prevent and reduce hazard exposure and vulnerability to disaster, increase preparedness for
response and recovery, and thus strengthen resilience
Targets
Substantially reduce global Substantially reduce the Reduce direct disaster Substantially reduce Substantially increase the Substantially enhance Substantially increase the
disaster mortality by 2030, number of affected people economic loss in relation disaster damage to critical number of countries with international cooperation availability of and access to
aiming to lower average per globally by 2030, aiming to to global gross domestic infrastructure and disruption national and local disaster to developing countries multi-hazard early warning
100,000 global mortality lower the average global product (GDP) by 2030 of basic services, among risk reduction strategies by through adequate and systems and disaster risk
between 2020-2030 figure per 100,000 between them health and educational 2020 sustainable support to information and assessments
compared to 2005-2015 2020-2030 compared to facilities, including through complement their national to people by 2030
2005-2015 developing their resilience by actions for implementation of
2030 this framework by 2030
Priorities for Action

There is a need for focused action within and across sectors by States at local, national, regional and global levels in the following four priority areas.
Priority 1 Priority 2 Priority 3 Priority 4
Myanmar Disaster Management Reference Handbook | March 2020

Understanding disaster risk Strengthening disaster risk governance Investing in disaster risk reduction Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective
to manage disaster risk for resilience response, and to «Build Back Better» in
recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction
73
Disaster risk management needs to be based Disaster risk governance at the national, regional Public and private investment in disaster risk Experience indicates that disaster preparedness
on an understanding of disaster risk in all its and global levels is vital to the management of prevention and reduction through structural needs to be strengthened for more effective
Figure 16: UN
dimensions of vulnerability, Framework
Sendaicapacity, Risk Reduction
disaster risk reduction
exposure of for Disaster 2015-2030
in all sectors and ensuring and non-structural measures are essential to response and ensure capacities are in place
persons and assets, hazard characteristics and the the coherence of national and local frameworks enhance the economic, social, health and cultural for effective recovery. Disasters have also
environment of laws, regulations and public policies that, resilience of persons, communities, countries demonstrated that the recovery, rehabilitation
by defining roles and responsibilities, guide, and their assets, as well as the environment. and reconstruction phase, which needs to be
encourage and incentivize the public and private These can be drivers of innovation, growth and prepared ahead of the disaster, is an opportunity
sectors to take action and address disaster risk job creation. Such measures are cost-effective to «Build Back Better» through integrating
and instrumental to save lives, prevent and disaster risk reduction measures. Women and
reduce losses and ensure effective recovery and persons with disabilities should publicly lead
rehabilitation and promote gender-equitable and universally
APPENDICES
Hyogo Framework for Action Country 4

Level of Progress* Achieved for HFA
Progress Report 3
Priorities
Indicator
1
The Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) was Indicator
2
adopted as a guideline to reduce vulnerabilities 2
to natural hazards. The HFA assists participating Indicator
3
countries to become more resilient and to 1
Indicator
better manage the hazards that threaten their 4
development. The levels of progress of the 0
2009-2011 results of the HFA for Myanmar are Priority Priority Priority Priority Priority
represented in Figure 17 and Table 6. Table 7 #1 #2 #3 #4 #5
provides an overview of the overall challenges
and the future outlook statement from the HFA Figure 17: HFA Level of Progress Achieved
report. The 2009-2011 is the most recent HFA
report available for Myanmar.324
Priority for Action #1: Ensure that disaster risk reduction is a national and a local priority with a strong
institutional basis for implementation.
Core Indicator Description Level of Progress
Indicator* Achieved
National policy and legal framework for disaster risk reduction exists with
1 3
decentralized responsibilities and capacities at all levels.
Dedicated and adequate resources are available to implement disaster risk
2 2
reduction plans and activities at all administrative levels.
Community Participation and decentralization is ensured through the
3 2
delegation of authority and resources to local levels.
A national multi sectoral platform for disaster risk reduction is
4 3
functioning.
Priority #2: Identify, assess and monitor disaster risks and enhance early warning
Indicator* Achieved
National and local risk assessments based on hazard data and vulnerability
1 2
information are available and include risk assessments for key sectors.
Systems are in place to monitor, archive and disseminate data on key
2 hazards and vulnerabilities. 2
Early warning systems are in place for all major hazards, with outreach to
3 2
communities.
National and local risk assessments take account of regional / trans-
4 1
boundary risks, with a view to regional cooperation on risk reduction.
Table 6: National Progress Report on the Implementation of the HFA

Priority #3: Use knowledge, innovation and education to build a culture of safety and resilience at all levels
Indicator* Achieved
Relevant information on disasters is available and accessible at all levels, to
1 all stakeholders (through networks, development of information sharing 2
systems, etc.).
School curricula, education material and relevant trainings include
2 disaster risk reduction and recovery concepts and practices. 3
Research methods and tools for multi-risk assessments and cost benefit
3 2
analysis are developed and strengthened.
Countrywide public awareness strategy exists to stimulate a culture of
4 2
disaster resilience, with outreach to urban and rural communities.
Priority #4: Reduce the underlying risk factors
Indicator* Achieved
Disaster risk reduction is an integral objective of environment related
1 policies and plans, including for land use natural resource management 2
and adaptation to climate change.
Social development policies and plans are being implemented to reduce
2 the vulnerability of populations most at risk. 2
Economic and productive sectorial policies and plans have been

3 1
implemented to reduce the vulnerability of economic activities.
Planning and management of human settlements incorporate disaster
4 2
risk reduction elements, including enforcement of building codes.
Disaster risk reduction measures are integrated into post disaster recovery
5 3
and rehabilitation processes.
Procedures are in place to assess the disaster risk impacts of major
6 2
development projects, especially infrastructure.
Priority #5: Strengthen disaster preparedness for effective response at all levels
Indicator* Achieved
Strong policy, technical and institutional capacities and mechanisms for
1 disaster risk management, with a disaster risk reduction perspective are in 2
place.
Disaster preparedness plans and contingency plans are in place at all
2 administrative levels, and regular training drills and rehearsals are held to 2
test and develop disaster response programs.
Financial reserves and contingency mechanisms are in place to support
3 2
effective response and recovery when required.
Procedures are in place to exchange relevant information during hazard
4 3
events and disasters, and to undertake post-event reviews.
Table Notes:
*Level of Progress:
1 – Minor progress with few signs of forward action in plans or policy
2 – Some progress, but without systematic policy and/ or institutional commitment
3 – Institutional commitment attained, but achievements are neither comprehensive nor substantial
4 – Substantial achievement attained but with recognized limitations in key aspects, such as financial resources and/ or operational
capacities
5 – Comprehensive achievement with sustained commitment and capacities at all levels
Table 6: National Progress Report on the Implementation of the HFA (cont.)

APPENDICES
Future Outlook Area 1: The more effective integration of disaster risk considerations into sustainable development
policies, planning and programming at all levels, with a special emphasis on disaster prevention, mitigation,
preparedness and vulnerability reduction.
One of the main challenges is the lack of a comprehensive Disaster Management Law
in Myanmar. This would help in putting in place the various mechanisms and related
policies. Integration of DRR in development policies, planning and programming
Challenges: including budget allocation has yet to be defined and there is no operational
guidelines on how to integrate it. Commitment to awareness, the awareness campaigns
is carried out in specific location across the country as resources both financial and
human are inadequate. Understanding of DRR is not the same across all ministries.
Under MAPDRR, GoUM has identified enactment of DM law as one of the key
activities and will work on developing the law. Ministry of Planning will include
DRR in their next 5 year plan (2012-16). DRR will be integrated into sustainable
development policies, planning and programmes at all levels. A focal Ministry/Agency
Future Outlook – Relief and Resettlement Department, has been assigned to oversee the formulating,
Priorities: monitoring DRR integrated in policies, planning and programmes of all sectors. DRR
policies, planning and programmes of all sectors will be planned in a sound manner
since they will be based on systematic risk assessment. Formulation of a shared vision
on DRR followed by review and revise exiting policies, planning and programming
will be planned. Finally, catastrophic insurance will made mandatory.
Future Outlook Area 2: The development and strengthening of institutions, mechanisms and capacities at all
levels, in particular at the community level, that can systematically contribute to building resilience to hazards.
DRR is at nascent phase in the country and capacities at all levels are limited.
There is also a challenge of finding a balance between administration and financial
decentralization on DRR. School and community linkage and coordination
among organizations are weak and requires more attention. In addition, CBDRM
Challenges: programmes have been only focused in few geographical areas due to limited financial
resources. There is no national policy or programme for the institutionalization of
community based DRR. The relief and resettlement department, is only limited to
State/Division level of the country and therefore there outreach up to the villages are
weak.
DRR has been recognized as an integral part of development and policy planning.
The government will identify the formulation of policy and resource allocation
for DRR. Good practices, assessment; data gained by CBDRM programmes will
Future Outlook contribute to the formulation. Introduction of a system that would strengthen school
Priorities: and community linkage for DRR activities and share information more effectively.
Moreover, there needs to be commitment to DRR in every institution, government
and others private sectors.
Future Outlook Area 3: The systematic incorporation of risk reduction approaches into the design and
implementation of emergency preparedness, response and recovery programs in the reconstruction of affected
communities.
The lack of a Disaster management law will define DRR for Disaster preparedness,
emergency response and mitigation in the country. Operational procedures on
emergency response are yet to be elaborated. (Standing Order; SASOP adopted in
Challenges: Myanmar) which would foster the inclusion of DRR in emergency preparedness,
response and recovery programmes in the reconstruction of affected communities.
Action Plans on emergency preparedness, response and recovery programmes up to
village level are yet to be based on formal assessments.
Standing Order will be fully implemented (updated in lieu of Nargis) to ensure
that DRR is integrated into the disaster management cycle. The coordination and
cooperation among the stakeholders, linkages across thematic areas and across sectors,
Future Outlook should be encouraged. Supervision and support as well as monitoring and evaluation
Priorities: needs to be strengthened. Effective emergency programmes will be carried out for any
kind of disaster strikes. Capacity building in DRR will be followed by supervision and
support from authorities, and monitoring and evaluation.
Table 7: HFA Country Progress Report Future Outlook Areas, Myanmar

to the military. Legislative elections held in
Country Profile November 2010, which the NLD boycotted
and many in the international community
The information in the Country Profile section considered flawed, saw the successor ruling
is sourced directly from the CIA World Fact book. junta’s mass organization, the Union Solidarity
Additional numbers on country comparison to the and Development Party garner over 75% of the
world can be found by going directly to the CIA contested seats.
website. 325 The national legislature convened in January
2011 and selected former Prime Minister Thein
Background: Sein as president. Although the vast majority
Various ethnic Burman and ethnic minority of national-level appointees named by Thein
city-states or kingdoms occupied the present Sein were former or current military officers,
borders through the 19th century, and several the government initiated a series of political
minority ethnic groups continue to maintain and economic reforms leading to a substantial
independent armies and control territory opening of the long-isolated country. These
within the country today, in opposition to reforms included releasing hundreds of political
the central government. Over a period of 62 prisoners, signing a nationwide cease-fire with
years (1824-1886), Britain conquered Burma several of the country’s ethnic armed groups,
and incorporated all the groups within the pursuing legal reform, and gradually reducing
country into its Indian Empire. Burma was restrictions on freedom of the press, association,
administered as a province of India until 1937 and civil society. At least due in part to these
when it became a separate, self-governing reforms, Aung San Suu Kyi was elected to the
colony; in 1948, following major battles on its national legislature in April 2012 and became
territory during World War II, Burma attained chair of the Committee for Rule of Law and
independence from the British Commonwealth. Tranquility. Burma served as chair of the
Gen. Ne Win dominated the government from Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
1962 to 1988, first as military ruler, then as for 2014. In a flawed but largely credible national
self-appointed president, and later as political legislative election in November 2015 featuring
kingpin. In response to widespread civil unrest, more than 90 political parties, the NLD again
Ne Win resigned in 1988, but within months the won a landslide victory. Using its overwhelming
military crushed student-led protests and took majority in both houses of parliament, the NLD
power. Since independence, successive Burmese elected Htin Kyaw, Aung San Suu Kyi’s confidant
governments have fought on-and-off conflicts and long-time NLD supporter, as president.
with armed ethnic groups seeking autonomy in The new legislature created the position of State
the country’s mountainous border regions. Counsellor, according Aung San Suu Kyi a formal
Multiparty legislative elections in 1990 role in the government and making her the de
resulted in the main opposition party - the facto head of state. Burma’s first credibly elected
National League for Democracy (NLD) - civilian government after more than five decades
winning a landslide victory. Instead of handing of military dictatorship was sworn into office
over power, the junta placed NLD leader (and on 30 March 2016. In March 2018, upon Htin
1991 Nobel Peace Prize recipient) Aung San Kyaw’s resignation, parliament selected Win
Suu Kyi under house arrest from 1989 to 1995, Myint, another long-time ally of Aung San Suu
2000 to 2002, and from May 2003 to November Kyi’s, as president.
2010. In late September 2007, the ruling junta Attacks in October 2016 and August 2017
brutally suppressed protests over increased on security forces in northern Rakhine State
fuel prices led by prodemocracy activists by members of the Arakan Rohingya Salvation
and Buddhist monks, killing an unknown Army (ARSA), a Rohingya militant group,
number of people and arresting thousands for resulted in military crackdowns on the Rohingya
participating in the demonstrations - popularly population that reportedly caused thousands of
referred to as the Saffron Revolution. In early deaths and human rights abuses. Following the
May 2008, Cyclone Nargis struck Burma, which August 2017 violence, over 740,000 Rohingya
left over 138,000 dead and tens of thousands fled to neighboring Bangladesh as refugees. In
injured and homeless. Despite this tragedy, the November 2017, the US Department of State
junta proceeded with its May constitutional determined that the August 2017 violence
referendum, the first vote in Burma since 1990. constituted ethnic cleansing of Rohingyas. The
The 2008 constitution reserves 25% of its seats

APPENDICES
UN has called for Burma to allow access to a Maritime claims:

Fact Finding Mission to investigate reports of Territorial sea: 12 nm
human rights violations and abuses and to work
with Bangladesh to facilitate repatriation of Exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
Rohingya refugees, and in September 2018 the
International Criminal Court (ICC) determined Contiguous zone: 24 nm
it had jurisdiction to investigate reported
human rights abuses against Rohingyas. Burma Continental shelf: 200 nm or to the edge of the
has rejected charges of ethnic cleansing and continental margin
genocide, and has chosen not to work with
the UN Fact Finding Mission or the ICC. In Climate:
March 2018, President Htin Kyaw announced Tropical monsoon; cloudy, rainy, hot,
his voluntary retirement; NLD parliamentarian humid summers (southwest monsoon, June
Win Myint was named by the parliament as his to September); less cloudy, scant rainfall, mild
successor. In February 2019, the NLD announced temperatures, lower humidity during winter
it would establish a parliamentary committee to (northeast monsoon, December to April)
examine options for constitutional reform ahead
of national the elections planned for 2020. Terrain:
Central lowlands ringed by steep, rugged
GEOGRAPHY highlands
Location: Elevation:
Southeastern Asia, bordering the Andaman Mean elevation: 702 m
Sea and the Bay of Bengal, between Bangladesh
and Thailand Lowest point: Andaman Sea/Bay of Bengal 0 m
Geographic coordinates: Highest point: Gamlang Razi 5,870 m

22 00 N, 98 00 E
Natural resources:
Southeast Asia Petroleum, timber, tin, antimony, zinc, copper,
tungsten, lead, coal, marble, limestone, precious
Total: 676,578 sq km stones, natural gas, hydropower, arable land
Land: 653,508 sq km Land use:

Agricultural land: 19.2% (2011 est.)
Water: 23,070 sq km
Arable land: 16.5% (2011 est.) / permanent crops:
Country comparison to the world: 41 2.2% (2011 est.) / permanent pasture: 0.5% (2011
est.)
Area - comparative:
Slightly smaller than Texas Forest: 48.2% (2011 est.)
Land boundaries: Other: 32.6% (2011 est.)
Total: 6,522 km Irrigated land:

22,950 sq km (2012)
border countries (5): Bangladesh 271 km, China
2129 km, India 1468 km, Laos 238 km, Thailand Population distribution:
2416 km Population concentrated along coastal areas
and in general proximity to the shores of the
Coastline: Irrawaddy River; the extreme north is relatively
1,930 km underpopulated

Natural hazards: Note: religion estimate is based on the 2014
Destructive earthquakes and cyclones; national census, including an estimate for the
flooding and landslides common during rainy non-enumerated population of Rakhine State,
season (June to September); periodic droughts which is assumed to mainly affiliate with the
Islamic faith; as of December 2019, Muslims
Environment - current issues: probably make up less than 3% of Burma’s total
Deforestation; industrial pollution of air, population due to the large outmigration of the
soil, and water; inadequate sanitation and water Rohingya population since 2017
treatment contribute to disease; rapid depletion
of the country’s natural resources Age structure:
0-14 years: 25.97% (male 7,524,869/female
Environment - international agreements: 7,173,333)
Party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change,
Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, 15-24 years: 17% (male 4,852,122/female
Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of 4,769,412)
the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution,
Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94 25-54 years: 42.76% (male 11,861,971/female
Signed, but not ratified: none of the selected 12,337,482)
agreements
55-64 years: 8.22% (male 2,179,616/female
Geography - note: 2,472,681)
Strategic location near major Indian Ocean
shipping lanes; the north-south flowing 65 years and over: 6.04% (male 1,489,807/female
Irrawaddy River is the country’s largest and most 1,928,778) (2020 est.)
important commercial waterway
Dependency ratios:
PEOPLE AND SOCIETY: Total dependency ratio: 49.7 (2015 est.)
Population: Youth dependency ratio: 41.7 (2015 est.)

56,590,071 (July 2020 est.)
Elderly dependency ratio: 8 (2015 est.)
Country comparison to the world: 25
Potential support ratio: 12.6 (2015 est.)
Nationality:
Noun: Burmese (singular and plural) Median age:
Total: 29.2 years
Adjective: Burmese
Male: 28.3 years
Ethnic groups:
Burman (Bamar) 68%, Shan 9%, Karen 7%, Female: 30 years (2020 est.)
Rakhine 4%, Chinese 3%, Indian 2%, Mon 2%,
other 5% Country comparison to the world: 133
Note: government recognizes 135 indigenous Population growth rate:

ethnic groups 0.85% (2020 est.)
Languages: Country comparison to the world: 122

Burmese (official)
Birth rate:
Note: minority ethnic groups use their own 17 births/1,000 population (2020 est.)
languages
Religions:
Buddhist 87.9%, Christian 6.2%, Muslim 4.3%,
Animist 0.8%, Hindu 0.5%, other 0.2%, none
0.1% (2014 est.)
APPENDICES
Death rate: Infant mortality rate:

7.2 deaths/1,000 population (2020 est.) Total: 31.7 deaths/1,000 live births
Male: 34.4 deaths/1,000 live births
Net migration rate:
-1.4 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2020 est.) Female: 28.7 deaths/1,000 live births (2020 est.)
Country comparison to the world: 152 Country comparison to the world: 50
Population distribution: Life expectancy at birth:

Population concentrated along coastal areas Total population: 69.3 years
and in general proximity to the shores of the
Irrawaddy River; the extreme north is relatively Male: 67.7 years
underpopulated
Female: 71.1 years (2020 est.)
Urbanization:
Urban population: 31.1% of total population Country comparison to the world: 169
(2020)
Total fertility rate:
Rate of urbanization: 1.74% annual rate of 2.07 children born/woman (2020 est.)
change (2015-20 est.)
Major urban areas - population:
Contraceptive prevalence rate:
5.332 million RANGOON (Yangon) (capital), 52.2% (2015/16)
1.438 million Mandalay (2020)
Drinking water source:
Sex ratio:
At birth: 1.06 male(s)/female (2020 est.) Improved:
0-14 years: 1.05 male(s)/female (2020 est.) Urban: 92.7% of population
15-24 years: 1.02 male(s)/female (2020 est.) Rural: 74.4% of population
25-54 years: 0.96 male(s)/female (2020 est.) Total: 80.6% of population
55-64 years: 0.88 male(s)/female (2020 est.) Unimproved:

65 years and over: 0.77 male(s)/female (2020 est.) Urban: 7.3% of population
Total population: 97.3 male(s)/female (2020 est.) Rural: 25.6% of population
Mother’s mean age at first birth: Total: 19.4% of population (2015 est.)
25 years (2015/16 est.)
Current Health Expenditure:
Note: median age at first birth among women 5.1% (2016)
25-29
Physician’s density:
Maternal mortality rate: 0.86 physicians/1,000 population (2017)
250 deaths/100,000 live births (2017 est.)
Hospital bed density:
Country comparison to the world: 42 0.9 beds/1,000 population (2012)

Sanitation facility access: Education expenditures:
2.2% of GDP (2017)
Improved:
Urban: 84.3% of population (2012 est.)
Literacy:
Rural: 73.9% of population (2012 est.) Definition: age 15 and over can read and write
Total: 77.4% of population (2012 est.) Total population: 75.6%
Unimproved: Male: 80%
Urban: 15.7% of population (2012 est.) Female: 71.8% (2016)
Rural: 26.1% of population (2012 est.) School life expectancy (primary to tertiary
education):
Total: 22.6% of population (2012 est.) Total: 10 years
HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate: Male: 10 years

0.8% (2018 est.)
Country comparison to the world: 53 Female: 10 years (2017)
HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS: Unemployment, youth ages 15-24:

240,000 (2018 est.) Total: 4%
Male: 3.3%
HIV/AIDS - deaths:
7,800 (2018 est.) Female: 4.8% (2017 est.)
Major infectious diseases: GOVERNMENT:

Degree of risk: very high (2019)
Country name:
Food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and Conventional long form: Union of Burma
protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever Conventional short form: Burma
(2019) Local long form: Pyidaungzu Thammada
Myanma Naingngandaw (translated as the
Vector borne diseases: dengue fever, malaria, and Republic of the Union of Myanmar)
Japanese encephalitis (2019) Local short form: Myanma Naingngandaw
Former: Socialist Republic of the Union of
Animal contact diseases: rabies (2019) Burma, Union of Myanmar
Etymology: both “Burma” and “Myanmar” derive
Obesity - adult prevalence rate: from the name of the majority Burman (Bamar)
5.8% (2016) ethnic group
Note: since 1989 the military authorities
Country comparison to the world: 172 in Burma and the current parliamentary
government have promoted the name Myanmar
Children under the age of 5 years underweight: as a conventional name for their state; the US
18.5% (2016) Government has not officially adopted the name
Country comparison to the world: 30 Government type:

Parliamentary republic

APPENDICES
Capital: Citizenship:
Name: Rangoon (Yangon); note - Nay Pyi Taw Citizenship by birth: no
is the administrative capital
Geographic coordinates: 16 48 N, 96 09 E Citizenship by descent only: both parents must
Time difference: UTC+6.5 (11.5 hours ahead of be citizens of Burma
Washington, DC, during Standard Time)
Etymology: Rangoon (Yangon) is a compound of Dual citizenship recognized: no
“yan” signifying “enemies” and “koun” meaning Residency requirement for naturalization: none
“to run out of ” and so denoting “End of Strife”;
Nay Pyi Taw translates as: “Great City of the Sun” Note: an applicant for naturalization must be the
or “Abode of Kings” child or spouse of a citizen
Administrative divisions: Suffrage:

7 regions (taing-myar, singular - taing), 7 18 years of age; universal right to vote
states (pyi ne-myar, singular - pyi ne), 1 union
territory Executive branch:
Regions: Ayeyarwady (Irrawaddy), Bago, Chief of state: President Win Myint (since 30
Magway, Mandalay, Sagaing, Tanintharyi, Yangon March 2018); Vice Presidents Myint Swe (since
(Rangoon); 16 March 2016) and Henry Van Thio (since 30
States: Chin, Kachin, Kayah, Kayin, Mon, March 2016); note - President Htin Kyaw (since
Rakhine, Shan; 30 March 2016) resigned on 21 March 2018;
Union territory: Nay Pyi Taw the president is both chief of state and head of
government
Independence: Head of government: President Win Myint
4 January 1948 (from the UK) (since 30 March 2018); Vice Presidents Myint
Swe (since 16 March 2016) and Henry Van Thio
National holiday: (since 30 March 2016)
Independence Day, 4 January (1948); Union Day, Cabinet: Cabinet appointments shared by the
12 February (1947) president and the commander-in-chief
Elections/appointments: president indirectly
Constitution: elected by simple majority vote by the full
History: previous 1947, 1974 (suspended until Assembly of the Union from among 3 vice-
2008); latest drafted 9 April 2008, approved by presidential candidates nominated by the
referendum 29 May 2008 Presidential Electoral College (consists of
Amendments: proposals require at least members of the lower and upper houses and
20% approval by the Assembly of the Union military members); the other 2 candidates
membership; passage of amendments to become vice-presidents (president elected for a
sections of the constitution on basic principles, 5-year term); election last held on 28 March 2018
government structure, branches of government, (next to be held in 2021)
state emergencies, and amendment procedures Election results: Win Myint elected president;
requires 75% approval by the Assembly and Assembly of the Union vote - Win Myint (NLD)
approval in a referendum by absolute majority 403, Myint Swe (USDP) 211, Henry Van Thio
of registered voters; passage of amendments (NLD) 18, 4 votes canceled (636 votes cast)
to other sections requires only 75% Assembly State counsellor: State Counselor Aung San
approval; amended 2015 (2018) Suu Kyi (since 6 April 2016); she concurrently
serves as minister of foreign affairs and minister
Legal system: for the office of the president
Mixed legal system of English common law (as Note: a parliamentary bill creating the
introduced in codifications designed for colonial position of “state counsellor” was signed into law
India) and customary law by former President Htin Kyaw on 6 April 2016;
a state counsellor serves the equivalent term of
International law organization participation: the president and is similar to a prime minister
Has not submitted an ICJ jurisdiction in that the holder acts as a link between the
declaration; non-party state to the ICCt parliament and the executive branch.

Legislative branch: Political parties and leaders:
Description: bicameral Assembly of the Union
or Pyidaungsu consists of: All Mon Region Democracy Party or AMRDP
House of Nationalities or Amyotha Hluttaw,
(224 seats; 168 members directly elected in Arakan National Party or ANP (formed from
single-seat constituencies by absolute majority the 2013 merger of the Rakhine Nationalities
vote with a second round if needed and 56 Development Party and the Arakan League for
appointed by the military; members serve 5-year Democracy)
terms)
House of Representatives or Pyithu Hluttaw, National Democratic Force or NDF [Khin
(440 seats, currently 433; 330 members directly Maung Swe]
elected in single-seat constituencies by simple
majority vote and 110 appointed by the military; National League for Democracy or NLD [Aung
members serve 5-year terms) San Suu Kyi]
Elections: National Unity Party or NUP [Than Tin]
House of Nationalities - last held on 8 November Pa-O National Organization or PNO [Aung
2015 (next to be held in 2020) Kham Hti]
House of Representatives - last held on 8 People’s Party [Ko Ko Gyi]

November 2015 (next to be held in 2020)
Shan Nationalities Democratic Party or SNDP
Election results: [Sai Aik Paung]
House of Nationalities - percent of vote by party Shan Nationalities League for Democracy or
- NLD 60.3%, USDP 4.9%, ANP 4.5%, SNLD SNLD [Khun Htun Oo]
1.3%, other 4%, military appointees 25%; seats
by party - NLD 135, USDP 11, ANP 10, SNLD 3, Ta’ang National Party or TNP [Aik Mone]
TNP 2, ZCD 2, other 3, independent 2, military
appointees 56; composition - men 201, women Union Solidarity and Development Party or
23, percent of women 10.3% USDP [Than Htay]
House of Representatives - percent of vote by Zomi Congress for Democracy or ZCD [Pu Cin
party - NLD 58%, USDP 6.8%, ANP 2.7%, SNLD Sian Thang]
2.7%, military 25%, other 4.8%; seats by party -
NLD 255, USDP 30, ANP 12, SNLD 12, PNO 3, Numerous smaller parties
TNP 3, LNDP 2, ZCD 2, other 3, independent 1,
canceled due to insurgence 7, military appointees International organization participation:
110; composition - men 392, women 41, percent ADB, ARF, ASEAN, BIMSTEC, CP, EAS, EITI
of women 9.5% (candidate country), FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD,
ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO,
Judicial branch: ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO
Highest courts: Supreme Court of the Union (correspondent), ITU, ITUC (NGOs), NAM,
(consists of the chief justice and 7-11 judges) OPCW (signatory), SAARC (observer), UN,
Judge selection and term of office: chief justice UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNWTO, UPU,
and judges nominated by the president, with WCO, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
approval of the Lower House, and appointed
by the president; judges normally serve until Diplomatic representation in the US:
mandatory retirement at age 70 Ambassador AUNG LYNN (since 16 September
Subordinate courts: High Courts of the 2016)
Region; High Courts of the State; Court of the Chancery: 2300 S Street NW, Washington, DC
Self-Administered Division; Court of the Self- 20008
Administered Zone; district and township courts; Telephone: [1] (202) 332-3344
special courts (for juvenile, municipal, and traffic FAX: [1] (202) 332-4351
offenses); courts martial Consulate general: Los Angeles, New York
APPENDICES
Diplomatic representation from the US: of businesses.

Chief of mission: Ambassador Scot MARCIEL Burma’s economic growth rate recovered from
(since 27 April 2016) a low growth under 6% in 2011 but has been
Telephone: [95] (1) 536-509, 535-756, 538-038 volatile between 6% and 7.2% during the past
Embassy: 110 University Avenue, Kamayut few years. Burma’s abundant natural resources
Township, Rangoon and young labor force have the potential
Mailing address: Box B, APO AP 96546 to attract foreign investment in the energy,
FAX: [95] (1) 511-069 garment, information technology, and food and
beverage sectors. The government is focusing
Flag description: on accelerating agricultural productivity and
design consists of three equal horizontal land reforms, modernizing and opening the
stripes of yellow (top), green, and red; centered financial sector, and developing transportation
and electricity infrastructure. The government
on the green band is a large white five-pointed has also taken steps to improve transparency in
star that partially overlaps onto the adjacent the mining and oil sectors through publication
colored stripes; the design revives the triband of reports under the Extractive Industries
colors used by Burma from 1943-45, during the Transparency Initiative (EITI) in 2016 and 2018.
Japanese occupation Despite these improvements, living standards
have not improved for the majority of the people
National symbol(s): residing in rural areas. Burma remains one of
Chinthe (mythical lion); national colors: the poorest countries in Asia – approximately
yellow, green, red, white 26% of the country’s 51 million people live in
poverty. The isolationist policies and economic
National anthem: mismanagement of previous governments have
Name: “Kaba Ma Kyei” (Till the End of the left Burma with poor infrastructure, endemic
World, Myanmar) corruption, underdeveloped human resources,
and inadequate access to capital, which will
Lyrics/music: SAYA TIN require a major commitment to reverse. The
Note: adopted 1948; Burma is among a Burmese Government has been slow to address
handful of non-European nations that have impediments to economic development such as
anthems rooted in indigenous traditions; the unclear land rights, a restrictive trade licensing
beginning portion of the anthem is a traditional system, an opaque revenue collection system, and
Burmese anthem before transitioning into a an antiquated banking system.
Western-style orchestrated work
GDP (purchasing power parity):
ECONOMY: $329.8 billion (2017 est.)
Economy - overview: $308.7 billion (2016 est.)

Since Burma began the transition to a civilian-
led government in 2011, the country initiated $291.5 billion (2015 est.)
economic reforms aimed at attracting foreign
investment and reintegrating into the global Note: data are in 2017 dollars
economy. Burma established a managed float of
the Burmese kyat in 2012, granted the Central Country comparison to the world: 53
Bank operational independence in July 2013,
enacted a new anti-corruption law in September GDP (official exchange rate):
2013, and granted licenses to 13 foreign banks $67.28 billion (2017 est.)
in 2014-16. State Counsellor AUNG SAN
SUU KYI and the ruling National League for GDP - real growth rate:
Democracy, who took power in March 2016, 6.8% (2017 est.)
have sought to improve Burma’s investment
climate following the US sanctions lift in October 5.9% (2016 est.)
2016 and reinstatement of Generalized System
of Preferences trade benefits in November 7% (2015 est.)
2016. In October 2016, Burma passed a foreign
investment law that consolidates investment Country comparison to the world: 24
regulations and eases rules on foreign ownership

GDP - per capita (PPP): Labor force:
$6,300 (2017 est.)
22.3 million (2017 est.)
$5,900 (2016 est.)
$5,600 (2015 est.)
Labor force - by occupation:
Note: data are in 2017 dollars Agriculture: 70%
Country comparison to the world: 163 Industry: 7%
Gross national saving: Services: 23% (2001 est.)

17.7% of GDP (2017 est.)
Unemployment rate:
17.6% of GDP (2016 est.) 4% (2017 est.)
18.1% of GDP (2015 est.) 4% (2016 est.)
GDP - composition, by end use: Population below poverty line:

Household consumption: 59.2% (2017 est.) 25.6% (2016 est.)
Government consumption: 13.8% (2017 est.) Household income or consumption by

percentage share:
Investment in fixed capital: 33.5% (2017 est.) Lowest 10%: 2.8%
Investment in inventories: 1.5% (2017 est.) Highest 10%: 32.4% (1998)
Exports of goods and services: 21.4% (2017 est.) Budget:

Revenues: 9.108 billion (2017 est.)
Imports of goods and services: -28.6% (2017 est.)
Expenditures: 11.23 billion (2017 est.)
GDP - composition, by sector of origin:
Agriculture: 24.1% (2017 est.) Taxes and other revenues:
13.5% (of GDP) (2017 est.)
Industry: 35.6% (2017 est.)
Services: 40.3% (2017 est.)
Budget surplus (+) or deficit (-):
Agriculture - products: -3.2% (of GDP) (2017 est.)
Rice, pulses, beans, sesame, groundnuts;
sugarcane; fish and fish products; hardwood Country comparison to the world: 138
Industries: Public debt:

Agricultural processing; wood and wood 33.6% of GDP (2017 est.)
products; copper, tin, tungsten, iron; cement,
construction materials; pharmaceuticals; 35.7% of GDP (2016 est.)
fertilizer; oil and natural gas; garments; jade and
gems Country comparison to the world: 156
Industrial production growth rate:

8.9% (2017 est.)

APPENDICES
Fiscal year: Imports - partners:

1 April - 31 March China 31.4%, Singapore 15%, Thailand 11.1%,
Saudi Arabia 7.5%, Malaysia 6.2%, Japan 6%,
Inflation rate (consumer prices): India 5.5%, Indonesia 4.5% (2017)
4% (2017 est.) Reserves of foreign exchange and gold:

$4.924 billion (31 December 2017 est.)
6.8% (2016 est.)
$4.63 billion (31 December 2016 est.)
Current account balance:
Debt - external:
-$2.9 billion (2017 est.) $6.594 billion (31 December 2017 est.)
-$2.475 billion (2016 est.) $8.2 billion (31 December 2016 est.)
Exports: Exchange rates:

$9.832 billion (2017 est.) Kyats (MMK) per US dollar -
$9.085 billion (2016 est.) 1,361.9 (2017 est.)
Note: official export figures are grossly 1,234.87 (2016 est.)

underestimated due to the value of timber, gems,
narcotics, rice, and other products smuggled to 1,234.87 (2015 est.)
Thailand, China, and Bangladesh
Country comparison to the world: 93 1,162.62 (2014 est.)
Exports - partners: 984.35 (2013 est.)

China 36.5%, Thailand 21.8%, Japan 6.6%,
Singapore 6.4%, India 5.9% (2017) ENERGY:
Exports - commodities: Electricity access:

Natural gas; wood products; pulses and beans; Electrification - total population: 57% (2016)
fish; rice; clothing; minerals, including jade and
gems Electrification - urban areas: 89.5% (2016)
Imports: Electrification - rural areas: 39.8% (2016)
$15.78 billion (2017 est.)
Electricity - production:
$12.81 billion (2016 est.) 17.32 billion kWh (2016 est.)
Note: import figures are grossly underestimated Country comparison to the world: 83
due to the value of consumer goods, diesel fuel,
and other products smuggled in from Thailand, Electricity - consumption:
China, Malaysia, and India 14.93 billion kWh (2016 est.)
Imports - commodities: Electricity - exports:

Fabric; petroleum products; fertilizer; plastics; 0 kWh (2016 est.)
machinery; transport equipment; cement,
construction materials; food products‘ edible oil Country comparison to the world: 113

Electricity - imports: Refined petroleum products - consumption:
0 kWh (2016 est.) 123,000 bbl/day (2016 est.)
Electricity - installed generating capacity: Refined petroleum products - exports:

5.205 million kW (2016 est.) 0 bbl/day (2015 est.)
Electricity - from fossil fuels: Refined petroleum products - imports:

39% of total installed capacity (2016 est.) 102,600 bbl/day (2015 est.)
Electricity - from nuclear fuels: Natural gas - production:

0% of total installed capacity (2017 est.) 18.41 billion cu m (2017 est.)
Electricity - from hydroelectric plants: Natural gas - consumption:

Electricity - from other renewable sources: Natural gas - exports:

Crude oil - production: Natural gas - imports:

11,000 bbl/day (2018 est.) 0 cu m (2017 est.)
Crude oil - exports: Natural gas - proved reserves:

1,824 bbl/day (2015 est.) 637.1 billion cu m (1 January 2018 est.)
Crude oil - imports: Carbon dioxide emissions from consumption

0 bbl/day (2015 est.) of energy:
27.01 million Mt (2017 est.)
Crude oil - proved reserves:
139 million bbl (1 January 2018 est.) COMMUNICATIONS:
Country comparison to the world: 63 Telephones - fixed lines:
Refined petroleum products - production: Total subscriptions: 520,863

13,330 bbl/day (2017 est.)
Subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 1 (2018 est.)

APPENDICES
Telephones - mobile cellular: Internet users:

Total subscriptions: 61,143,964 Total: 14,264,308
Subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 110 (2018 est.) Percent of population: 25.1% (July 2016 est.)
Telephone system: Broadband - fixed subscriptions:

General assessment: remains one of the last Total: 129,050
underdeveloped telecoms markets in Asia; the
mobile market has experienced rapid growth, Subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: less than 1
in 2014 foreign competition was allowed to (2018 est.)
compete in the market (2018)
Domestic: fixed-line is less than 1 per 100, Country comparison to the world: 118
while mobile-cellular is 110 per 100 and shows
great potential for the future (2018) MILITARY AND SECURITY:
International: country code - 95; landing
points for the SeaMeWe-3, SeaMeWe-5, Military expenditures:
AAE-1 and Singapore-Myanmar optical
telecommunications submarine cable that 2.93% of GDP (2018)
provides links to Asia, the Middle East, Africa,
Southeast Asia, Australia and Europe; satellite 3.24% of GDP (2017)
earth stations - 2, Intelsat (Indian Ocean) and
ShinSat (2019) 3.74% of GDP (2016)
Broadcast media: 4.08% of GDP (2015)

Government controls all domestic broadcast
media; 2 state-controlled TV stations with 1 of 3.58% of GDP (2014)
the stations controlled by the armed forces; 2
pay-TV stations are joint state-private ventures; Country comparison to the world: 26
access to satellite TV is limited; 1 state-controlled
domestic radio station and 9 FM stations that Military and security forces:
are joint state-private ventures; transmissions of Burmese Defense Service (Tatmadaw): Army
several international broadcasters are available (Tatmadaw Kyi), Navy (Tatmadaw Yay), Air
in parts of Burma; the Voice of America (VOA), Force (Tatmadaw Lay), Directorate of People’s
Radio Free Asia (RFA), BBC Burmese service, Militia and Border Guard Forces (2019)
the Democratic Voice of Burma (DVB), and
Radio Australia use shortwave to broadcast in Military service age and obligation:
Burma; VOA, RFA, and DVB produce daily 18-35 years of age (men) and 18-27 years
TV news programs that are transmitted by of age (women) for voluntary military service;
satellite to audiences in Burma; in March 2017, no conscription (a 2010 law reintroducing
the government granted licenses to 5 private conscription has not yet entered into force);
broadcasters, allowing them digital free-to- 2-year service obligation; male (ages 18-45) and
air TV channels to be operated in partnership female (ages 18-35) professionals (including
with government-owned Myanmar Radio and doctors, engineers, mechanics) serve up to 3
Television (MRTV) and will rely upon MRTV’s years; service terms may be stretched to 5 years
transmission infrastructure (2019) in an officially declared emergency; Burma
signed the Convention on the Rights of the Child
Internet country code: on 15 August 1991; on 27 June 2012, the regime
.mm signed a Joint Action Plan on prevention of
child recruitment; in February 2013, the military
formed a new task force to address forced child
conscription (2013)

Transportation: Roadways:
National air transport system: Total: 157,000 km (2013)
Number of registered air carriers: 11 (2015) Paved: 34,700 km (2013)
Inventory of registered aircraft operated by air Unpaved: 122,300 km (2013)

carriers: 45 (2015)
Annual passenger traffic on registered air
carriers: 2,029,139 (2015) Waterways:
12,800 km (2011)
Annual freight traffic on registered air carriers:
3,365,967 mt-km (2015) Country comparison to the world: 10
Civil aircraft registration country code prefix: Merchant marine:

XY (2016) Total: 95
Airports: By type: bulk carrier 1, general cargo 41, oil

64 (2013) tanker 5, other 48 (2018)
Airports - with paved runways: Ports and terminals:

Total: 36 (2017) Major seaport(s): Mawlamyine (Moulmein),
Sittwe
Over 3,047 m: 12 (2017)
River port(s): Rangoon (Yangon) (Rangoon
2,438 to 3,047 m: 11 (2017) River)
1,524 to 2,437 m: 12 (2017) TRANSNATIONAL ISSUES:
Under 914 m: 1 (2017) Disputes - international:

Over half of Burma’s population consists
Airports - with unpaved runways: of diverse ethnic groups who have substantial
Total: 28 (2013) numbers of kin in neighboring countries;
Bangladesh struggles to accommodate 912,000
Over 3,047 m: 1 (2013) Rohingya, Burmese Muslim minority from
Rakhine State, living as refugees in Cox’s Bazar;
1,524 to 2,437 m: 4 (2013) Burmese border authorities are constructing
a 200 km (124 mi) wire fence designed to
914 to 1,523 m: 10 (2013) deter illegal cross-border transit and tensions
from the military build-up along border with
Under 914 m: 13 (2013) Bangladesh in 2010; Bangladesh referred its
maritime boundary claims with Burma and
Heliports: India to the International Tribunal on the Law of
11 (2013) the Sea; Burmese forces attempting to dig in to
the largely autonomous Shan State to rout local
Pipelines: militias tied to the drug trade, prompts local
3739 km gas, 1321 km oil (2017) residents to periodically flee into neighboring
Yunnan Province in China; fencing along the
Railways: India-Burma international border at Manipur’s
Total: 5,031 km (2008) Moreh town is in progress to check illegal drug
trafficking and movement of militants; over
Narrow gauge: 5,031 km 1.000-m gauge (2008) 100,000 mostly Karen refugees and asylum
seekers fleeing civil strife, political upheaval, and
APPENDICES
economic stagnation in Burma were living in on plantations and in mines, while children may
remote camps in Thailand near the border as of also be subject to forced prostitution, domestic
May 2017 service, and begging
tier rating: Tier 2 Watch List – Burma does
Refugees and internally displaced persons: not fully comply with the minimum standards
IDPs: 401,000 (government offensives against for the elimination of trafficking, but it is making
armed ethnic minority groups near its borders significant efforts to do so; the government
with China and Thailand, natural disasters, has a written plan that, if implemented, would
forced land evictions) (2018) constitute making a significant effort toward
Stateless persons: 495,939 (2018); note - meeting the minimum standard for eliminating
Rohingya Muslims, living predominantly in human trafficking; in 2014, law enforcement
Rakhine State, are Burma’s main group of continued to investigate and prosecute cross-
stateless people; the Burmese Government does border trafficking offenses but did little to
not recognize the Rohingya as a “national race” address domestic trafficking; no civilians
and stripped them of their citizenship under or government officials were prosecuted or
the 1982 Citizenship Law, categorizing them as convicted for the recruitment of child soldiers, a
“non-nationals” or “foreign residents”; under the serious problem that is hampered by corruption
Rakhine State Action Plan drafted in October and the influence of the military; victim referral
2014, the Rohingya must demonstrate their and protection services remained inadequate,
family has lived in Burma for at least 60 years to especially for men, and left victims vulnerable to
qualify for a lesser naturalized citizenship and the being re-trafficked; the government coordinated
classification of Bengali or be put in detention anti-trafficking programs as part of its five-year
camps and face deportation; native-born but national action plan (2015)
non-indigenous people, such as Indians, are also
stateless; the Burmese Government does not Illicit drugs:
grant citizenship to children born outside of the Myanmar is the world’s second largest
country to Burmese parents who left the country producer of illicit opium with an estimated
illegally or fled persecution, such as those born poppy cultivation totaling 41,000 hectares in
in Thailand; the number of stateless persons has 2017, a decrease of 25% from the last survey in
decreased dramatically since late 2017 because 2015; Shan state is the source of 91% of Burma’s
hundreds of thousands of Rohingya have fled poppy cultivation; lack of government will to
to Bangladesh since 25 August 2017 to escape take on major narcotrafficking groups and lack of
violence. serious commitment against money laundering
Note: estimate does not include stateless IDPs continues to hinder the overall antidrug effort;
or stateless persons in IDP-like situations because Burma is one of the world’s largest producers
they are included in estimates of IDPs (2017) of amphetamine-type stimulants, which are
trafficked throughout the region, as far afield as
Trafficking in persons: Australia and New Zealand.
Burma is a source country for men, women,
and children trafficked for the purpose of forced
labor and for women and children subjected to
sex trafficking; Burmese adult and child labor
migrants travel to East Asia, the Middle East,
South Asia, and the US, where men are forced
to work in the fishing, manufacturing, forestry,
and construction industries and women and girls
are forced into prostitution, domestic servitude,
or forced labor in the garment sector; some
Burmese economic migrants and Rohingya
asylum seekers have become forced laborers
on Thai fishing boats; some military personnel
and armed ethnic groups unlawfully conscript
child soldiers or coerce adults and children into
forced labor; domestically, adults and children
from ethnic areas are vulnerable to forced labor

Acronyms and Abbreviations
Acronym Definition
AA Arakan Army
AADMER ASEAN Agreement on Disaster Management and Emergency Response
AGIPP Alliance for Gender Inclusion in the peace process
ARDEX ASEAN Regional Disaster Emergency Response Simulation Exercise
ARSA Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations
ASEAN ERAT ASEAN Emergency Response and Assessment Team
AUMX ASEAN-U.S. Maritime Exercise
BMD Burma Meteorological Department
CCCM Camp, Coordination and Camp Management
CEDAW UN Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against
Women
CFE-DM The Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance
CHiPS Consolidated Human Resources for Health Information and Planning System
CPE continuing professional education
CSO Civil Society Organizations
CSSF Comprehensive School Safety Framework
DDM Department of Disaster Management
DKI APCSS Daniel K. Inouye Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies
DMC Disaster Management Committee
DMH Department of Meteorology and Hydrology
DMHA Disaster Management and Humanitarian Assistance
DMS Department of Medical Service
DPH Department of Public Health
DREE Disaster Response Exercise and Exchange
DRR Disaster Risk Reduction
DRR WG Disaster Risk Reduction Working Group
DSS UN Department of Safety and Security
DVB Democratic Voice of Burma
ECCD Early Childhood and Development
EITI Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative
EMF Emergency Management Fund
EOC Emergency Operation Centre
EPHS Essential Package of Health Services
ERP Emergency Response Preparedness
GDACS Global Disaster Alert Coordination System
GDP gross domestic product
GII Gender Inequality Index
APPENDICES
Acronym Definition
GMS Greater Mekong Sub-region
GRI Global Risk Index
HACG Humanitarian Advocacy Communications Group
HADR Humanitarian Assistance/Disaster Relief
HCT Humanitarian Country Team
HDX Humanitarian Data Exchange
HFA Hyogo Framework for Action
HRH Myanmar Human Resources for Health
ICCG Inter Cluster Coordination Group
ICLT In-Country Liaison Team
ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross
ICVP International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis
IDL International Disaster law
IDP international displaced persons
IFRC International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement
IOM International Organization for Migration
IS Information Sharing
IWUMD Irrigation and Water Utilization Management Department
LMI Lower Mekong Initiative
MAPDRR Myanmar Action Plan on Disaster Risk Reduction
MDLD Myanmar Disaster Loss and Damage Database
MEC Myanmar Earthquake Committee
MHF Myanmar Humanitarian Fund
MIMU Myanmar Information Management Unit
MMR maternal mortality ratio
MMR measles-mumps-rubella
MOALI Myanmar Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, and Irrigation
MOE Ministry of Education
MOGE Myanmar Oil and Gas Enterprise
MP Members of Parliament
MPPE Myanmar Petroleum Products Enterprise
MPT Myanmar Post and Telecommunication
MRCS Myanmar Red Cross Society
MSWRR Ministry of Social Welfare, Relief and Resettlement
NAP National Action Plans
NCD Non-communicable diseases
NDMC National Disaster Management Committee
NDMO National Disaster Management Organizations
NDMWC National Disaster Management Working Committee

Acronym Definition
NDRT National Disaster Response Team
NEDC National Earthquake Data Center
NESP National Education Strategic Plan
NFI Non-food items
NGO non-government organization
NHP National Health Plan
NLD National League for Democracy
NMI Nautical Miles
NMS National Metrological Service
NSPAW National Strategic Plan for the Advancement of Women
OCHA Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
PAMS Pacific Armies Management Seminar
POD Pacific Ocean Division
PR DREE Pacific Resilience Disaster Response Exercise and Exchange
RC/HC UN Resident and Humanitarian Coordinator
RCG Regional Consultative Group
RDRT Regional Disaster Response Team
RFA Radio Free Asia
RHCC Changi Regional HADR Coordination Centre
RRD Relief and Resettlement Department
SASOP Standby Arrangements and Coordination of Joint Disaster Relief and Emergency
Response Operations
STEP Smart Traveler Enrollment Program
TB Tuberculosis
TDLG Township Democratic Local Governance
TTX tabletop exercise
U.S. United States
U5MR under-five mortality rate
UCSB Union Civil Service Board
UNOPS United nations Office for Project Services
UNSCR 1325 United Nations Security Council Resolution
USACE U.S. Army Corp of Engineers
USAID U.S. Agency for International Development
VOA Voice of America
WASH Wash, Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene
WFP World Food Programme
WHO UN World Health Organization
WPS women, peace, and security

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20200324v2.0

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MYANMAR

Disaster Management Reference Handbook

Dr. Sithu Pe Thein

Cover and section photo credits

Cover Photo: Bagan Myanmar by Yoshitaka Ando. 2 May 2017. CC

Country Overview Section Photo: Young Monk in the Window.

Conclusion Section Photo: Sulamani Phaya Temple With Local Nuns.

Appendices Section Photo: Mandalay Kuthodaw Pagoda – World’s Largest Book.

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Myanmar Disaster Management Reference Handbook | March 2020 3

4 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

Women, Peace, and Security..........................................................................................62

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6 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

Myanmar Disaster Management Reference Handbook | March 2020 7

8 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

Joseph D. Martin, SES

Myanmar Disaster Management Reference Handbook | March 2020 9

10 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

Myanmar Disaster Management Reference Handbook | March 2020 11

12 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

Disaster Management Reference Handbook | March 2020

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Myanmar Disaster Management Reference Handbook | March 2020 15

Arakan Army.38 development projects with China, which is

Figure 1: Overview of Myanmar’s History

16 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

Photo 2: National Flag of Myanmar

Myanmar Disaster Management Reference Handbook | March 2020 17

Additionally, many indigenous or minority

population. They comprise the main

holders of government power, and 90-94 0.0% 0.0%

Burmese has long been the national

language. The government officially

75-79 0.4% 0.6%

recognizes 135 ethnic groups, though 70-74 0.6% 0.9%

official status. 60-64 1.6% 2.1%

Significant minority ethnic groups 55-59 2.0% 2.5%

to themselves (9%); Karen or Kayin 45-49 3.0% 3.3%

(7%); Kachin (2%); Rakhine or Rakhaing 40-44 3.3% 3.6%

(4%); Chin (1%); Mon (2%);53 and 35-39 3.6% 3.7%

Rohingya (formerly 1-2%, but currently 30-34 3.7% 3.9%

significantly less than 1%, as 90% of

20-24 4.3% 4.4%

State are estimated to have fled the 10-14 4.6% 4.5%

country following clearance operations 5-9 4.3% 4.2% Myanmar - 2019

by government security forces targeting 0-4 4.2% 4.1%

them in August 2017.)54 There are also 10% 8% 6% 4% 2% 0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10%

immigrant communities of ethnic

Key Population Centers 1 Yangon (Rangoon) 5,998,000

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Myanmar Disaster Management Reference Handbook | March 2020 19

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Figure 4: Map of Administrative Districts in Myanmar

Myanmar Disaster Management Reference Handbook | March 2020 23

increasing intensity of storms and increasing

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Disaster Management Reference Handbook | March 2020