Nursing Research I

Chapter 4 - 6

By Bella P. Magnaye
 Comparison of Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Quantitative Research Qualitative Research

Focus Focuses on a relatively small number Attempts to understand the entirety

of specific concepts of some phenomena, rather than focus
on specific concepts
Initial Begins with pre-conceived idea about Has few pre-conceived ideas, stresses
concept how concept are interrelated importance of people’s interpretation of
events and circumstances rather than the
researcher’s interpretation

Methods Uses structured procedures and Does not attempt to control, the context
formal instruments to collect of the research but attempts to capture
information the context in its entirety
Objectivity Emphasizes objectivity in collection Attempts to capitalize on subjective data
vs and analysis of information as a means for understanding and
subjectivity interpreting human experiences
Analysis Analyzes numeric information Analyzes narrative information in an
through statistical procedure organized, but intuitive fashion
 Comparison of Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Quantitative term Qualitative term

Person contributing Study participants Study participants
information Subject/respondents Informant, key informant
Person undertaking the Researcher, Same
study Investigator
Information gathered Data (numerical values) Data (narrative descriptions)

Links between concepts Relationships (causal, Patterns of association

functional
Logical reasoning process Deductive reasoning Inductive reasoning

Quality of evidence Reliability, validity, Trustworthiness

generalizability
Major Steps in Quantitative Research

5 Phases of Research (Polit & Beck 2012)

1. Conceptual Phase
2. Design and Planning Phase
3. Empirical Phase
4. Analytical Phase
5. Dissemination Phase
 Steps in Quantitative Research
5 Phases of research (Polit)
1. Conceptual phase
1. Formulating and Delimiting the Problem
2. Review of Related Literature
3. Undertaking Clinical Fieldwork
4. Defining Framework/Developing
Conceptual Definitions
5. Formulating Hypotheses
 Major Phases of Research
I. Conceptual Phase
1. Formulating and delimiting the problem
- identify an interesting research problem and
formulating research questions
- Selection of research problem is the most difficult
step in research process
- Sources of research problem –policies, programs,
interpersonal relationship, organizational
structure, technology etc.
Remember:
Good research depends to a great degree on good
questions
Identification of the Problem

Research problem
- troubling condition that an investigator wants to
solve
Research question
- specific queries or questions that the researcher
wants to answer by his study
Statement of the problem
- explicit and precise expression of the dilemma or
research question to address , that indicates a
need for a study to provide understanding and
direction
Elements of a Research Problem

Aim or Subject Place or

purpose Matter or Locale Population
Topic Period or or
• Why? • Where?
• What? Time Universe
When? Who?
Criteria for selection of research problem
1. Problem criteria
• significance- most important criterion
• researchability- a problem of moral or ethical
nature may not be amenable to scientific
investigation
• feasibility- a problem that is significant and
researchable may not necessarily be feasible
2. Researcher criteria- education, training, and
experience
Criteria for selection of research problem
3. Researcher support- comes from various
sources, without support, the study may not be
feasible
4. Ethical considerations- subjects safety and
well-being, study will be terminated if this will
cause undue distress, injury, disability or even
death
4 most important considerations in research
problem selection (Polit, 2004)

Significance of the Researchability of the

Problem Problem

Research
Problem

Feasibility of Addressing
Researcher Interest
the Problem
Significance of the Problem
• Evidence from the study should have the
potential of contributing meaningfully to
nursing practice
• In evaluating the significance of an idea, the
following questions should be posed:
– Is the problem an important one?
– Will patients, nurses or the broader health care community benefit
from the evidence that will be produced?
– Will the results lead to practical applications?
– Will the problem challenge untested assumptions?
– Will the study help to formulate or alter nursing practices?
Researchability of the Problem
• Not all problems are amenable to research
inquiry
• A problem is researchable and manageable if:
– Data are available and accessible
– Data meet the standards of accuracy, objectivity,
and verifiability
– Answers to specific questions can be found
– Hypotheses formulated are testable
– Equipment and instruments for research are
available and can give reliable results
Feasibility of Addressing the Problem
• The scope of the problem should be
Time and Timing sufficiently restricted that enough time
will be available

Availability of • Researchers need to consider whether

individuals with the desired characteristics
Study Participants will be available and willing to cooperate

Cooperation of • It is sometimes necessary to obtain

cooperation and to secure the permission
Others from others
Feasibility of Addressing the Problem

Facilities and • Consider what facilities and equipment will be

needed and whether they will be available
Equipment before embarking on a project

• The investigator on a limited budget should

Money think carefully about projected expenses
before making the final selection of a problem

Researcher • The problem should be chosen from a field

about which investigators have some prior
experience knowledge or experience
Researcher Interest

• Genuine interest in and curiosity about the

chosen research problem are critical
prerequisites to a successful study
 Determination of the Study Purpose

THE PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

Study purpose- justification, reason, motivation or
the rationale for the study by presenting its overall
goals and objectives (SMART)
Good statement purpose in quantitative studies
indicates;
• Independent variable (Cause)
• Dependent variable (Effect)
• Population of the study
Eg. The study aims to determine the Level of
Awareness of Teenage Mothers on Newborn
Screening test
• Independent – Newborn Screening
• Dependent – Level of awareness
• Population – Teenage mothers
This study seeks to determine whether
viewing a video of the actual “Unang Yakap
can increase the participation of pregnant
women in the delivery room
• Independent- viewing a video of “Unang
Yakap”
• Dependent- Increase participation
• Population- pregnant women
Guidelines in Writing the Title
• Generally the title is formulated before the start
of the research work. It may be revised and
refined later if there is a need.
• The title must contain the subject matter of the
study, the locale of the study, the population
involved, the period when the data gathered or
will be gathered.
• It must be broad enough to include all aspects of
the subject matter studied or to be studied.
Hence the title indicates what is expected to be
found inside the thesis report
• It must be as brief as concise as possible
• Avoid using the terms “An Analysis of”, “A Study
of” and the like. All these things are understood
to have been done or to be done when a
research is conducted
• If the Title contains more than one line, it must
be written like an inverted pyramid, all words in
capital letters
Step #2 Review of Related Literature
• a written summary of the existing knowledge base
on a research problem obtained from non-research
reference (conceptual lit.) and research references
(empirical studies)
• considers primary and secondary source
• includes a statement indicating what the present
study will add to what is already known
• one of the most important steps in research
Purposes of Related Literature
• acquire skills of critiquing, which increases
comfortability with the research process
• confident about doing research
• become familiar by current knowledge
 Types and Sources of Literature
Empirical/Research References
• These materials are usually printed and found in
books, encyclopedias, professional journals,
magazines, newspapers and other publications
• These materials are usually printed and found in
books, encyclopedias, professional journals,
magazines, newspapers and other publications
• Are classified as local and foreign
Non- empirical/Non-research/Conceptual lit.
• Includes case reports, anecdotal recording,
commentaries, opinion article and clinical description
Empirical/Research References

• Description of studies
Primary written by the researchers
Source who conducted them

• Descriptions of studies
Secondary prepared by someone
Source other than the original
researcher
Factors in doing literature review

• Nature of document to be prepared

- is a major determinant of the extensiveness
of the written review
• Topic or subject of the review
• Relevance and quality of the literature with respect to
the demands of the new study
- key criteria for the inclusion of references in
a written review of literature
Major Steps in Doing Literature Review

1. Locating relevant literature

2. Abstracting and recording information
3. Critiquing and evaluating the evidence
4. Preparing a written literature review
Step 3: Undertaking Clinical Fieldwork

•Provide perspectives on recent clinical

trends, current diagnostic procedures
and relevant healthcare delivery model
Step #4 Defining the Framework and
Developing Conceptual Definitions

Fact
Ø most basic, irreducible term in research to refer
a phenomenon that is known to be true
Ø building blocks of concept

Concept
Ø refers to things and their properties, a mental
idea may be concrete (patient, man, drug) or
abstract (health, pain, grief, coping)
Ø building blocks of the theory
Conceptual Framework
Ø utilizes specific and well-defined concepts and
constructs that describe ideas, plans, design,
strategies
Construct
Ø highly abstract and phenomenon
Ø always abstract
Theory
Ø set of statement that attempt to explain or define
the relationships between certain group of
concept and preposition
Ø Abstract generalization that offers a systematic
explanation about how phenomena are
interrelated
TYPES OF THEORY
1. Grand Theory
Ø articulates a broad range of significant
relationships among concepts of a discipline
2. Midlevel theory
Ø focuses on the exploration of concepts such
as pain , learning, self-esteem
3. Critical Theory
Øelucidates how social structures affect a wide
variety of human experiences
Theoretical Framework

Øoverall conceptual underpinning

of a study
Øbroad general explanation of the relationships
between concept of interest of a research study
Øterms and relationship that clarifies the problem
of the research and within which the problem is
formulated and solved
Conceptual Paradigm

Paradigm
- shared understanding and assumptions about
reality and the world
- visual pattern
- diagram that presents the underlying theory, with
all its structures and parts, principles and concept
of a particular study
- visual grammatical picture of the study variables
and their relationships and interrelations
Identification of the Study Assumptions

Assumptions
• basic preposition that is
taken to be true based
on logic or reason
• no proof or verification
• positive assertions or
statements that serve as
starting point which the
study proceeds
 Types of Assumptions

Universal Assumptions
Ø researchers knowledge from observed facts
related to the problem, and are presumed true
based on experience and observations
eg. Smoking is harmful to one’s health
Hand washing prevents infectious
diseases
 Types of Assumptions
Study Assumptions
Ø positive assertions necessary to carry out
the study
Ø serve as starting point from which the
study proceeds and serve as basis for
stating the study hypotheses
Eg. Maternal attitudes and behavior affects
toilet training of toddlers
Position during labor influences the
progress of labor
Patient faces surgery has fears and
anxieties
 Types of Assumptions
Theory/ Research-Based Assumptions
Ø premise on the specific theory applicable
to the study
Ø may come researches that need further
validation
Eg. Patient’s basic physiologic needs must
first be met before providing client
teaching.(Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs)
The perceived susceptibility to a certain
disease or condition influences
behavioral changes
 Study, Scope and Delimitation
Delimitation
Ø characteristics that limit the scope of the
investigation
Ø determined by researcher’s conscious
inclusionary and exclusionary decision
Eg. It seeks to determine the effect of separation anxiety
among hospitalized children.
This study will use as subject mothers who are
pregnant for the first time and mothers in 20 to 40
weeks gestation. It also delimited to the following
demographic profile; 18-28 yrs. Old, married and high
school graduate
 Formulation of Hypothesis

1. Research Hypothesis (Ho)

Ø prediction or a testable statement about the
relationship between two or more variables which
a researcher aims to test if it is supported or
rejected
Ø a prediction about the relationship between two or
more variables
Ø the hypothesis is tested and if found to be true,
accepted if not, it is rejected
Ø formal declarative statement of expected
relationships between variables being tested
 Formulation of Hypothesis

hypothesis
- predicted answer to the queries
Example:
Does a sexual abuse in childhood affects the
behaviour of a child hen he grow up?
Eating junk foods is a predictor of being obese?

Note: if a hypothesis lacks phrases such as more

than, less than, greater than, different from,
related to, associated with is probably not
amenable to testing in quantitative study
Research Hypothesis(general declarative prediction)
Eg. There is a relationship between the
woman’s walking during labor and the
duration of first stage of labor.

There is a relationship between the place of

delivery and the development of infection.

There is a relationship between the age of the

client and the risk of developing infection.
 Formulation of Hypothesis

2. Null Hypothesis
Ø formal statement indicating that there is no
relationship between the independent and the
dependent variable
Ø hypothesis of no difference and states that there
is no difference or correlation in the scores of the
population in the study
Research Hypothesis(general declarative prediction)
Eg. There is a relationship between the
woman’s walking during labor and the
duration of first stage of labor.

There is a relationship between the place of

delivery and the development of infection.

There is a relationship between the age of the

client and the risk of developing infection.
 Formulation of Hypothesis

Null Hypothesis (Ho)

Ø prediction or a testable statement about the
relationship between two or more variables which
a researcher aims to test if it is supported or
rejected
Ø A prediction about the relationship between two or
more variables
Ø The hypothesis is tested and if found to be true,
accepted if not, it is rejected
Ø Formal declarative statement of expected
relationships between variables being tested
 Research Hypothesis Null Hypothesis
(Specific, Substantive, Declarative (Statistical Hypothesis)
Younger patients tend to be less at risk Younger and older patients have equal
of developing a decubitus ulcer than the risk of developing a decubitus ulcers
older patients
There is a relationship between the age There is no relationship between the
of the patient and the risk of developing age of the patient and the risk of
a decubitus ulcer developing a decubitus ulcer
There is a relationship between the There is no relationship between the
place of delivery and the development place of delivery and the development
of infection of infection
Mothers who deliver in the home tend The mothers place of delivery is
to be more at risk of developing unrelated to their developing infection
infection than mothers who deliver in
the hospital
 Research Hypothesis Null Hypothesis

There is a significant difference in the There is no significant difference in the

perceived level of social support perceived level of social support
between married and unmaried between married and unmaried
patients with type II diabetes mellitus patients with type II diabetes mellitus

Graduates of Baccalaureate degree Graduates of Baccalaureate degree

program are more proficient at the program and diploma program are both
bedside than graduates of the diploma proficient at the bedside
program

There will be a correlation between There is no correlation between

liberalization of attitudes and liberalization of attitudes and
completion of a course in human completion of a course in human
sexuality sexuality
Hypothesis (Ho) may be:
Simple/univareate hypotheses
Ø express an expected relationship between one
independent and one dependent variable
Nurses with more work experience (IVC)
provide better care (DVE) than nurses with less
experience
Performance in the College of Nursing is related
to success in the nurses’ licensure examination
IV DV
Performance in the college success in NLE
of nursing
Hypothesis (Ho) may be:
Complex /multivariate hypotheses
Ø Predicts relationship between two or more
independent and two or more dependent variable
Nurses with higher educational attainment (IVC-1)
and more work experience (IVC-2) provide better
care (DVE) than nurse with lower educ. attainment
and less work assignment
Heredity, home environment, and quality of
instruction are related to intelligence, motivation
and performance in school
IV DV
Heredity (IVC-1), home Intelligence, (DVE-1),
Environment (2), quality motivation (2), performance
of instruction (3) in school (3)
Hypothesis (Ho) may be:
Directional hypotheses-clearly specify the direction
- specifies not only the existence but also the expected
direction of the relationship between variables
Example:
Older people are at greater risk of acquiring influenza than
younger people

The older the person, the greater the risk that he or she will
acquire influenza

Younger people tend to be less at risk of acquiring

influenza than older people
Non-directional hypotheses-do not clearly stipulate the
direction
- does not state the direction of the relationship
Example:

There is a relationship between the age of a person and

the risk of acquiring influenza

Older people differ from younger ones with respect to

their risk of acquiring influenza
Research Variable
Ø Refer to the varying characteristics, properties,
qualities of people, things, phenomena, situations,
events or conditions under investigation which can
be quantitatively or qualitatively assessed.

Kinds of research variable

1. Independent variable- presumed cause or
stimulus of phenomena under investigation
- cause variable or stimulus variable
2. Dependent variable- presumed effect or
response to the causal phenomena under
investigation
- effect or response variable or outcome variable
Continuous variable
-is one that takes on a wide range of values
between two points and that can be presented
infinitely in a continuum

Example: Grade percentage 87.5%, Temp. 37.5%

Discrete variable
- small range of values or finite number of values
between any two points

Example: no. of children 3 boys, 2 girls

no. of students 45
Discrete variable
1. Categorical variable
Example:
Socio economic status
Blood type
Highest educational attainment

2. Dichotomous variable- only two values

Gender : ( ) Male Female ( )
Answer : ( ) Yes No ( )
ANST : ( ) Positive ( ) Negative
Birth : ( ) Live birth ( ) Still birth
Definition of Terms
1. Conceptual definition- the abstract or
theoretical meaning of the concepts of being
studied. This is based on theoretical
formulations, relevant literature,
researcher’s clinical experience.

2. Operational definition- researchers own

definition, which is made for clarity of
meaning and prevention of
misunderstanding
 End of Phase I (Conceptual Phase)

Midterm Period
Lecture- Quiz #1 –done. Activity #1 Journal Reading -done
- Quiz #2-done. Activity #2-Brainstorming- done
-Quiz #3- (open forum)
-Quiz #4- Activity #3-Research Title- Done

RLE- Activity #1 –Interview –done

Activity #2-Information Sheet –done (see your textbook)
Activity #3-Critiquing-Done
Activity #4-Library Work-done (open forum)
Activity #5- Working Title Approval –done
Activity #6-Theoretical/Conceptual Framework and Synthesis of RRL – ongoing

End of Midterm
 Design and Planning Phase
Step 2
Step 6: Selecting a Research
Design
Research Design
Ø overall plan, or the blue
print created by the
researcher to answer the
research questions.
Ø Guides the researcher in
conducting the study
 Design and Planning Phase
Research Design
Ø how often data will be
collected
ØTypes o comparison
ØWhere the study will take
place
ØMinimizing bias
 Design and Planning Phase
(Method section)
Ø describe the research design
Ø sampling plan
Ø methods of data collection and
specific instrument
Ø study procedure (ethical
safeguard)
ØAnalytic procedure and methods
Research Design- method section

Identifies the procedures by which the

study population will be selected

It includes the subjects, the data

collection and the data analysis
Major components of Research Design
1. Research setting
2. Sample and method of selection
3. Type of data to be collected and
instruments for data collection
Major components of Research Design

4. Strategies to control extraneous

variables
5. Description of tools and statistical
treatment of data
Purposes of Research Design
• To provide maximum control over
extraneous variables and other
phenomena that can influence the
results of the study and affects
its validity
Quantitative Research Design
Three major types of Quantitative
research design
1. Experimental
2. Quasi-experimental
3. Non-experimental
Quantitative Research Design
1. Experimental
- strongest test in the scientific
method; two groups are formed
Ø control group- representing the
subjects under study
Ø no experiment is conducted
Ø experimental group- represents
the subject or group in which one
variable is altered
Experimental
Is there a difference in behavior
between group A who received
counseling treatment and group B
who did not receive X treatment.
Randomized Experiment or True
experiment
-if performance of control and
experiment group are measured
before and after the experiment
and when random assignment is
used.
4 Properties of True
experiment
1. manipulation-the investigator
manipulates or “does something” to
the independent variable by
introducing an experimental
treatment to some subjects while
withholding it from others
4 Properties of True
experiment
2. Control-researchers exert control
over the setting and the situation
and imposes certain restrictions on
the situation with the use of 2
groups
- does not receive any experimental
treatment
- perform under normal and usual
condition
4 Properties of True
experiment
3. randomization- investigator assigns
subjects to the 2 groups
- giving the subjects an equal
chance of being selected as
member of either group known as
random assignment
4 Properties of True experiment

Random selection- selection of a

sample from a population in which
each individual is given an equal
chance of being chosen and part of
the sample
4 Properties of True
experiment
4. Validity- investigators ensures that
the study measures what it claims to
measure
- gives valid, objective answers to all
research questions
- controls extraneous variable
- eliminates biases to ensure its
validity
Internal validity- extent to which it is
possible to make an inference that
changes in the dependent (effect) can
be truly be attributed to the
dependent (cause) variable
External validity- degree which study
results can be generalized to other
settings and samples or the
generalizability of the findings to
other sample
Quantitative Research Design
2. Quasi-experimental
- involves manipulation of the
independent variable, but it may lack
one or two of the properties of the
true experiment
- often lacks a comparison group or
randomization to treatment groups
but statistical controls are used
- subjects are not randomly
assigned, they are randomly
selected or sampled
Quantitative Research Design
3. Non-experimental
- does not use manipulation or
control of the independent variable
and conducted mostly in natural
setting under natural condition
- subject are neither randomly
assigned nor randomly selected
- generally considered the weakest
in establishing internal validity or
cause-effect of relationship
between IV and DV
2 Types of Non-experimental Designs
1. Descriptive research design
2. Correlational research design

Descriptive studies – summarize the

status of phenomena observed
within the natural environment and
without any manipulation of the IV
Descriptive Study:
!"#$%&'( Is there a difference
in Y between people in the
population with X characteristics
and those who do not have X
characteristics.
Descriptive Research Design
1. Typical descriptive design
- examines or explore aspects of
phenomena of interest of a single
sample
2. Comparative descriptive design
- compares two or more groups that
occur naturally in a setting or
explores for differences
Descriptive Research Designs
3. cross-sectional descriptive design
- Examines subject at a given point in
time after the research design is
completed and then gathers data on
events occurring at that present
time
4. Descriptive longitudinal design
-studies a sample of individual over time
to examine patterns of growth,
changes, or trends across time
Descriptive longitudinal design
-collects data from samples about
phenomena over weeks, months or
even years as in developmental
studies of the subject who are
enrolled
• Retrospective design
-data being analyzed was either
collected in the past or data
collection focuses on the past
Descriptive longitudinal design
• Prospective design
-data was collected after the study
was collected after the study was
designed, but the study is pursued
over along period of time, continuing
into the future
2 Types of Non-experimental Designs
2. Correlational research studies
- Examine relationship among
variables but does not involve
manipulation or control of the
independent variable, which has
already occurred
- Also referred as ex post facto
research
Ex post facto (from after the fact)-
attempts to understand
relationships among phenomena as
they naturally occur without any
intervention
Problem Statement Format:
A. Correlational Statement :
Is there a correlation between X and Y in the population?
Example: Is there a relationship between anxiety levels (X) and test
performance (Y) among graduating nursing students
(Population).

Example: Is there a relationship between eating

fast food (X) and obesity (Y) among graduating
nursing students (Population)?
Qualitative Research Design
Qualitative design
- elastic and flexible and is
concerned with the subjective
meaning of one’s experience.
- focuses on insight or perceptions
of individuals of the phenomenon
under investigation
Six types of Qualitative Research Studies
1. Phenomenological research
2. Ethnographic research
3. Grounded theory research
4. Historical research
5. Case study
6. Narrative analysis
Phenomenological Research
1. Phenomenological research: Focusing
on “Lived experiences”
- Discovering the meaning of people’s
life experiences, giving perception
of particular phenomena
Eg: people suffering from chronic
illnesses
stress, or those who have lost their
loved ones
Main data source of Phenomenological
research: In- depth conversation
Steps in Phenomenological study
1. Bracketing
2. Intuiting
3. Analyzing
4. Describing
 NR: Qualitative Research
Focuses on gaining insights and understanding of
events.
A. Phenomenological Studies
• “Lived experiences”. ”
• Examines human experiences through descriptions
provided by the people involved.
• Bracketing – the researcher releases expectations
and biases prior to doing the research
• End purpose: to determine themes and patterns of
behavior, etc.
Phenomenological

“The life experiences of an obese person.”

Bracketing – obese persons are: jolly, funny,

sensitive, inferior, etc
Ethnographic Research
2. Ethnographic research: Focuses on
Culture
- labor-intesive endeavor requiring
long periods of stay in the field to
describe and interpret cultural
behavior , to understand the view of
their world
Aspects of information
1. Cultural behavior
2. Cultural artifacts
3. cultural speech
Ethnographic research:
• Rich and holistic description of
culture
• Access health beliefs & practices
• Undesrtanding behavior affecting
health and illnesses
Data sources:
- Observation,
- In – depth interview
- Charts, records, photograph,
diaries, and letters
-
NR: Qualitative Research
B. Ethnographic Studies
Collection and analysis of data about
cultural groups
• End purpose – to develop cultural theories
• Method – participant observation and interviews
with “key informants
Grounded Theory Research
3. Grounded Theory Research: Focusing
on development evolution of social
experiences
- Study of social processes, social
structure, evolution of social
experience, psychological stages and
phases that characterize a
particular event or episode
Features:
- Data collection, data analysis, sampling
of data
3. Grounded Theory Research:
Features:
- Data collection, data analysis, sampling
of study participants

Sources of data:
- Observation
- In-depth interview
- Existing documents
3. Grounded Theory Research: Focusing
on development evolution of social
experiences
- Study of social processes, social
structure, evolution of social
experience, psychological stages and
phases that characterize a
particular event or episode
Grounded theory Features:
- Data collection, data analysis,
sampling of study participants
occur simultaneously

Sources of Data:
• observation
• in-depth interviews
D. Grounded Theory Studies
• Data are collected and analyzed and then a theory is
developed that is grounded on the data.
• Method : purposeful sampling, done in field/naturalistic
setting
• Concerned with theory generation rather than testing of
hypothesis. Uses purposeful sampling
Grounded Theory
• Eating burger – obesity
• Eating French fries – obesity
• Eating pizza – obesity
Therefore: eating fast food =
obesity
Historical Research
4. Historical Research: Focusing on the
past
- Attempts to answer questions about
cause, effects or trends related to
past events, issues or condition that
may explain current behavioral
practices
4. Historical Research: Involves
systematic collection, critical
evaluation, and interpretation of
historical evidence, with end goal of
discovering new knowledge
Forms of historical research
1. social histories
2. biographical histories
3. intellectual histories
Types of evaluation of historical data
1. external criticism- evaluates the
authenticity of the data
2. internal criticism- evaluates the
worth of the data focusing on the
truth and accuracy of the content
of the evidence
Sources of data of historical
research:
• written records such as letters,
diaries, newspaper, legal
documents, photograph, film &
tapes, physical remains, sometimes
interviews
e. Historical studies
•Identification, location, evaluation,
&synthesis of data from the past
•End purpose: to relate the past to the present
and the future
Case Studies
5. Case Studies: Focusing on single case
or entity
- in-depth investigation for a single
entity or social unit – the individual,
family, group, institution,
organization, community in which the
core of inquiry is the case itself
Case Studies
The greatest strength is its depth of
investigation, which makes available
an abundance of intimate knowledge
of a person’s condition, thoughts,
feelings, and behavior.
MAJOR CRITICISM
difficulty of attaining generaliability
because collected data and evidence
pertain only to a single entity
Narrative Analysis
6. Narrative analysis: Focusing on story
in studies
- in-depth investigation for a single
entity or social unit – the individual,
family, group, institution,
organization, community in which the
core of inquiry is the case itself
Premise of Narrative research: belief
that make people make sense of
their world and communicate these
meaning by constructing,
reconstructing, and narrating
stories.
3 Category typology of narrative
analysis:
1. First set of models: focuses on
the temporal order of events
2. second set of models: focuses on
the structure and coherence of
narratives
3. third set of models: focuses on
the cultural, social and psychological
contexts and functions of narrative
5 Primary dimensions of narrative
approach
1. people organize significant events
in terms of stories and make
meaning out of life experiences
through telling of these stories
2. time and plot are structural
properties of narrative with events
following sequences
3. narrative have a cultural contextual,
which means that they do not occur
by themselves
4. Narrative are relational with stories
told to other people
5. Narratives have the power to shape
human behavior and may be used to
produce a moral story of how people
are supposed to behave
Step #7 Developing Protocols for the Intervention

• In Experimental research, researchers create the

independent variable
• Participants need to be exposed to different treatment
or conditions
Research Population
 STEP #8 Identification of the Research
Population
Population- entire aggregation of cases in which a
researcher is interested
Universe/target population- aggregate of cases
about which the researcher would like to
generalize
accessible population-aggregate of cases that
conforms with designated criteria and are
accessible for a study
Research Population
Parametric- refers to the total population or total
universe being studied which can be assumed to
be normal
Non-Parametric- refers to something less than the
total population, it is just part of the population
Identification of the Research Population

Target Population Universe

Accessible Population Population

Subjects of research drawn Sample

from Population
Steps in Developing an Acceptable Description of
Population

Brainstorming with
Be clear about the “Who” you want to
colleagues of “Who”
study problem study
you want to study

Improve the population Draft the pop. from the

description to maintain Evaluate the tentative target and narrow
clarity, precision, population down to accessible
thoroughness pop.

Note: the best method to use in obtaining a representative

sample is random selection. Random sampling is the best
method to employ if the population is large.
 STEP #9 Designing a Sampling Plan
Sampling- is the process of selecting cases to represent an
entire population so that inferences about the population
can be made
Sample- is drawn from population and subject of research
- is a subset of the population.
- it is taken because it is not feasible to study
the whole population.
Elements- most basic unit about which data are collected
Sampling Frame- the list of all members of the
population of interest, which are chosen from the
sample
Sampling variation- process by which sampling is
done
Sampling design- sampling scheme that specifies the
number of samples drawn from the population, the criteria
for their selection, and the type of sampling method
Note: the single most important characteristics of the
sample in quantitative research is representativeness
Strata- population consist of sub population
Stratum- mutually exclusive segment of population,
defined by one or more characteristics
Example:
2 strata= Gender (Male or female)
3 strata= groupings (Group A, B, C)
Purposes and Advantages of Sampling

Sampling makes
possible the study of a Sampling is for
Sampling is for speed
large, heterogeneous economy
population

Sampling saves the

Sampling is for
sources of data from
accuracy
being all consumed
Relationship among Population

Population: All students enrolled in the college

of nursing

Sampling Frame: Registrar’s list of

currently enrolled nursing students

Sample: 100 students

Element:
Students
2 kinds of Bias
1. selection bias occurs when the results is
in either overrepresentation
2. response bias or underrepresentation

eg. 100% of Total respondents

75% are female nurses
25% are male nurses
therefore:
Females are over represented as compare to
male nurses
 Types of Sampling Design
1. Probability sampling
2. Non-probability sampling
Probability Sampling
• involves random selection in choosing the subjects or
elements
Randomization or random choice – is the hallmark of
probability sampling
 Sampling Design
Probability Sampling
• Involves random selection of elements
• The sample is a proportion of the population and such sample
is selected from the population by means of some systematic
way in which every element of the population has a chance of
being included in the sample
Non-Probability Sampling
• Elements are selected by nonrandom methods
• The sample is not a proportion of the population and there is
no system in selecting the sample. The selection depends upon
the situation
• No guarantee that each elements has a chance of being
included in the sample
• Popular among researchers because of its convenience and
economy use
 Types of Probability Sampling
1. Simple Random Sampling
• All elements are enumerated and listed in a sampling frame
• The selection of sample is done by chance
• Lottery draws or a table of random numbers, roulette are the
best examples of this method

2. Stratified Random Sampling

• The researcher divides the population into two or more
homogenous strata or subsets from which an appropriate
number of elements are selected at random
• The population is subdivided into areas, sections, then random
samples are taken from each
Eg. Demographic profile, age, gender, educ. Attainment, income
 Types of Probability Sampling
3. Cluster or multistage Sampling
• The researcher selects random samples from larger to
successively smaller units using either the simple random or
stratified random method
• It is more practical, particularly with a large and widely dispersed
population
• A small sample is taken from various sections of the total
population

E.g. In studying the attitudes of nurses in Metro Manila to ward

their work, a small sample from each hospital will be taken
 Types of Probability Sampling
4. Systematic Sampling
• The researcher selects arbitrarily every nth number in a list, from
telephone directory, beds in a hospital cubicle, school,
community
• Eg. Researchers includes the grade III pupil in the study, they
decided to do systematic sampling method by taking every 5th
student in the class
• Eg. 1,000 population and researcher needs 100 samples,
then: (k interval = N/n)
1,000/100 = 10
*Every 10th person in the list will be taken as sample
 Types of Non-Probability Sampling
1. Accidental, haphazard or convenience
• The researcher chooses subjects who are readily available or
most convenient to include in the study
• Also called as incidental sampling
• Most commonly used sampling method , but the weakest form
of sampling and will result in biased sample unless the
researcher has a strong evidence of confirming the
representativeness of the sample

Eg. People in the cafeteria, bookstore, drugs store, on the street

are possible sample
 Types of Non-Probability Sampling
2. Purposive or judgmental sampling
• The researcher handpick subjects who are judged to be typical of
the population or represent each type of the desired
characteristics that best serve the purpose of the study
• The researcher selects purposely subjects who are judged to be
typical of the population or particularly knowledgeable about
the issues under study
 Types of Non-Probability Sampling
3. Quota sampling
• The researcher divides the population into two or more
homogenous strata or sub-population in order to ensure
representative proportions of the various strata in the sample,
and then determines how many subjects are needed for each
stratum.
• Procedurally similar to convenience sampling, but with
identification of the strata and the desired representation for
each stratum
 Types of Non-Probability Sampling
4. Snowball/network /chain sampling
• The researcher few subjects which meet the required
characteristics of the study and who in turn need to bigger
number of subjects who can be included in the study
• Is a variant of convenience sampling
• Early sample members (called seeds) are asked to refer
other people who meet the eligibility criteria
• Also called as network sampling or chain sampling
• subjects who are difficult to identify
 Types of Non-Probability Sampling
5. Consecutive sampling
• Recruiting all of the people from an accessible population who
meet the eligibility criteria over a specific time interval or
specified sample size
• Can be selected retrospectively or prospectively
Example:
20 Pregnant clients with gestational diabetes within the
period of the third trimester
Retrospective/perspective
Example:
20 Pregnant clients with gestational diabetes admitted in the
hospital or 20 pregnant clients who will be visiting the clinic
within the last term of pregnancy
Quantitative study
Time frame for studying the sample

1. Longitudinal study – follows the subject over a period of time (6

months or more). More accurate study of changes that occur
over time.

a. cohort study – persons are studied who have been

born during a particular time period.

2. Cross-sectional study – examines the subjects at one

point in time. Less expensive and easier to conduct.

Selecting the Sample
Eligibility criteria or inclusion criteria
- the criteria that specify the characteristics of the
population needed in the study
Exclusion criteria
- characteristics that are not necessary, or need not be
possessed by population

Factors that affects eligibility criteria:

2. practical concerns
3. subject’s abilityPractical
to participate in the study
Subjects ability Design
4.Cost
design considerations
concerns to participate consideration
Determination of Sample size in Quantitative Study

Recommended Sample in Quantitative:

v use the largest sample possible

Sampling from a small and finite population of N individuals,

the sample size n may be obtained from the Slovin formula

v Slovin formula n= N__

1+Ne 2
Legend: n = the required sample size
N = the size of the finite population
e = error tolerance for the mean
Determination of Sample size in Quantitative Study

Slovin’s formula n= N__

1+Ne²
Example:
v n= 1000__
1+(1000) (0.05)²
1(1000) (0.05 x 0.05)
1000_
1+1000 (0.0025)
1000
1+2.5
1000
3.5
n= 285.7
Note: e = 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%
Determination of Sample size in Qualitative Study

Recommended Sample in Qualitative:

v phenomenological studies:
10 or fewer subjects who have experienced the phenomena
under study

v ethnographic studies:
25-50 key informants chosen purposively

v grounded theory studies:

20-30 subjects
Sampling Size Selection: Guiding Principles
Quantitative Studies Qualitative Studies
•Use the largest sample No criteria or rules for sample size

•Use power analysis (PA) to identify sample Observe the principle of data saturation
size Sample size should be based on information
needs

•Consider important factor when having a Sampling plan should be evaluated in terms
small sample size of:
•Homogeneity of sample • adequacy
•Effect size •appropriateness
•Sensitivity and accuracy of
measures/instrument
Identification of Sample
USE OF SPECIAL CODES

TIME, EVENT AND SITUATION SAMPLING

• TIME SAMPLING
• EVENT SAMPLING
• SITUATION SAMPLING
STEP #10 Specifying Methods
to Measure Variables
STEP #11 Developing Methods
to Safeguard Human/Animal
Rights
 STEP #12 Reviewing and
Finalizing Research Plan
Conduct Pretesting and a Pilot Study

Pretesting and pilot study are the last of preliminary

activities that precede data collection for the
research project

Pretest serves as a trial run of the instrument

developed for testing the hypotheses
Pretesting is a process of measuring effectiveness of
the instrument or tools used to gather data
 Last day of Class

Quiz will be given at 4:30-5:30

Phase III. Empirical Phase

•Collecting research data and preparing

the data for analysis
STEP #13 COLLECTION OF DATA

Types of Data
1. Existing data
1.1 raw data- records of admission or
discharge, birth or death, laboratory
records, treatment record
1.2 tabular data- total number of patient’s
admitted by quarter, total CS/year
2. Original data- data that are yet to be
gathered or collected from the subjects
using varied tool/instrument for collection
Continuous vs discrete data
1. Continuous data
- maybe found at any point along a
continuum or linear scale, cannot be
measured accurately.
Eg. Concept of bad, good

2. discrete data
- expressed in whole numbers and can be
measured accurately
Observational Data
- data is obtain thru visual observation of people’s
behavior and entails recording of events or
findings
• Characteristics/conditions of
individual
• Characteristics/conditions of
environment
• Communication- verbal/non-
verbal
Methods of Observation:
1. structured
2. Unstructured

Types of observers
1. Participant observer
1.1 overt observer- has full knowledge of
the subject who will be observed
1.2 covert observer- interacts with the
subjects and observes their behavior
without their full knowledge
Four Phases of Observer’s Role
1. Phase 1: Primarily observation/ learning the
ropes
- researchers observe and listen
- acquaintance
2. Phase 2: Primarily observation, with some
participation
- participates modestly in group
activities
Four Phases of Observer’s Role
3. Phase 3: Primarily participation with some
observation
- researchers learn by experience
- participates actively in group
activities
4. Phase 4: Reflective observation
- reflects on the total process of
what transpired and how people
interact with and reacted to them
Types of observers
2. Non-participant observer
2.1 overt non- participant- identifies himself
as investigator conducting research
and provides the subject with
information about the type of data to be
collected
2.2 covert non-participant- does not
identifies himself with the subject being
observe
NOTE: Consider Ethical implications that
may possibly lead to violations!
Strategies to prevent Observational Biases
1. Hawthorne or Placebo Effect
2. Enhancement of contrast effect
- observer distort observation in the direction
of dividing content into clear cut entities
2.1 converse effect
2.2 assimilatory bias
3. Halo Effect
- may figure in observations using rating
scales
- tendency of the observers to be influenced
by one characteristics in judging other
unrelated characteristics
Strategies to prevent Observational Biases
3. Halo Effect
3.1 Error of Leniency- tendency of the
observer to rate every characteristics
positively
3.2 Error of Severity- tendency of the
observers to rate every characteristics
negatively or too harshly
Biophysical/Biophysiological Data
• biophysiologic measures specialized technical
instruments and techniques that assess the
subjects physiologic status and physical variable
of the study
• objective and are the most direct, precise, and
sensitive means of quantifying biologic
responses, thus yielding high quality data

Eg. Weighing scale, thermometer,

sphygmomanometer, fetoscope, spirometer
Pilot study sometimes called feasibility study is a
preliminary trial run or dry run of the major
research

Purpose:
1. to make improvement in the research project
(research refinement)
2. assess problem that must be corrected before
the actual study is attempted
 THE INSTRUMENT

Criteria of the Instrument

1. Reliability
- said reliable if it consistently measures
with accuracy, stability, dependability
- involves the instrument and not the
subjects
3 Aspects of Reliability:
1. Stability
- the extent to which similar results are
obtained on two separate administration of
instrument
 THE INSTRUMENT

3 Aspects of Reliability:
2. Internal Consistency
- the extent to which the item of an
instrument measures the same trait or
attribute and nothing else
3. Equivalence
- the extent to which equivalent results
are obtained by different observers
Errors of Measurement
1. Method factors
1.1 Instrument factors
Ø Clarity of directions
Ø Clarity in wording and ordering of
questions
Ø Format of questions
Ø Poor item sampling
1.2 Situation factors
Ø poor lighting
Ø Extremes temperature
Ø Disturbing noise
ØLocation of data collection
Errors of Measurement
2. Trait factors
2.1 Respondent/Personal factors
Ø General characteristics: test taking skills,
ability to understand instructions
ØTemporary characteristics: emotional
state, fatigue, bias, motivation, hunger,
illness, mood
ØResponse-set bias: enduring
characteristics of the respondents
(social desirability, acquiescence
Errors of Measurement
3. Observer/examiner factors
2.1 Respondent/Personal factors
Ø General characteristics: level of ability,
observational skills, bias in grading
ØTemporary characteristics: emotional
state, fatigue, hunger, illness, mood,
interactions between examiner and test
taker
ØNon-adherence to data collection
methods: improvising questions,
alteration in coding categories, altering
time/duration of testing
Considerations to increase reliability of research
instrument
1. increase the number of items observation
2. eliminate items that are unclear
3. standardize the conditions under which the
test is taken
4. moderate the easiness and difficulty of test
5. minimize the effects of external events.
Postpone the assessment if the major
external event occur near the time of
testing measurement
Considerations to increase reliability of research
instrument
6. Standardize the instructions, and make sure
the subjects take the test under exactly same
conditions
7. keep scoring procedure consistent. Strive for
consistency in grading
 VALIDITY

Validity
- degree to which an instrument
measure what is supposed to measure
- valid when it measure what it claims
as supported by evidence
 Types of Validity

1. Face Validity- the instruments looks as though it

measures the appropriate attribute
• measures how well the items they measure the
appropriate criterion
2. Content validity- if the instrument has an
appropriate sample of items for the attribute
being measured
• Measures how well the items represent the
entire universe of items
 Types of Validity
3. Construct validity – if it truly measures the
abstract concept or construct that it intends to
measure. The more abstract the concept the
more difficult it to establish
Eg. Fear, pain, death and dying process
• Measures how well a test assess some underlying
construct; examines whether test performance
reflect s an underlying related variable or
constructs
 Types of Validity

4. Criterion-related validity- if scores correlate

highly with scores on the criterion, and if it is
useful predictor of other behaviors, experiences
or conditions
Eg. Current skills, aptitude test
4.1 Concurrent validity- if it can distinguish
individuals who differ on a present criterion
• Measures how well a test estimates a criterion
4.2 Predictive validity- if it can differentiates with
adequacy people’s performance on some
future criterion
• Measures how well a test predicts a criterion
Criteria in evaluating research instruments
1. Comprehensibility
2. Efficiency
3. Objectivity
4. Reactivity
5. Sensitivity
6. Specificity
7. Simplicity
8. Speededness
Guidelines in developing an Instruments
1. Suits its functions or purpose as it relates to
particular purpose of the study
2. Base on the study theoretical framework
3. Valid and reliable
4. Gathers adequate and accurate data to test the
study hypotheses and answer questions under
investigation
5. Simple directions
6. Free of bias and built in clues
7. Designs and constructions minimize cheating or
contamination thru outside influence
Methods of Collecting Data
1. Questionnaire
Ø must have a cover letter accompanying
the questionnaire
Advantage of Questionnaire
1. economy of time and money
2. ease of testing its reliability and validity
ability to maintain respondent’s anonymity
and confidentiality
Disadvantages
1. costly printing and mailing
2. low response rate
Disadvantages Questionnaire
3. difficult retrieval of questionnaire
4. requires respondents literacy and
understanding
5. cannot be used for extremes of age

Steps in preparing a Questionnaires

1. decide what information to be sought
2. decide what type of questionnaire should be
used
3. write a first draft of questionnaire
- free response
- multiple choice
Steps in preparing a Questionnaires
4. re-examine and revise the question
5. pre-test the questionnaire
6. edit the questionnaire and specify the
procedure

Guidelines on the Wording of questionnaire

1. use words that are clear and specific
2. use simple, direct and familiar vocabulary
3. keep questions as short as possible
4. avoid double - barreled questions
eg. Are you engage in meditation and yoga
recently
Guidelines on the Wording of questionnaire
5. avoid leading questions which leads the
respondents to a particular answer
eg. Most people favor in RH bill. What do you
think?
6. avoid “loaded” words or emotion-laden
words
eg. Use psychologically affected rather than
psychiatric illness or mentally ill
child with special needs rather than
abnormal, retarded, mongoloid
Guidelines on the Ordering of Questions
1. start with the most interesting questions in
order to capture the respondents’ attention and
interest
2. establish rapport before asking questions
pertaining to sensitive matters
3. for self-administered questionnaire obtain
demographic data at the end. For interviews
obtain demographic data at the beginning
4. use funnel questions: start with the most
general questions progressing to specific
question in a given topic
Guidelines on the Ordering of Questions
5. use filter questions appropriately, carefully and
cautiously

Eg. Have you ever been received treatment for UTI,

if “Yes” answer questions 1-5, if “no” proceed to
questions 6-10
 INTERVIEW
Interview
- the most common type of instruments next to
the questionnaire
Interview schedule – questionnaire is read to the
interviewee
Interview guide- loosely-structured interview
schedule that provides idea about the topic
content of the interview, but allows freedom to
the interviewer to pursue relevant topics in
depth
 INTERVIEW
Elements of an Interview
1. establishing rapport
2. listening analytically
3. probing
3.1 expectant silence: conveys the
message that more is expected
3.2 request for clarification
3.3 request for elaboration
4. motivating
5. maintaining control- questions are ask in a
prescribed manner
Types of Interview
1. Unstructured – is used when the researcher has
no idea about what it is he wants to know, such
that he proceeds with no ideas as to the flow of
question or the kind of information to be
gathered
- conversional and interactive and resemble
conversation
2. Semi-structured interview- uses a topic guide of
questions to be asked
- allows degree of flexibility for the interviewee
Types of Interview
3. Structured – like a semi-structured, the
interviewer uses a prepared topic guide
question, but questions are more focused . This
type of interview does not allow flexibility for
the interviewee
Rules and Guidelines in Interviewing
1. be precise with the choice of words
2. keep questions short
3. use language that is understandable. Avoid jargon or
technical terms
4. use open-ended questions, closed-ended questions
should be avoided
5. observe proper ordering or logical sequencing of
questions
6. avoid leading questions or improper emphasis on
words or phrases, so as not to indicate the answer
desired by the interviewer
7. Avoid loaded or double-barreled questions
Forms of Interview
1. Personal interview
2. Telephone interview

Advantages:
1. the respondents can seek clarification
2. interviewer can observe the non-verbal
communication during the interview session
Checklist
- the instrument used if a target behavior cannot be
adequately or accurately captured with the use of an
interview or a questionnaire

Example of categories
A- always
F- frequently
O- occasionally
S- seldom
N- never or as simple as “Yes” or “No”
The Ten Commandments of Data Collection
1. think about the type of data that will have to be
collected to answer the research questions as early as
you start planning to engage in the research process
2. think about where you will get the data
3. make sure that the data collection form you are using is
clear and easy to use
4. make a duplicate of the data file and keep it in a
separate location once you transfer scores to your data
form or sheets
5. do not rely on other people to collect or transfer your
data unless you have personally trained them and are
confident that they understand the data collection
process as well as you do
The Ten Commandments of Data Collection
6. plan a detailed schedule of when and where you will be
collecting your data. Be prepared for anything and
allocate 25% to 50% more time in your schedule for
unforeseen happenings
7. cultivate possible sources for your participant pool as
soon as possible
8. try to follow up on subjects who missed their testing
session or interview. Call them back and try to re-
schedule
9. never discard original data. Other researchers might
want to use the same database
10. Follow the previous 9. return to the original materials
for further information
Triangulation

•It is an attempt to map out or explain

more fully the richness and complexity
of human behavior by studying it from
more than one standpoint.
STEP #14 Preparing the Data for Analysis

•Coding- process of translating verbal

data into numeric form
•Organization and analysis of data
-statement of purpose
-research questions
-problem statements