Low Earth orbit

A low Earth orbit (LEO) is an Earth-centred orbit with an

altitude of 2,000 km (1,200 mi) or less (approximately one-third
of the radius of Earth),[1] or with at least 11.25 periods per day
(an orbital period of 128 minutes or less) and an eccentricity less
than 0.25.[2] Most of the manmade objects in outer space are in
LEO.[3]

There is a large variety of other sources[4][5][6] that define LEO in

terms of altitude. The altitude of an object in an elliptic orbit can
vary significantly along the orbit. Even for circular orbits, the
altitude above ground can vary by as much as 30 km (19 mi)
(especially for polar orbits) due to the oblateness of Earth's
spheroid figure and local topography. While definitions based on
altitude are inherently ambiguous, most of them fall within the
range specified by an orbit period of 128 minutes because, Orbit size comparison of GPS,
according to Kepler's third law, this corresponds to a semi-major GLONASS, Galileo, BeiDou-2, and Iridium
axis of 8,413 km (5,228 mi). For circular orbits, this in turn constellations, the International Space
corresponds to an altitude of 2,042 km (1,269 mi) above the mean Station, the Hubble Space Telescope, and
geostationary orbit (and its graveyard
radius of Earth, which is consistent with some of the upper
orbit), with the Van Allen radiation belts
altitude limits in some LEO definitions.
and the Earth to scale.[a]
The LEO region is defined by some sources as the region in The Moon's orbit is around 9 times as
space that LEO orbits occupy.[1][7][8][9] Some highly elliptical large as geostationary orbit.[b] (In
orbits may pass through the LEO region near their lowest altitude the SVG file, (https://upload.wikimedia.or
(or perigee) but are not in an LEO Orbit because their highest g/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Comparison_s
altitude (or apogee) exceeds 2,000 km (1,242.7 mi). Sub-orbital atellite_navigation_orbits.svg) hover over
objects can also reach the LEO region but are not in an LEO orbit an orbit or its label to highlight it; click to
because they re-enter the atmosphere. The distinction between load its article.)
LEO orbits and the LEO region is especially important for
analysis of possible collisions between objects which may not
themselves be in LEO but could collide with satellites or debris in LEO orbits.

All crewed space stations to date, as well as the majority of satellites, have been in LEO. From 1968 to 1972
the Apollo program's lunar missions sent humans beyond LEO. Since the end of the Apollo program there
have been no human spaceflights beyond LEO.

Contents
Orbital characteristics
Use of LEO
Disadvantages
Examples
Space debris
See also
Notes
References

Orbital characteristics
The mean orbital velocity needed to maintain a stable low Earth orbit is about 7.8 km/s (28,000 km/h;
17,000 mph), but reduces with increased orbital altitude. Calculated for circular orbit of 200 km (120 mi) it is
7.79 km/s (28,000 km/h; 17,400 mph), and for 1,500 km (930 mi) it is 7.12 km/s (25,600 km/h;
15,900 mph).[10] The delta-v needed to achieve low Earth orbit starts around 9.4 km/s. Atmospheric and
gravity drag associated with launch typically adds 1.3–1.8 km/s (4,700–6,500 km/h; 2,900–4,000 mph) to the
launch vehicle delta-v required to reach normal LEO orbital velocity of around 7.8 km/s (28,080 km/h;
17,448 mph).[11]

The pull of gravity in LEO is only slightly less than on the Earth's surface. This is because the distance to LEO
from the Earth's surface is far less than the Earth's radius. However, an object in orbit is, by definition, in free
fall, since there is no force holding it up. As a result objects in orbit, including people, experience a sense of
weightlessness, even though they are not actually without weight.

Objects in LEO encounter atmospheric drag from gases in the thermosphere (approximately 80–500 km above
the surface) or exosphere (approximately 500 km or 311 mi and up), depending on orbit height. Due to
atmospheric drag, satellites do not usually orbit below 300 km (190 mi). Objects in LEO orbit Earth between
the denser part of the atmosphere and below the inner Van Allen radiation belt.

Equatorial low Earth orbits (ELEO) are a subset of LEO. These orbits, with low inclination to the Equator,
allow rapid revisit times of low-latitude places on Earth and have the lowest delta-v requirement (i.e., fuel
spent) of any orbit, provided they have the direct (not retrograde) orientation with respect to the Earth's
rotation. Orbits with a high inclination angle to the equator are usually called polar orbits.

Higher orbits include medium Earth orbit (MEO), sometimes called intermediate circular orbit (ICO), and
further above, geostationary orbit (GEO). Orbits higher than low orbit can lead to early failure of electronic
components due to intense radiation and charge accumulation.

In 2017, "very low Earth" orbits began to be seen in regulatory filings. These orbits, referred to as "VLEO",
require the use of novel technologies for orbit raising because they operate in orbits that would ordinarily decay
too soon to be economically useful.[12]
Use of LEO
A low Earth orbit requires the lowest amount of energy for satellite
placement. It provides high bandwidth and low communication
latency. Satellites and space stations in LEO are more accessible for
crew and servicing.

Since it requires less energy to place a satellite into a LEO, and a

satellite there needs less powerful amplifiers for successful
transmission, LEO is used for many communication applications, such Play media
as the Iridium phone system. Some communication satellites use much Roughly half an orbit of the ISS.
higher geostationary orbits, and move at the same angular velocity as
the Earth as to appear stationary above one location on the planet.

Disadvantages

Satellites in LEO have a small momentary field of view, only able to observe and communicate with a fraction
of the Earth at a time, meaning a network (or "constellation") of satellites is required to in order to provide
continuous coverage. Satellites in lower regions of LEO also suffer from fast orbital decay, requiring either
periodic reboosting to maintain a stable orbit, or launching replacement satellites when old ones re-enter.

Examples
Earth observation satellites and spy satellites use LEO as they are able to see the surface of the
Earth more clearly by being closer to it. They are also able to traverse the surface of the Earth. A
majority of artificial satellites are placed in LEO,[13] making one complete revolution around the
Earth in about 90 minutes.
The International Space Station is in a LEO about 400 km (250 mi) to 420 km (260 mi) above
Earth's surface,[14] and needs reboosting a few times a year due to orbital decay.
Iridium satellites orbit at about 780 km (480 mi).
Lower orbits also aid remote sensing satellites because of the added detail that can be gained.
Remote sensing satellites can also take advantage of Sun-synchronous LEO orbits at an
altitude of about 800 km (500 mi) and near polar inclination. Envisat (2002–2012) is one
example of an Earth observation satellite that makes use of this particular type of LEO (at
770 km (480 mi)).
GOCE orbited at about 255 km (158 mi) to measure Earth's gravity field.
GRACE were, and GRACE-FO are, orbiting at about 500 km (310 mi)
The Hubble Space Telescope orbits at about 540 km (340 mi) above Earth.
The Chinese Tiangong-2 station was in orbit at about 370 km (230 mi), until its de-orbiting in
2019.

Space debris
The LEO environment is becoming congested with space debris because of the frequency of object launches.
This has caused growing concern in recent years, since collisions at orbital velocities can easily be dangerous,
and even deadly. Collisions can produce even more space debris in the process, creating a domino effect,
something known as Kessler syndrome. The Combined Space Operations Center, part of United States
Strategic Command (formerly the United States Space Command), currently tracks more than 8,500 objects
larger than 10 cm in LEO.[15] However, a limited Arecibo Observatory study suggested there could be
approximately one million objects larger than 2 millimeters,[16] which are too small to be visible from Earth-
based observatories.[17]

See also
Comparison of orbital launch systems
Geostationary orbit (GEO)
Heavy lift launch vehicle
High Earth orbit (HEO)
Highly elliptical orbit (HEO)
List of orbits
Medium Earth orbit (MEO)
Medium-lift launch vehicle
Specific orbital energy examples
Suborbital spaceflight
Van Allen radiation belt

Notes
a. Orbital periods and speeds are calculated using the relations 4π2R3 = T2GM and V2R = GM,
where R, radius of orbit in metres; T, orbital period in seconds; V, orbital speed in m/s; G,
gravitational constant, approximately 6.673 × 10−11 Nm2/kg2; M, mass of Earth, approximately
5.98 × 1024 kg.
b. Approximately 8.6 times (in radius and length) when the moon is nearest (363 104 km ÷
42 164 km) to 9.6 times when the moon is farthest (405 696 km ÷ 42 164 km).

References
1. "IADC Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines" (http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/spacelaw/s
d/IADC-2002-01-IADC-Space_Debris-Guidelines-Revision1.pdf) (PDF). INTER-AGENCY
SPACE DEBRIS COORDINATION COMMITTEE: Issued by Steering Group and Working
Group 4. September 2007. "Region A, Low Earth Orbit (or LEO) Region – spherical region that
extends from the Earth's surface up to an altitude (Z) of 2,000 km"
2. "Current Catalog Files" (https://www.space-track.org/#/recent). Retrieved July 13, 2018. "LEO:
Mean Motion > 11.25 & Eccentricity < 0.25"
3. Sampaio, Jarbas; Wnuk, Edwin; Vilhena de Moraes, Rodolpho; Fernandes, Sandro (2014-01-
01). "Resonant Orbital Dynamics in LEO Region: Space Debris in Focus" (https://www.research
gate.net/publication/273597440). Mathematical Problems in Engineering. 2014: Figure 1:
Histogram of the mean motion of the cataloged objects. doi:10.1155/2014/929810 (https://doi.or
g/10.1155%2F2014%2F929810).
4. "Definition of LOW EARTH ORBIT" (https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/low%20eart
h%20orbit). Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved 2018-07-08.
5. "Frequently Asked Questions" (https://www.faa.gov/space/additional_information/faq/#s1). FAA.
Retrieved 2020-02-14. "LEO refers to orbits that are typically less than 2,400 km (1,491 mi) in
altitude."
 6. Campbell, Ashley (2015-07-10). "SCaN Glossary" (https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/scan/
definitions/glossary/index.html#L). NASA. Retrieved 2018-07-12. "Low Earth Orbit (LEO): A
geocentric orbit with an altitude much less than the Earth's radius. Satellites in this orbit are
between 80 and 2000 kilometers above the Earth's surface."
7. "What Is an Orbit?" (https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/5-8/features/nasa-knows/what-i
s-orbit-58.html). NASA. David Hitt : NASA Educational Technology Services, Alice Wesson :
JPL, J.D. Harrington : HQ;, Larry Cooper : HQ;, Flint Wild : MSFC;, Ann Marie Trotta : HQ;,
Diedra Williams : MSFC. 2015-06-01. Retrieved 2018-07-08. "LEO is the first 100 to 200 miles
(161 to 322 km) of space."
8. Sen, Abhijit; Tiwari, Sanat Kumar (2014). "Charging of space debris in the LEO and GEO
regions". 40th COSPAR Scientific Assembly. 40: PEDAS.1–41–14.
Bibcode:2014cosp...40E2964S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014cosp...40E2964S).
"LEO region (100 kms [sic] to 1000 kms)"
9. Steele, Dylan (2016-05-03). "A Researcher's Guide to: Space Environmental Effects" (https://w
ww.nasa.gov/connect/ebooks/researchers_guide_space_environment_detail.html). NASA. p. 7.
Retrieved 2018-07-12. "the low-Earth orbit (LEO) environment, defined as 200–1,000 km above
Earth's surface"
10. "LEO parameters" (http://www.spaceacademy.net.au/watch/track/leopars.htm).
www.spaceacademy.net.au. Retrieved 2015-06-12.
11. Swinerd, Graham (2008). How Spacecraft Fly. Praxis Publishing. pp. 103–104. ISBN 978-
0387765723.
12. Messier, Doug (2017-03-03). "SpaceX Wants to Launch 12,000 Satellites" (http://www.parabolic
arc.com/2017/03/03/spacex-launch-12000-satellites/). Parabolic Arc. Retrieved 2018-01-22.
13. Holli, Riebeek (2009-09-04). "NASA Earth Observatory" (http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Featu
res/OrbitsCatalog/). earthobservatory.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-11-28.
14. "Higher Altitude Improves Station's Fuel Economy" (http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/statio
n/expeditions/expedition26/iss_altitude.html). NASA. Retrieved 2013-02-12.
15. Fact Sheet: Joint Space Operations Center (http://www.vandenberg.af.mil/library/factsheets/fact
sheet.asp?id=12579) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20100203082814/http://www.vande
nberg.af.mil/library/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=12579) 2010-02-03 at the Wayback Machine
16. archive of astronomy: space junk (http://www.astronomycafe.net/qadir/q1697.html)
17. ISS laser broom, project Orion (http://eugen.leitl.org/tt/msg04534.html) Archived (https://web.arc
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Wayback Machine

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