SUSTAINABLE

LANDSCAPE

Published by:
Centre for Urban Greenery & Ecology
National Parks Board Headquarters
1 Cluny Road
Singapore 259569

© Centre for Urban Greenery & Ecology, 2015

ii

SUSTAINABLE LANDSCAPE
Copyright © Centre for Urban Greenery & Ecology, 2015

The copyright for the chapter on Spontaneous Vegetation shall

reside with the author, Assistant Professor HWANG Yun Hye,
from the Department of Architecture in the School of Design &
Environment, National University of Singapore.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by
any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without the prior written permission of the author, except
in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and
reviews.

Published by
Centre for Urban Greenery & Ecology
National Parks Board
1 Cluny Road
Singapore 259569

ISBN: 978-981-09-5218-1

DISCLAIMER
While the information this book contains is believed to be correct,
it is not a substitute for appropriate professional advice. In no
event shall NParks or CUGE be liable for any special, incidental,
indirect or consequential damages of any kind arising out of or in
connection with the use of this book, whether or not advised of the
possibility of damage, and on any theory of liability.

The publication is provided “as is” without warranty of any kind,

either expressed or implied, including, but not limited to, the
implied warranties or merchantability, trees for a particular purpose
or non-infringement. Descriptions of, or references to, products
or publications do not imply endorsement of those products or
publications.
 iii

CONTENTS
Introduction 1
Lawns 2
Parks 14
Roadside Planting 31
Waterway Planting 47
Skyrise Greenery 69
Spontaneous Vegetation 98
Innovation in Automation and 106
Mechanisation
Annex A: Case Scenarios for 115
Potential Productivity Savings
Annex B: Checklist for Sustainable 127
Landscape
List of Contributors 129
List of CUGE Publications 130
 1

INTRODUCTION
This book invites landscape developers,
designers, installers and practitioners to take a
closer look at managing urban landscape from a
sustainability perspective. It addresses the major
problems of sustainable landscape management
which are labour shortage and productivity. By
focusing on principles of productive maintenance
for various landscape components and reviewing
the infrastructure needed for equipment and
machinery access, this book provides new and
creative solutions for future design and upgrading
works.

The expertise of managers, practitioners and

researchers has been drawn upon in identifying
common maintenance issues and offering
alternatives for various scenarios. This book hopes
to close gaps involving horticultural management
techniques and technology between the stages
of planning design, execution and subsequent
maintenance; and open up the way for more
sustainable approaches and practices for future
new and upgrading project developments. It does
not attempt to offer any direct one-on-one solutions
or site specific situations, but seeks to pave the way
forward to raise a better mechanised and more
productive landscape maintenance workforce.
2

LAWNS
Sustainable Turf Design
and Maintenance

1. Site Preparation and Turf Planting

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Grading and drainage
1.3 Soil mix
1.4 Soil compaction
1.5 Turf planting
1.6 Hydrosprigging

2. Soil Fertility Management

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Major source of nutrients
2.3 Inducing stress tolerance

3. Species Selection
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Stress tolerance
3.3 Low maintenance

4. Weed Management
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Major sources of weeds
4.3 Sustainable weed control

5. Environmental Stress Management

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Traffic stress
5.3 Shade stress
5.4 Waterlogging stress (wet soil)
5.5 Combined stress

6. Productive Turf Mowing

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Lawn design for effective mowing/grass
cutting
6.3 Grass cutting on slopes
6.4 Reducing mowing frequency through PGR
application
 3
1. Site Preparation and Turf Planting Site Preparation and
Turf Planning

1.1 Introduction
The planting medium is the most important factor that determines plant growth
Soil Fertility
and stability. Site construction involves key steps such as choosing the right Management
soil mix, grading and drainage. Any compromise in site preparation will
incur more costs in terms of maintenance and manpower.
Species Selection
1.2 Grading and drainage
Grading and drainage are very important to ease turf maintenance. Grading
enables uniform mowing and drainage helps to prevent waterlogging.
Inadequate drainage can be a major problem. The drainage should be Weed Management
adequate to ensure root zone water infiltration rates of at least 50 mm/hour,
and in high traffic areas it should be at least 100 mm/hour. Ultimately both
grading and drainage will allow for a better turf root system, leading to a
turf stand that is healthier and of higher quality. Environmental Stress
Management

There are several steps in the grading process:

§ Remove and dispose of all existing onsite turf sod prior to grading.
Productive Turf
§ Eliminate undesirable weeds. Mowing
§ Retain the original soil if it is in good condition.
§ Grade the sub-base and add drainage layers and/or root zone layer when
preparing for a high utility lawn.
§ If a site has developed soil, save the valuable top soil (30 cm) for the turf
root zone.
§ Establish sub-base grading to provide an even and stable foundation for
the root zone media.
§ Ideally, a 2% grading should be incorporated into turf areas.
§ Grading must be done away from existing structures.
§ Remove all large rocks, construction debris and undecomposed organic
matter during grading.

1.3 Soil mix

The right soil mix has to be chosen based on the following factors:
§ Texture
§ Water holding capacity
§ Organic content
§ Resilience to traffic.

Based on these properties, NParks has an Approved Soil Mix (ASM)

recommended for turfing in Singapore. The ASM consists of 3 parts loamy
soil, 2 parts mature compost and 1 part sand. The compost must be well
matured before it is incorporated into the ASM. Studies conducted by CUGE
have shown that this soil mix is suited for turfing in parks and streetscapes.
However, it has to be altered depending on where it is used. For example,
high traffic sites will need less loamy soil and more sand in the mix.

1.4 Soil compaction

Soil compaction is the compressing of soil particles to reduce pore space.
Pore spaces are the gaps between the soil particles that are filled by air.
Compaction due to human traffic and vehicle traffic reduces the pore space
as well as the oxygen level in the soil. Turfgrass roots require oxygen for
respiration. The growth of turfgrass can be affected by root zone anoxia
4 (when there is no oxygen in the soil) and hypoxia (when the oxygen level
is low). A poor or inappropriate soil mix will be easily compacted and will
need to be aerated frequently through different techniques.

1.5 Turf planting

There are many turf planting methods such as seeding, sodding, close
turfing, plugging and hydrosprigging, depending on how quickly and
effectively a lawn needs to be established. Seeding is not recommended for
commercial turf planting as it takes more time for establishment compared
to vegetative propagation. Sodding and close turfing are more common
and effective methods in Singapore. Sodding is done using turf sods of
dense and thatchy species. Close turfing is similar to sodding, but uses turf
species like Cowgrass that does not form dense sods and thatch. Buying
clean and quality sods plays a vital role in turf planting and post-planting
maintenance. When low quality sods are used, there will be compatibility
problems between the turf root and soil mix. A quality sod must be free of
weeds and soil (loamy) that was raised in sand-based nursery beds. Turf root
and soil mix incompatibility problems arise when low quality sods are used.

Compacted soil

Good sod with good roots and less soil, grown on sand

Poor quality sod with clay soil

1.6 Hydrosprigging Site Preparation and 5
Turf Planning
Hydrosprigging is a planting method that utilises a slurry of mulch, grass
sprigs, fertiliser, tackifier, dye (optional) and water. The slurry is usually
sprayed using a hose pipe with high pressure. Hydrosprigging is widely
Soil Fertility
used for turf planting in golf courses, roadside planting and larger areas, Management
especially on slopes where there is a significant risk of erosion occurring during
the period of initial turf establishment. Besides the major slurry components
(mulch, grass sprigs, fertiliser, tackifier and water), other additives used to
Species Selection
stimulate and sustain growth can also be included. Commonly used mulches
are either wood fibre mulch or paper mulch.

The main role of the mulch is to hold moisture, act as a substrate, protect Weed Management
the sprigs and improve the soil quality as it breaks down. Depending on the
availability and cost, any kind of cellulose-rich mulch can be evaluated and
incorporated. Common cellulose-rich mulches include coco peat, sugarcane
baggase and paddy straw. The mulch particle size must not exceed 20mm Environmental Stress
Management
so that the spray’s nozzle will not be clogged.

Grass sprigs are nothing but live stolons and rhizomes harvested and
Productive Turf
processed to achieve the desired size (mm diameter) in order to pass through Mowing
the spray nozzle. The sprigs can either be mixed in the slurry and applied
or spread over the soil followed by the slurry application (excluding sprigs),
depending on one’s convenience. Nutrient demand is fulfilled by adding a
starter fertiliser (with an NPK ratio of 1:2:1) at the recommended dosage.

Tackifiers or tackifying agents are horticultural glue that binds together the
various compounds of the slurry and “stick” it to the soil. It prevents the slurry
from being washed away from the soil. One of the most commonly used
organic tackifier is guar gum, which is extracted from the seeds of cluster
beans (Cyamopsis tetragonolobus).

Hydrosprigging has many advantages over conventional planting methods

like sodding and close turfing, such as:

§ Time saving
§ Labour saving
§ Increased productivity
§ Unaffected by terrain, soil moisture or obstacles
§ Even planting with higher survivability
§ Lower cost
§ Faster turf coverage.

Hydrosprigging application using cocopeat

mulch slurry
6
2. Soil Fertility Management

2.1 Introduction
Turfgrass health and tolerance to stress (both biotic and abiotic/environmental
stress) depends on the health of the soil, which includes both soil physical
and chemical properties. The importance of the physical properties of soil
has been already covered under “Site preparation and turf planting”. Soil
chemical properties include nutrient status, pH, electrical conductivity (EC),
etc. Turfgrasses need nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) for
normal growth like all other plants. Turfgrasses require high N compared to
other ornamental plants. Lack of these major nutrients will make turfgrasses
more susceptible to stress factors indirectly leading to high maintenance for
achieving a quality lawn.

2.2 Major sources of nutrients

The two major sources of nutrients are the soil mix (mainly compost) and
regular fertiliser application. Studies conducted by CUGE have shown that
turf grown on a nutrient rich ASM with well-matured compost can sustain
quality growth even without any fertiliser application for a period of 15
months. For most of the sites where soil conditions are poor, a monthly
application of fertiliser is a must. Slow release nitrogenous turf fertilisers with
NPK 4:1:2 must be used. The application rate varies from 0.1 kg N/100m2
to 0.4 kg N/100 m2, depending on the soil status and lawn usage.

3. Species Selection

3.1 Introduction
Turfgrass species growth and sustainability depends on climate, soil pH,
environmental stress and maintenance level. Turfgrass species are broadly
classified into warm season and cool season turfgrasses. Warm season
turfgrasses perform well in tropical places like Singapore. There are around
12 common warm season turfgrass species. The most common ones in
Singapore are Axonopus compressus (cowgrass), Axonopus sp. (pearlgrass),
Paspalum vaginatum (seashore paspalum), Stenotaphrum secundatum (St.
Augustinegrass) and Zoysia matrella (Manilagrass or carpetgrass). These
turfgrass species differ in characteristics and environmental preference (stress
tolerance). Selecting the right turfgrass species for the right site condition
solves many problems related to maintenance. This ultimately paves the way
for a productive turf and sustainable turf maintenance.

3.2 Stress tolerance

Some of the common warm season turfgrasses have the ability to overcome
certain environmental stresses and exhibit acceptable turf quality. This is made
possible through morphological, physiological and anatomical adaptations
which occur in these turfgrass species through their unique, naturally in-built
genotype. These stress-tolerant behaviours can also be found in some of the
improved cultivars that are bred for such qualities.

3.3 Low maintenance

Low turf maintenance, in a practical sense, means a reduction in mowing
frequency. Other low maintenance practices are only secondary. A selection
of turf species suited for low maintenance should be considered before
planning for fewer mowing frequencies. Slow-growing turf species that
exhibit good turf quality even under very low frequency of mowing are best Site Preparation and 7
Turf Planning
suited. Common turf species with a low vertical growth rate are pearlgrass
(Axonopus compressus), Manilagrass (Zoysia matrella) and Serangoongrass
(Digitaria didactyla). The selected turf species must also be accompanied by
Soil Fertility
special management practices (low inputs). Management

4. Weed Management
Species Selection
4.1 Introduction
Anything other than the main intended turf species is referred to as a
weed. Weeds compete with the main turf for nutrients, water, space and
light. Weeds affect the uniformity of a lawn and make it aesthetically poor. Weed Management
Weeding needs to be done effectively by uprooting completely (manual
weeding) and killing completely (chemical weeding). Improper weeding
will result in an increase in the weed population instead of decreasing or
controlling it. Environmental Stress
Management

4.2 Major sources of weeds

Weeds are usually propagated and spread through seeds, stolons and
rhizomes. The major sources of weeds are: Productive Turf
Mowing
§ Seeds and stolons in the parent soil (existing site)
§ Sod material
§ Soil tools
§ Soil mix
§ Compost.

4.3 Sustainable weed control

Sustainable weed control starts right from the site preparation by checking
on all major weed sources. This will lead to a low maintenance (in terms of
weeding) and high productivity (time and labour savings).

Steps to be followed for a sustainable weed control:

§ Existing weeds in a site must be killed completely before site preparation.
§ The ingredients in the soil mix must be free of weeds.
§ The compost used for topping and also in the soil mix must be well matured
(free of weeds).
§ Sod materials must be weed free and purchased from standard nurseries.
§ Clean tools must be used during site preparation and maintenance.
§ During maintenance, regular weeding must be done before the weeds start
to flower.

5. Environmental Stress Management

5.1 Introduction
Turfgrasses need to undergo various stress factors especially in an urban
environment. Plant stresses are broadly classified into two — biotic and
abiotic stress. Biotic stress is mostly caused by biotic agents such as pests
and diseases. Abiotic stress is caused by various environmental factors
such as shade, water, traffic and temperature. These environmental stresses
cannot be altered and can only be overcome by species selection and
special management practices.
8 5.2 Traffic stress
Traffic stress is a major issue for utility turf. Utility or recreational turf refers
to turfgrass sites that are not only developed for aesthetic purposes but also
for human activities. All parks, sports fields and golf courses come under
utility turfgrass sites. The prime objective of laying turfgrasses in parks is to
provide space for recreational activities and to hold events. There is thus a
challenge of maintaining good quality turf under severe traffic stress.

Traffic stress is the result of soil compaction and turfgrass wear and tear
caused by human activities and vehicle movement. Traffic stress is influenced
by various factors including soil type, turfgrass species and soil fertility.
Both the selection of traffic-tolerant turfgrass species and suitable soil types
(during site establishment) must be given equal importance and attention.
The traffic tolerance of common warm season grasses, based on a study
conducted by CUGE, is given in the diagram below.
MANILAGRASS SEASHORE COWGRASS
PASPALUM

HIGH TOLERANCE LEVEL LOW

Impact of traffic stress on three different turfgrass species

Manilagrass (left), Seashore paspalum (middle) and Cowgrass (right)

Special management practices turf under traffic stress:

§ Fertiliser application must be regular (0.2–0.4 kg N/100 m2/month).
§ Optimum moisture level must be maintained in the soil through proper drain-
age.
§ Regular aeration must be practised (please refer to CUGE Guidelines for
Tropical Turfgrass Installation and Management).
 Site Preparation and 9
Turf Planning

Soil Fertility
Management

Species Selection

Weed Management

Environmental Stress
Management

Productive Turf
Mowing

Turfgrass traffic stress in parks (above) and streetscapes (below)

A landscape designer must be able to observe human preference and avoid

human access points (shortcuts) when designing a lawn. Failing to do so
will result in man-made paths (bare patches or exposed soil surface) as a
result of high traffic. More emphasis must be given to this aspect rather than
landscape symmetry and aesthetics, as failing to do so will ultimately spoil
the aesthetics and increase maintenance.

5.3 Shade stress

Shade is another key issue for turfgrasses in Singapore, both in parks and
streetscapes with a high tree population. Turfgrasses are also an essential
component of urban greenery as they act as groundcovers. This imposes
challenges when establishing and maintaining turfgrasses under tree shade
that cannot be avoided.

Shade stress imposed by trees (left) and concrete structures (right)

10 Selecting shade-tolerant turfgrass species is the best solution. Most warm
season turfgrass species can tolerate partial shade but under full shade,
only few turfgrass species can do well. Partial shade and full shade refer
to the number of light hours per day that sites receive. If a site receives full
sunlight for only 6 hours or less per day, it is in partial shade. Sites that
are in full shade do not receive full sunlight throughout the day. In general
terms, shade stress refers to full shade. Improved cultivars of shade-tolerant
turfgrass species have better shade tolerance. Under intense shade (>70%),
it is recommended to use shade-tolerant groundcover plants. The shade
tolerance of common warm season grasses, based on research by CUGE, is
given in the table below.

SHADE LEVEL

50% 70% 80%

St. Augustinegrass HIGH St. Augustinegrass HIGH Pearlgrass

Pearlgrass Pearlgrass St. Augustinegrass
Cowgrass Cowgrass Cowgrass
Serangoongrass Serangoongrass Serangoongrass
US carpetgrass US carpetgrass US carpetgrass
Seashore
Seashore paspalum Seashore paspalum
paspalum
Manilagrass Manilagrass Manilagrass
Japanese
Japanese lawngrass Japanese lawngrass
lawngrass
Templegrass Templegrass Templegrass
Bahiagrass Bahiagrass Bahiagrass
Bermudagrass Bermudagrass Bermudagrass
Kikuyugrass LOW Kikuyugrass LOW Kikuyugrass

The turfgrass species which showed acceptable turf quality under various shade
levels are highlighted above. Under 50% and 70% shade, Pearlgrass was rated lower
than St. Augustinegrass and was on par with Cowgrass because of its slow growth
and spread. Under 80% shade, however, Pearlgrass was a better performer com-
pared to all other turfgrass species.

Special management practices turf for under shade stress conditions:

§ For turfgrass species under shade stress conditions, close mowing must be
avoided.
§ Mowing height can be fixed at 50–70 mm from soil surface.
§ Fertiliser application must be moderate (0.2 kg N/100 m2/ year) as excess
nitrogen will lead to a high incidence of diseases.

5.4 Wet soils (waterlogging

stress)
Wet soils and flooded conditions are
generally not suitable for plants except
aquatic and semi-aquatic plants. Still,
planting has to be done in wet soils
to obtain a uniform green cover. In
addition to the aesthetic value of a site,
turfgrasses also contribute to biodiversity
enhancement and phytoremediation.
Waterlogged conditions
Ameliorating wet conditions and Site Preparation and 11
Turf Planning
selecting tolerant turf species
are the two important points to
be considered before planting
Soil Fertility
turf in wet soils. Between these Management
two, priority must be given to soil
amelioration. Selecting tolerant
turf species gains more importance
Species Selection
under circumstances where soil
amelioration is not possible. For
example, soil amelioration is not
possible at sites near lakes and Weed Management
rivers where wet soil conditions will
occur irrespective of the soil type
and drainage. Turf quality on par
with a well-maintained turf (normal Environmental Stress
Management
aerated soils) cannot be expected
under wet soils even with tolerant turf
species. The waterlogging tolerance
of common warm season grasses Productive Turf
Mowing
based on a study by CUGE is given
in the table on the right.

Special management practices for

turf under wet soil conditions:

§ For these turfgrass species (under

wet conditions), mowing has to be
done at a minimum level.
§ To reduce flooding injury, at least a
portion (30–40%) of the turfgrass
must be exposed to atmospheric
oxygen because atmospheric oxy-
gen needs to be passed to the roots
through aerenchyma.
§ Mowing height can be fixed by
leaving 50 mm of live shoots above
the water level or above the wet
soil surface.
§ Fertiliser application must be mini-
mal (0.1–0.2 kg N/100 m2/ year)
as the nutrient uptake will be less.
Also, excess fertiliser might injure
the turf.

5.5 Combined stress

Urban environments often have conditions where complex stresses prevail.
The most common complex stress is a combination of shade and traffic
stress. Singapore’s parks are mainly for recreation and have a high tree
population. As a result, there is both traffic and shade stress. To overcome
such problems, species selection has to be done by choosing a turfgrass
species that is moderate to highly tolerant to both these stresses.
12
6. Productive Turf Mowing

6.1 Introduction
Mowing is the most important turf maintenance activity that determines
productivity in terms of cost and manpower. Regular mowing and grass
cutting is a must for an aesthetically pleasing, accessible and quality lawn.
Mowing frequency cannot be fixed based on standards. It should be guided
by utility and growth rate of turfgrass, which can vary depending on the
following aspects:
§ Utility:
♦ Type of sports
♦ Park lawns
♦ Streetscape turf
♦ Event lawns.

§ Turfgrass growth rate:

♦ Turfgrass species
♦ Soil fertility
♦ Irrigation
♦ Climatic factors.

Mowing has to be done based on the turf’s conditions and needs. This way,
an effective mowing schedule will help to increase productivity. A selection
of slow-growing (vertical growth) turfgrass species is also important for
productive turf maintenance.

6.2 Designing lawns for effective mowing and grass

cutting
In landscape design, the lawn or turf should be well integrated with other
components such as trees, shrubs, rocks, hard surfaces, furniture, etc., to
ease maintenance. Otherwise, these components can become major hurdles
for turf mowing and ultimately lead to high turf maintenance. The following
criteria must be followed while designing to
integrate the turf with other components:
§ Grass surface must be on par or slightly
higher than hard surfaces (pavements or
paths) to ease turf mowing.
§ Narrow strips of grass and small grass
patches must be avoided as they can incur
significant maintenance.
§ Planting a turf close to a tree base and trees
with shallow roots must be avoided. The tree
base can instead be covered with mulch until
a certain diameter.
§ Mowing hurdles such as rocks, trees and
shrubs must be minimal to ease mowing.
Continuous and uniform lawns are more
desirable.
§ Turf planting on steep slopes where grass
cutting can be performed only by using
backpack grass cutters must be avoided. Low
maintenance ground covers can be planted instead.
§ The ground underneath benches/seats must have a hard surface instead of
 grass to reduce maintenance. Site Preparation and 13
Turf Planning
§ Turf components must have a proper access for mowing machines.

Apart from designing, proper site construction and planting also play a
Soil Fertility
vital role in promoting effective mowing. As discussed previously under Management
site construction, grading and levelling are very much important. Uneven
planting, uneven ground and poor site restoration will lead to uneven
mowing.
Species Selection

6.3 Reducing mowing frequency through PGR application

Mowing requires the use of manpower and fuel. Coupled with the frequency
required, it incurs a significant cost. The application of plant growth Weed Management
regulators (PGR) helps to reduce the vertical growth of turfgrass, hence
reducing mowing frequency.

An anti-gibberellin compound (plant hormone that promotes shoot Environmental Stress

Management
elongation) can be applied to regulate the growth and development of
turfgrass by reducing the synthesis of gibberellins in a plant system and
regulating it. Trinexapacethyl is an anti-gibberellin compound that can be
applied on turfgrass to keep the leaf blades short as it restricts vertical Productive Turf
Mowing
growth. Through PGR application, the mowing frequency of a lawn can be
reduced.

One PGR application on turf can replace 4 times of mowing (5 times for
streetscape). Translated into cost reduction, PGR application can save
about 30% of total mowing costs and 70% of manpower requirements. As
a result, landscape productivity can be enhanced by a reduction in labour
requirement.

AXONOPUS PASPALUM ZOYSIA

TURF SPECIES
COMPRESSUS VAGINATUM MATRELLA

CONCENTRATION
OF PGR
1.5 L/ha 1.2 L/ha 1 L/ha

Recommended rate of PGR (Trinexapacethyl) application

Untreated Treated
PGR application in Zoysia matrella resulted in reduction of leaf sizes, hence reducing
mowing frequency
14

PARKS
Park Maintenance Productivity

1. Softscape
1.1 Plants
1.2 Mulching

2. Hardscape
2.1 Paving materials
2.2 Park amenities
2.3 Other park features

3. Themed Gardens
3.1 Butterfly gardens
3.2 Dragonfly ponds
3.3 Fragrant gardens
3.4 Herb gardens
 15
1. Softscape Softscape

1.1 Plants
Plants are key softscape components of landscape design. Being living
Hardscape
organisms, their maintenance methodology and regime are very different
from that of hardscapes like shelters and benches. Plants change in form,
shape, size and behaviour over time and seasons. These changes have to
be taken into consideration during the design and planning stages so that Themed Gardens
future maintenance issues can be reduced to a minimum.

1.1.1 Trees
Tree maintenance tends to be site and species specific. Different species
of trees behave differently under different site conditions. It is important
during the design stage to ensure that plants are placed at the best planting
locations.

a) Deciduous plants: These plants shed their leaves seasonally and can cause
leaf-littering problems to their surroundings. Special attention must be given
in proposing the locations of these trees at the planning and design stages,
to deal with the effects of falling leaves and flower petals.

Deciduous trees should be located away from water bodies as leaves that
fall in the water will need to be removed, increasing maintenance work.
Pumps and filters that are choked by fallen leaves will incur costly repairs.
The planting of deciduous trees near surface drains will also result in drains
being choked as well as stagnant water, which can lead to mosquito
breeding. Extra effort would have to be put in to clear the chokage.

Deciduous trees should not be

selected along the roads as fallen
leaves on the roads will be a
maintenance issue. This applies
to trees with big or heavy fruits
as well as these fruits may fall on
passing vehicles or pedestrians.
Deciduous trees should be
planted away from footpaths and
areas where there is pedestrian
movement to prevent accidents.
Fallen flower petals, for instance,
may cause slip and fall. They may
also be aesthetically unpleasant.

b) Design for tree pruning: Trees

that require regular pruning in
parks should be located near an
access way for trucks (at least
4m wide). This is to facilitate
the use of cranes for pruning
Deciduous trees (Tabebuia rosea) shed leaves
and eliminate the need for tree and flowers
climbing. A sufficient turning
radius should also be provided when planning the access way in order to
bring the trucks and cranes in and out of the park easily.
16

The ground must also be able to withstand the weight of the crane to carry out tree
pruning

1.1.2 Palms
a) Cluster palms: Cluster palms are often used as hedges or for screening in
parks. They are often planted in areas near toilets or other facilities in parks
that require screening.

Some cluster palms have spikes or spines on them, e.g. Oncosperma

tigillarium. These palms should not be planted near footpaths or in areas
where there is public access.

Due to the dense foliage of some cluster palm species, it is important to

eliminate possible blind spots that would be formed by the placement of
the palms when designing the planting plan. This is especially important if
the palms are planted next to a cycling paths. It is extremely dangerous as
cyclists travelling at high speed would not be able to see pedestrians who
are around the corner, behind a cluster of dense palms.

It is also important to note that palm roots tend to grow downwards, unlike
that of a tree, which tends to grow laterally. This allows palms to be grown
in confined spaces like planter boxes or narrow planting verges.

b) Single stem palms: Single stem palms are often planted in front of park
entrances or around significant areas of the park as accents or features.
This is especially true for some of the more majestically looking species like
Roystonea regia, Livistonia rotundifolia, Phoenix sylvestris and Prichardia
pacifica.

Although single stem palms do not provide much shade, they generally
require less maintenance as compared to trees. However, it is still necessary
to remove any fallen fronds on site as the sheaths of the fronds often collect
water and might result in mosquito breeding. It is important to regularly
remove dead fronds and fruits as they are often heavy and can cause severe
injury to park users if they fall from height. Very often, the palms are so tall
that a boom lift or crane is required to access the fronds for maintenance.
 Softscape 17

Hardscape

Themed Gardens

Palms require regular maintenance to remove fronds and fruits

1.1.3 Shrubs
Shrubs are commonly used to enhance landmarks, mark boundaries and for
screening. Using the correct species for the right purpose is important, for
example, to screen a substation or block of toilets, the shrub selected has to
be dense, low branching and upright, like a hedge. A commonly selected
species for this purpose is Syzygium myrtifolium (Eugenia oleina).

Shrubs generally require higher maintenance as compared to trees. However,

the correct selection of shrub species for a given location and environment
can eliminate many of these maintenance issues. Some shrubs require a
high level of maintenance because they need to be fertilised and watered
frequently, especially at the establishment stage.

Syzygium myrtifolium is an effective hedge due to its dense and colourful foliage

Some shrubs tend to become ‘leggy’ if not pruned properly. A few examples
of common species that exhibits this characteristic are Jatropha integerrima,
Caesalpinia pulcherrima and Lagerstroemia indica. To reduce the frequency
of pruning, these shrubs should be planted behind shorter, denser shrubs
or groundcovers in a planting composition. This way, the shorter shrubs or
groundcovers can help screen off the bare lower portions of these ‘leggy’ shrubs.
18

‘Leggy’ shrubs (Caesalpinia pulcherrima) with bare lower branches

Species selected for planting in a specific environment should be those that

will adapt well to the site conditions. For example, shrub species selected
for planting at coastlines need to easily adapt to sandy soils and salt sprays
in order to flourish.

Very often, groundcovers and lawns are trampled over by park users causing
damage to plants and puddles of mud to be formed on the lawns. This is
especially the case when the shrubs are in the way of the shortest route
of circulation in the park. This then makes circulation planning in the park
during the design and development stages of a park extremely important.
Careful consideration should be given to human behaviour while travelling
from point A to point B in parks.

1.1.4 Groundcovers
Groundcovers are often planted next to or over hard objects like retaining
walls and planter boxes for aesthetic purposes, to help soften the otherwise
hard edges. They are also planted on slopes to help stabilise them and
prevent soil erosion on slopes. Some species of groundcovers can tolerate
shade and can be planted at the foot of shady trees and in the shadows
of building structures. Low groundcovers, however, are not suitable to be
planted in areas where there are high pedestrian and vehicular traffic, like
car parks. Surface material, tall dense shrubs, or hard paving is generally
preferred in these situations.

Groundcovers generally require relatively low maintenance. Ferns, for

example, can go without pruning for months. During the design and
development stages, care must be taken to ensure that the corners of
groundcover beds are not at an acute angle as park users would just take a
shortcut and trample over the planting beds.

1.1.5 Bamboo
Bamboo is generally not proposed in parks unless it meets certain thematic
requirements. For example, at a Chinese or Japanese themed garden. This is
because most bamboo species shed massive amounts of leaves and if planted
near a water body, can cause maintenance problems. When planted near
drains, the shed leaves can cause the drains and other waterways to choke,
resulting in mosquito breeding and even flooding.
Some species of bamboo are extremely dense in growth habit and can be Softscape 19
difficult to maintain when rubbish is trapped inside the clusters. Rats can
nest within the clusters, too, and bring about hygiene and snake problems
in parks.
Hardscape

Themed Gardens

Bamboo shed leaves heavily and require frequent sweeping

Bamboo is known to be a sustainable building material because of its

strength and rapid growth rate. However, because of this, bamboo can be
extremely aggressive and invasive. Frequent pruning is required to prevent
the bamboo cluster from growing sideways too quickly.

1.1.6 Climbers
Climbers are used in sit-
uations when plants are
required at a higher level
where soil cannot be locat-
ed, for example, on trel-
lises, link ways, pavilion
roofs, bridges, pergolas.
They only require a small
planting space at ground
level. Some species of
climbers have showy inflo-
rescence (such as Bauhin-
ia kockiana, Thunbergia
grandiflora, Allamanda
cathartica and Lonicera
japonica) and are pop-
ularly used to green up
structures.

Dense and heavy climbers require strong structural

support
20 Some common problems faced when using climbers are:
§ A lack of water on the ground can often result in the browning of the
climber’s leaves. This can be mitigated by a careful selection of species as
some require less water. For flowering climbers, it is encouraged to add
fertiliser every 3 months.
§ Some climbers grow into a dense, thick layer and bees and hornets tend to
build their nests in such denseness. Frequent pruning is required to avoid
this.
§ Dense climbers also exert a lot of weight on supporting structures, sometimes
resulting in the structural failure of these structures. The design of the structure
should have a loading capacity to withstand the eventual weight of the
climbers and maintenance crew and equipment.
§ The design of the structures that will hold up the climbers should also take
into consideration the growth habit of the climbers. Trellis or cables that
are used to support the climbers are often spaced too far apart and certain
species of climbers are unable to span that kind of gap.

1.1.7 Lawns
Lawns provide green open space in parks. Many parks have large open
lawns for occasional events. Although cow grass (Axonopus compressus) is
commonly used, other grass species may be used to create a fine lawn effect.
Please refer to the previous chapter, “Lawns”, for more information about
lawns and lawn management.

1.2 Mulching
Mulching is performed on planted trees, palms, shrubs and groundcovers to
help retain moisture in the soil around the plants and keep weeds out of the
planting site. Composted mulch will also break down over time and provide
nutrients for the plants.

Wood chips are often used as a material for mulching. However, if the
chips are not broken down or decomposed properly, maintenance issues
will crop up. Decomposing wood chips in soil causes the soil to become
acidic due to nitrogen drawdown during the decomposing process of
wood chips, which is not ideal for the growth of most plants. Moreover, the
decomposing wood chips can be contaminated with millipede eggs, and
when they hatch, the site will be infested with millipedes.

Decomposing wood chips infested with millipedes

When mulching the planting site of a tree, it is important to apply the mulch Softscape 21
away from the collar of the tree. This is because the heat generated when the
mulch starts to break down, combined with the retention of moisture caused
by mulching, will cause the root collar of the tree to decay.
Hardscape

2. Hardscape

2.1 Paving materials Themed Gardens

2.1.1 Asphalt
Asphalt is preferred over other materials for use in parks because it is more
conducive to jog and cycle on. This is due to the shock absorbing quality
that asphalt possesses. The relatively rougher texture also provides friction
for both cyclists and joggers. On top of that, asphalt is relatively porous and
allows water to percolate through it and into the soil.

Asphalt is naturally black but colour additives can be added. The base must
be stable and well compacted to prevent cracks and repair.

Asphalt is most suitable for cycling paths in parks and park connectors

2.1.2 Cast in-situ concrete

Concrete is commonly used as paving finish as it is easy to repair. Concrete
paving must be constructed with reinforcement steel bars on well-compacted
base and with expansion joints for large surfaces. The surfaces can be
slippery when wet or stained with algae and dirt and have to be cleaned by
using high-pressure jet wash.

Concrete has to be reinforced with steel bars according to load requirements

by Professional Engineers. Concrete benches tend to be hot under the sun,
and when used for large surfaces, expansion joints need to be provided
to prevent cracks. For large areas or long tracks, laying asphalt would be
faster.

2.1.3 Concrete pavers

Concrete or block pavers are often considered to be more aesthetically
pleasant when compared to asphalt and cast in-situ concrete. However,
pavers protrude out when tree roots spread and grow underneath, or
because of soil settlement. This makes the surface uneven and it becomes a
tripping hazard. The foundation should thus be prepared well before laying
pavers to prevent future problems like soil settlement.
22

Avoid having grass in crevices to reduce maintenance

Sometimes, pavers are laid in such a way that grass is allowed to grow in
the crevices between pavers. This often leads to a maintenance issue as it is
difficult to cut grass on such a surface.

2.1.4 Gravel
Loose gravel may be used as an inorganic mulch to prevent weed growth
or at locations where there is water ponding to ease surface drainage.
However, it is important to keep loose gravel and grass apart for safety
during grass cutting. Loose gravel that come in contact with the rotating
blades of a cutting machine can hit anyone nearby and cause injury.

Loose gravel beside grass can cause grasscutting hazard

When used as a subsoil drainage, loose gravel may choke with silt over time
and cause drainage failure. It is necessary to repair the affected areas by
replacing the filter membrane or separator underneath it.

2.2 Park amenities

2.2.1 Lights
One of the major causes of lighting failure in parks is water seepage in light
fixtures. Designs should avoid specifying embedded inground lighting in
exposed areas. Another common problem is improper routing and overload
caused by multiple lights, possibly from subsequent add-on installations. Softscape 23
Regular maintenance checks, repair and servicing are required to ensure
light fixtures are in working condition. All lighting and associated electrical
cabling works must be carried out by a licensed electrical worker (LEW).
Hardscape

2.2.2 Handrails
Handrails should be provided for safety along ramps and steep steps/
staircases according to the guidelines in BCA Code on Accessibility in the Themed Gardens
Built Environment. Designs should be elderly friendly and should avoid sharp
corners and acute bends for park users with disabilities.

When considering the structural strength of different materials, it is important

to note that composite wood can warp depending on the composite materials’
exposure to the elements. They are durable but generally expensive to replace.
Stainless steel handrails are also durable but can be slippery when wet and
uncomfortable to hold when exposed to the heat and glare of sunlight.

Handrails provided for staircase and ramp

2.2.3 Bollards
Bollards are used to control and regulate the access of motorised vehicles
into parks. However, poor planning and design often results in the poor
location of bollards. This, in return, often results in vehicles accidentally
reversing into them and damaging them. A constant need to replace
damaged bollards will increase maintenance costs and efforts. As such,
placing the bollards away from turning points and blind spots of drivers
will reduce the need to replace them. Reflective bands on bollards will
improve their visibility at night. In areas where no underground services
are located, retractable bollards can be considered.

It is also important to ensure that the

material selected for the bollards is
durable and of good quality. PVC
bollards are good for cyclists as they
will not get hurt if they hit them. The
bollards are also able to bend back
to shape after being mowed over by
a vehicle. Stainless steel bollards are
Reflective band on bollards helps
often stolen due to the high price of improve visibility
the material. Cast aluminium can also
be an alternative.
24 2.2.4 Shelters
The design of park shelters should provide adequate shade cover and
protection from rain and lightning. Shelters should have a good location, be
well lit and open for visual surveillance to discourage misuse by park users.
General maintenance such as cleaning and clearing of leaves and other
litter should be performed frequently. Periodic painting and repair works are
also required for the upkeep of shelters.

Park shelter in open and safe location, slightly away from footpath

2.2.5 Car parks

For design of car parks, please refer to the Handbook on Tree Conserva-
tion & Tree Planting Provision for Development Projects, PTRS Greenery
Guidelines 4.1.10 (https://www.nparks.gov.sg/partner-us/developers-archi-
tects-and-engineers/development-plan-submission-requirements). Although it
is encouraged to provide planting to reduce the harshness of the car park
environment, it is important that the plants are located in areas that will not
hinder the movement of people around the parked cars. There should be suf-
ficient space behind cars for drivers to access their boots. There should also
be sufficient lighting in car parks to ensure safety and discourage theft and
vandalism.

Tree planting provision for open car park

2.2.6 Drains Softscape 25
Drains are often provided to prevent rainwater retention on footpaths and
hard surfaces. Regular clearing of fallen leaves or rubbish will help to ensure
smooth drainage and reduce potential mosquito breeding in stagnant water.
Hardscape

Drain covers made of precast porous slabs are easily damaged by the heavy
weight of service vehicles and weathering after a few years. Galvanised
steel plates and gratings make stronger and more durable drain covers. Themed Gardens
Although stainless steel plates and gratings will require less maintenance,
they are vulnerable to theft and not recommended for public parks. For the
safety of park users, gratings should be installed perpendicular to footpaths
to avoid bicycle wheels from getting wedged in between the gratings.

Galvanised steel plates and gratings over drains

When installing subsoil drainage it is important to consider that drainage

of rainwater can be choked by silt over a period of time. Careful detailing
and design can help to resolve some of these problems. Alternative forms of
drainage such as bioswales, can be used to drain sites. They can also help
to create a beautiful and natural setting within the park.

2.3 Other park features

2.3.1 Planter boxes
Planter boxes provide an opportunity to control soil media. The amount of
soil in planter boxes is usually limited in volume, as compared to planting in
the ground. The water content is also lower as planter boxes are designed
to be drained efficiently.

Planter boxes are useful for confining shrubs. However, when trees that
have invasive and aggressive root growth are planted inside planter boxes,
the roots tend to crack the walls of planter boxes. Another common problem
with planter boxes is waterlogging, caused by drainage systems that are
not designed properly.

Therefore, during the design process, it is very important that a careful

selection of plant species to be planted in planter boxes be made. Equally
important is the design of a proper drainage system to prevent ponding in
the planter boxes.

2.3.2 Sandpits
A common challenge for managing sandpits is how to effectively contain the
sand within the pits. Play activities, heavy trampling, strong winds, etc. often
26 cause the sand to spill over to nearby footpaths and amenities. One way to
mediate this is to place sandpits away from areas where sand is undesirable,
such as footpaths, where sand can often cause slipping accidents.

Weeds often grow on sand and they can cause the sandpit to be unsightly
and poorly maintained. Regular weed removal has to be factored into the
maintenance regime. Racking sand to remove weeds and other debris is a
must.

Sand is contained within grass slopes all around and sheltered from strong winds

2.3.3 Wooden decks

Warping is often a problem faced when working with timber. To resolve this,
one way is to procure high-quality treated timber, but it would inflate the
cost of the project. Alternatively, composite timber or glass fibre reinforced
concrete (GFRC) could be used. They can be made to look like real timber
and do not have warping tendencies.

Algae often grows on timber decks and become a slipping hazard. Regular
jet washing has to be factored into the maintenance programme. One
preventive measure is to reduce the shade cover caused by canopies of
tree crowns above. This can be done at the design stage by locating timber
decks away from shady areas.

Algae on timber deck can be a slipping hazard

2.3.4 Water features Softscape 27
Water features are not recommended in parks due to their requirement
for high maintenance. It is necessary to ensure that water features are
well aerated, such as using water jets. To ensure water features are well
Hardscape
aerated, pumps or sumps are required, but they take up a lot of space.
There is also a need for a filtration chamber, depending on the scale of the
water feature.
Themed Gardens

Bio-swales can create a natural park setting

Rain gardens or bioswale/ bioretention ponds may also be created in parks
for stormwater management. Bioswales only fill up with water when it rains
and the rainwater is able to percolate into the ground slowly. Plants planted
in the swales will help to filter the rainwater before they are released into
the drainage system.

Water features that are created need to comply with PUB’s Code of Practice
(COP) on Surface Water Drainage (http://www.pub.gov.sg/general/
Documents/ CP2013/COP_Final.pdf).

3. Themed Gardens

3.1 Butterfly gardens

Butterfly gardens are getting more and more popular nowadays. If successfully
implemented, butterflies are a good attraction and a good way for visitors
to enjoy the garden. However, the
eating habits of caterpillars leave
unsightly plants. One solution is to
plant caterpillar host plants behind
nectar plants or other shrubs. This
way, the eaten leaves and unsightly
plants can be hidden from view while
continuing to supply food for the
caterpillars.

Different types of plants will host

different species of butterflies. It is
important to have a variety of host
plants so that the butterfly garden
can exhibit various butterfly species.
Examples of plants that attract
butterflies are:
§ Aristolochia acuminata (climber) Nectar and host plants are needed to
§ Hoya spp. (climber) create a butterfly habitat
28 § Passiflora foetida (climber)
§ Asclepias currasavica (shrub)
§ Caesalpinia pulcherrima (shrub)
§ Calotropis gigantea (shrub)
§ Citrus maxima (shrub)
§ Big leaf varieties of Ixora spp. (shrub)
§ Lantana camara (shrub)
§ Lespedeza bicolor (shrub).

3.2 Dragonfly ponds

Plants in a pond provide a good habitat for dragonflies and its young. A
dragonfly nymph needs to climb onto a plant to emerge as a dragonfly, and
dragonflies need plants to perch and rest. Besides, dragonflies need water.

Typha, Papyrus and Thalia are good host plants for dragonflies. Apart from
some trimming when the plants are overgrown or drying up, they need
minimal care. Remember to leave a lot of space between the plants for
dragonflies to fly.

Floating plants that cover about a third of the pond surface provide adequate
shade for a balanced ecosystem. Examples of floating plants are:
§ Centella asiatica
§ Echinodorus cordifolius ‘Marble Queen’
§ Echinodorus palifolius
§ Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides
§ Ludwigia sedioides
§ Lysimachia nummularia
§ Nelumbo nucifera (Lotus)
§ Nymphaea cultivar (Water Lily)
Water plants can create habitats for
§ Nymphoides indica dragonflies
§ Pontederia cordata.

Refer to the NParks Flora & Fauna Web (https://florafaunaweb.nparks.gov.

sg) for more information about these plants.

About one-third of the pond’s perimeter should be planted with emergent

plants. They serve as perching posts for adults as well as places to lay eggs
for female dragonflies. Some examples are:
§ Acorus calamus
§ Acrostichum aureum
§ Cyperus alternifolius
§ Eleocharis dulcis
§ Lepironia articulata
§ Limnocharis flava
§ Sagittaria lancifolia
§ Sagittaria sagittifolia
§ Thalia dealbata
§ Thalia geniculata.

More information about these plants can be obtained at the NParks Flora &
Fauna Web (https://florafaunaweb.nparks.gov.sg).
3.3 Fragrant gardens Softscape 29
Fragrant plants can be planted together to create a thematic fragrant garden.
Some plants are only fragrant at a certain time of the day whereas others
only when they flower. It is important to select the plants carefully to ensure
Hardscape
that the garden can be enjoyed throughout the day. Recommended fragrant
plants include:
§ Quisqualis indica (climber)
§ Vallaris glabra (climber) Themed Gardens
§ Plectranthus amboinicus ‘Variegatus’ (herb)
§ Buddleja davidii (shrub)
§ Gardenia jasminoides (shrub)
§ Volkameria inermis (shrub)
§ Wrightia religiosa (shrub)
§ Hopea odorata (tree)
§ Plumeria rubra (tree)
§ Tarenna fragrans (tree).

The NParks Flora & Fauna Web (https://florafaunaweb.nparks.gov.sg/)

has more information about fragrant plants.

3.4 Herb gardens

Herbs need well-draining soil as their roots are very susceptible to pests
and fungi attacks. Therefore, it is good to have sand, charcoal bits or
volcanic sand added into the soil mix when potting these delicate plants. The
composition of the potting mix is 1 portion of soil and 1 portion of compost
to 0.5 portion of sand, charcoal bits or volcanic sand. A slow-releasing
fertiliser may be applied as necessary.

Mint generally need moist and well-drained soil. Basically, all types of mint,
be it chocolate, pineapple, apple, etc. need soil that is porous but still has
the ability to retain water. Rosemary and thyme are herbs that need well-
draining soil at least 75% of the time.

Examples of herbs that can be planted in a herb garden are:

§ Basil
§ Chili
§ Curry leaf
§ Hibiscus
§ Indian borage
§ Lemongrass
§ Mint
§ Pandan
§ Rosemary Basil plant is useful as a herb and
§ Zinger. spice
30 More information about these herbs can be obtained from the NParks Flora
& Fauna Web (https://florafaunaweb.nparks.gov.sg).

Herbs are mostly grown for education purposes and community gardening
 31

ROADSIDE
PLANTING
Strategies to Reduce Infrastructure
Damage Caused by Trees and Roots

1. Introduction

2. Infrastructure Design Strategies

2.1 Design strategies
2.2 Separating tree roots from
infrastructure

3. Infrastructure Material Strategies

3.1 Modifications to concrete
3.2 Alternatives to concrete
3.3 Remedial treatment for
damaged footpaths

4. Root Zone-based Strategies

4.1 Root guidance systems
4.2 Soil replacement, modification
and management
32
1. Introduction

As land use intensifies, it has become increasingly difficult to plant large

trees in urban landscapes. Large trees require adequate planting space to
grow healthily and achieve balanced tree form and canopy. The competition
for planting space is more acute for roadside tree planting.

Many mature trees along older roads have been severely affected where
planting strip is shared with underground services such as electrical cables
and water pipes. In order to avoid damaging these services, tree roots
have been cut or controlled, resulting in unbalanced and weak tree canopy
growth. Over time, this has resulted in a gradual decline of well-formed,
mature roadside trees.

Although newer road developments are now installed with service and
planting strips side by side within the sidetable, it is important to note that
the root growth volume to support large trees is at minimal provision.

In the process of upgrading footpaths, drains and other underground services,

it is not uncommon for affected tree roots to be cut as a quick-fix solution,
without proper professional advice as to whether the tree’s stability and road
safety will be endangered. With impending increase of hard infrastructure,
roadside trees are faced with greater challenges to provide good shade
canopy along roads.

For a sustainable city in a garden, there is a need to continuously

develop solutions to ensure the co-existence of infrastructure and trees.
The development of solutions and the exploration of technology through
research and development are therefore needed to address and overcome
these challenges.

Table 1 shows a list of strategies that will be covered in this chapter. It can
serve as a summary for the strategies discussed and allow users to make an
informed decision on the strategy that will best suit the range of problems
that urban municipalities commonly face in maintaining and sustaining an
urban city. Certified arborists should be engaged in all instances to advise
on the applications of the various strategies.

Preventive strategies in the table on the next page can be defined as the
ability to avoid or mitigate incipient problems before they become major
defects. Remedial strategies can be defined as curative actions required for
incipient problems and major defects.
 Introduction 33
INFRASTRUCTURE DESIGN STRATEGIES PREVENTIVE REMEDIAL
Bigger planting space • •
Curved footpaths • •
Pop-outs • • Infrastructure
Design Strategies
Non-standard slab size •
Monolithic footpaths • •
Tree islands •
Infrastructure
Bridges and ramps • • Material Strategies

Lowered sites •
Modified gravel layer • •
Root Zone-based
INFRASTRUCTURE MATERIAL STRATEGIES PREVENTIVE REMEDIAL Strategies
Reinforced concrete slabs • •
Expansion joints • •
Thicker slabs •
Pervious concrete • •
Flexible concrete, footpaths and joints • •
Asphalt • •
Decomposed granite • •
Compacted gravel • •
Pavers • •
Recycled rubber • •
Mulch • •
Grinding •
Wedges •
Mud jacking •
ROOT ZONE-BASED STRATEGIES PREVENTIVE REMEDIAL
Root barriers • •
Continuous trenches •
Root paths •
Root channels •
Steel plates •
Foam underlay •
Structural soil •
Structural cells •
Soil modification •

Table 1. Summary of strategies to reduce infrastructure damage caused by trees

and roots
34
2. Infrastructure Design Strategies

2.1 Design strategies

2.1.1 Bigger planting space
Infrastructure damage is often caused by trees that outgrow their planting
space. Providing adequate space for new trees by using larger planting sites
and tree islands are key preventative strategies to consider.

The larger the planting space, the lower the potential for damage from trunk
expansion, buttress development and surface root extension. A distance of
5 m is needed between trees and footpaths for species that grow very large.
It is recommended that any planting strip be 3 m wide and cut-outs be 2 by
2 m. Trees with a larger shade should have a minimum planting strip width
of 3.5 to 4 m.

Large trees provided with adequate planting spaces (top and above)

Roadside trees with minimal planting provision

2.1.2 Curved footpaths Introduction 35
Additional space can be created for trees in planting strips by replacing
existing straight footpaths with curved ones. This can be done by installing a
new section or by narrowing the existing footpath to the minimum standard
Infrastructure
of 1 m. Design Strategies

Infrastructure
Material Strategies

Root Zone-based
Strategies

Curved footpath Pop-outs

2.1.3 Pop-outs
Similar to curved footpaths, increasing space by removing a section of
the kerb and extending the planting space into the street are other options
to optimise green spaces. However, care must be taken to not negatively
impact drainage. To maximise space, both pop-outs and curved footpaths
can be used in the same location.

2.1.4 Non-standard slab size

Concrete slabs that are not of a standard size or shape can help increase
space for established trees. Avoid using long, narrow slabs as they are more
likely to crack. When using curved or oddly shaped slabs, avoid those with
a sharp radius and refrain from placing a joint where cracks are expected
to occur.
36 2.1.5 Monolithic footpaths
These are footpaths that are
installed against the kerb with
no planting strip on the street
side. Trees are planted on the
other side of the footpath, still
within the public right-of-way
but adjacent to infrastructure.
Depending on the amount of
space available, this approach
may increase tree planting
space, but will also increase
the proximity of trees to the
surrounding infrastructure and
may cause conflict in the future.

Monolithic footpath

Monolithic
footpath

2.1.6 Tree islands

Tree islands can reduce root contact with existing infrastructure. Water and
soil conditions can also be managed in tree islands to enhance tree growth
and improve tree health.
2.2 Separating tree roots from infrastructure Introduction 37
2.2.1 Alternatives to root pruning
§ Remove or realign footpaths
§ Provide larger planting spaces from the onset
Infrastructure
§ Redesign footpaths and kerbs Design Strategies
§ Relocate utilities
§ Bridging.
Infrastructure
2.2.2 Bridges and ramps Material Strategies
Pier and beam bridges, cantilevered sections, and boardwalks create a
spatial separation between infrastructural elements (typically footpaths) and
the root zone. Ramps can be installed over unpruned or minimally pruned Root Zone-based
Strategies
surface roots to alleviate the conflict. Alternatively, soil can be placed over
the offending roots and pavement installed over it.

Bridges can be an alternative to root pruning — instead of removing roots, a

pier-and-beam design can provide pedestrian access over the offending roots

2.2.3 Lowered sites

Lowered planting sites reduce damage potential by establishing a spatial
separation between the soil surface and infrastructure. Planting pits are
excavated so that the top of the root ball and finished soil grade are beneath
the infrastructure grade by some 40 to 50 cm. Potential for root contact
is reduced when the root ball is positioned lower than new or existing
infrastructure.

2.2.4 Modified gravel layer

Attempts may be made to modify the gravel
layer (base course) between the pavement
and the soil to reduce damage and conflict.

a) Large gravel: A separation between tree

roots and surrounding infrastructure may be
established by depositing large diameter Gravel
gravel (>2 cm) on the soil surface, before under
pavement is placed over it. This strategy pavement

will enable big air or pore spaces to exist

within the gravel layer, thus reducing
water retention to the point where root
development is impaired.

b) Thick layer of gravel: A well-graded

aggregate base with a mixture of large and
Gravel can improve
small rocks would reduce the void space aeration under
and increase the bulk density of the gravel. footpaths
38 This may help reduce damages caused by roots by making it harder for roots
to grow into the gravel.

c) An alternative to gravel: Recycled concrete can be used to repair footpaths

around trees. Old concrete from footpaths can be crushed and the concrete
aggregate used in place of gravel.

3. Infrastructure Material Strategies

3.1 Modifications to concrete

3.1.1 Concrete reinforcement with rebar, polymeric mesh or fibreglass
(plastic)
Rebar has long been used inside concrete to reduce the potential for
cracking. For rebar to be effective, it must be correctly sized and placed
within the concrete slab.

If rebar is used, it should be terminated at the slab joint so that cracking

is controlled. Fibreglass reinforced plastic rebar has also been used to
reinforce concrete. It is light and will not corrode but costs more than steel.

Polymeric mesh fibres are another

type of strengthening agent that
inhibits random cracking over the
life of the slab. The fibres are to
be mixed with concrete at a rate
of 0.5 to 2 kg/m3.

3.1.2 Expansion joints

These can be placed close to trees located near footpaths to reduce damage
to the infrastructure. They will limit possible footpath replacements to just a
few sections rather than large sections. Expansion joints are a pre-moulded
strip made of tar-impregnated, black felt-like material.

Expansion
joints

3.1.3 Thicker slabs of concrete

Thicker concrete slabs (>15 cm) have been used to reduce the damage
caused to infrastructure.

3.1.4 Pervious concrete

To prevent water from accumulating under the footpath, pervious concrete is
best used over sandy or well-drained soil. With the absence of water close
to the surface, the presence of surface roots will potentially be eliminated.
3.1.5 Flexible concrete footpaths and joints Introduction 39
The use of flexible materials and expansion joints for footpaths will
accommodate the growth of tree roots and help to avoid the development
of uneven slabs. Alternatively, slabs can be tied together with reinforcing
Infrastructure
bars and have a compressible foam wedge between the joints for increased Design Strategies
flexibility.

3.2 Alternatives to concrete Infrastructure

3.2.1 Asphalt Material Strategies
This material is used as a finishing surface or for patching up cracks in
pavement.
Root Zone-based
Strategies

Asphalt

3.2.2 Decomposed granite and compacted gravel

Used as a temporary surface when concrete surface is yet to be installed or
has been removed. They can be installed at depths of 7.5 to 10 cm.

Decomposed granite Compacted gravel

3.2.3 Pavers
Paving blocks and slabs laid on sand base can be easily and individually lifted
to replace areas where aggressive root systems have caused unevenness.

Pavers affected by tree roots are easily relaid

40 3.2.4 Recycled rubber and EPDM tiles
Recycled rubber tiles as well as EPDM synthetic rubber materials can be
easily replaced to create a uniform surface.

3.2.5 Mulch
To minimise injury to trees along the edge of a road, bark mulch, dried
leaves, or compost can be used as a substitute to concrete.

3.3 Remedial treatment for damaged footpaths

3.3.1 Grinding
Lifted footpaths can be ground
down to remove the lifted
edge and establish a smooth,
continuous surface between
adjacent concrete slabs. This is
done if the lift is not more than
2.5 cm and is located at an
expansion joint.

3.3.2 Wedges
Wedges are used to create a temporary sloped transition from the edge of a
lifted section to the original grade of the footpath. Either asphalt or concrete
may be used.

3.3.3 Mud jacking (slab jacking)
Cement grout is pumped underneath sunken sections. Due to the pressure,
the grout depresses and stabilises the sub soil, filling the void and raising the
slabs to the original grade. All civil and structural works have to be endorsed
by a Professional Engineer.

4. Root Zone-based Strategies

4.1 Root guidance systems

4.1.1 Root barriers
There are three types of root barriers: deflectors, inhibitors and traps.
§ Deflectors are used to block lateral root development and avoid conflict
with infrastructure.
§ Inhibitors are landscape fabrics or screens impregnated with chemical com-
pounds to inhibit root development.
§ Traps have small holes in the material to allow only small roots or root tips
to penetrate while larger roots are kept at bay.
Certified arborists should be consulted for the most appropriate type of root Introduction 41
barrier for each individual project.

Infrastructure
Design Strategies

Infrastructure
Material Strategies

Root Zone-based
Strategies

Deflector barriers Copper screens can be used

as inhibitors and/or traps

Traps

a) Barrier configurations: All three types of barriers can be used in either a

linear or circular configuration.
§ Linear: Barriers should be installed along a section or the entire length of
the infrastructure prior to planting. It is recommended that linear barriers
along infrastructure are installed after root pruning to prevent regrowth of
roots.
§ Circular: The barrier encircles the root ball of a newly planted tree, allowing
roots to grow downwards instead of laterally.

b) Root barrier research: Roots that grow through fabric or screens are
constricted, stunted and unlikely to have much impact on infrastructure
damage. The smaller the holes in the barrier, the more stunted the roots will
be.

4.1.2 Continuous trenches

Trenches constructed under pavement provide extra soil volume for root
growth while maintaining sufficient stability for the pavement. An open
gravel layer above the soil can help reduce root and pavement conflict.

42 4.1.3 Root paths
Tree root paths are narrow soil-filled trenches (10 cm wide by 30 cm deep)
that hold a modular strip drain to allow air and water for the roots. These are
useful to guide roots out from confined trapped spaces. They are installed
within compacted sub-grade material before a gravel base is added.

Existing
tree pits
within
paved
area

Root paths
(prefab plastic
aeration
sheets
wrapped in
filter fabric)
laid in 100mm
wide trenches,
backfilled with
topsoil

PLAN VIEW
Root Paving
Planting paths slabs Kerb Road
strip

Compacted
fill

SECTION VIEW

4.1.4 Root channels

Root channels direct roots towards remote rooting areas. This helps to expand
the rooting zone for a tree while keeping the roots away from infrastructure.

Pipes may be used as a channel for root development by installing 25 cm

(diameter) pipes about 25 cm from the surface.

4.1.5 Steel plates
To avoid pruning large diameter roots, steel plates are used to restrict the
radial growth of roots. The plates are held in place by anchor bolts set on top
or placed on opposite sides of a root and bolted together, sandwiching it.
Future root growth cannot push the steel apart and the root will be flattened
between the plates.

The plates are placed under or adjacent to the footpath to strategically limit
future radial root growth. This technique is more expensive than root pruning
and it takes time to perform the plate work. This option is considered extreme as
the effect on the roots is long lasting. As such, it should be used as a last resort.
4.1.6 Foam underlay Introduction 43
Foam has long been used as a backing material between new concrete and
offending roots. It protects the replaced slab and reduces the potential for
damage. As the roots increase in diameter (radial expansion) the foam will
Infrastructure
be compressed, reducing the likelihood of slab displacement. Design Strategies

Pavement/footpath

Infrastructure
Material Strategies

Root Zone-based
Strategies

Foam underlay

4.2 Soil replacement, modification and management

4.2.1 Soil replacement with structural soil
This is a medium that can be compacted for pavement design and installation
requirements while permitting root growth. It comprises gap-graded gravel
and clay- loam soil in variable proportions according to the load-bearing
requirement of a site. In order to have sufficient nutrient and water holding
capacity for soil, the mixture must contain some clay.

The planting space should be as large as possible to allow for trunk flare
and buttress development. The pavement should be no closer than the
expected size of the flare or buttress when the tree is mature. This can be
determined by measuring the flare/buttress diameter of mature specimens
for the species to be planted. Several studies have reported favourable trunk
diameter growth and root distribution in structural soil.

Stone particle

Soil particle

Air and water

pores

Stone contact
points where load
is transferred
44 4.2.2 Structural cells
Structural cells are a modular building block for containing unlimited
amounts of healthy soil beneath paving while supporting traffic loads and
accommodating surrounding utilities. They are filled with high-quality,
uncompacted soil to grow trees and manage the rate, quality and volume of
storm water. The modular system can be easily sized to accommodate the
needs of any site without compromising its effectiveness or the site design.
More information on structural cells can be found at www.citygreen.com
and www.deeproot.com.

3D view of modular structural cell

Photo courtesy of Citygreen Systems Ltd
(www.citygreen.com)

Section view of modular structural cell

Photo courtesy of DeepRoot
(www.deeproot.com)

The more healthy soil is available to trees, the bigger they can grow. The
larger a tree grows to be, the more significant the environmental and social
benefit it provides.
Typically, urban tree growth is stunted by limited access to soil, the lack of Introduction 45
space and poor soil quality. Buckling footpaths resulting from surface roots
are hazardous and an additional cost to repair. Structural cells overcome
these challenges by providing unlimited soil volumes without compromising
Infrastructure
above ground surface areas, which can be used for urban infrastructure, Design Strategies
thus optimising space. At the same time, structural cells encourage roots to
penetrate deeper, which is beneficial for anchorage and avoids potential
damages caused to pavement by aggressive roots. Infrastructure
Material Strategies
4.2.3 Soil modification: Increasing soil volume
a) Soil volume: The volume of soil needed to retain sufficient water to meet
transpiration losses is calculated using assessments of soil water holding Root Zone-based
capacity and recharge potential. Strategies

The graph below shows the relationship of soil volume and tree size as
measured by the crown area and trunk diameter of mature trees. However,
the graph is only indicative of the approximate volume of soil needed for
trees of various sizes. The required soil volume is likely to vary with different
site and climatic conditions.
Crown DBH-Trunk
Spread Diameter SOIL VOLUME FOR TREES
(m2) (cm)

111 61
PROJECTED MATURE TREE SIZE

92 51

74 41 ed
uir
eq
51 31 soil r
e to
siz
32 20 ee
of tr
tio
14 10 Ra

6 11 17 23 28 34 40 45

Soil Volume Required (m3)

Source: James Urban (1992)

b) Assessing soil quality (soil functional state): A soil assessment gives

information on how well the soil functions. The indicators may be quantitative
or qualitative.
46
CATEGORIES RELATED SOIL FUNCTION
Chemical Nutrient cycling, water relations, buffering
Physical Aggregate stability and support, water relations,
habitat for insects, microorganisms, etc.
Biological Biodiversity, nutrient cycling, filtering

CHEMICAL PHYSICAL BIOLOGICAL

§ pH § Bulk density § Soil microorganism activity

§ Nitrate levels § Soil structure and and/or population
§ Electrical conductivity macropores § Particulate organic matter
§ Available water capacity content
§ Soil enzyme activity
§ Soil respiration
§ Total organic carbon

c) Improving soil condition: Vertical holes can be augured through a compact

zone to improve drainage and reduce soil resistance to root penetration.

The categories above are major functions of any soil. Having this knowledge
is important as it opens up options for soil improvement.

Soil samples may be collected and submitted to a laboratory for testing to

derive some of the information detailed above.

d) Soil conditioners: Soil conditioners can be applied to improve and sustain

good soil conditions. Examples of soil conditioners are peat, compost,
vermiculite, expanded clay and charcoal.

Compost Charcoal

Vermiculite Expanded clay

 47

WATERWAY
PLANTING
1. ABC Waters Programme and
Definition of a Waterway
1.1 ABC Waters Programme
1.2 The definition of waterways

2. Plant Considerations for Waterway

Planting
2.1 Considerations
2.2 Key plant characteristics

3. Waterway Planting Zones and

Examples
3.1 Zone 1: Creepers and climbers
for greening of the canal walls
3.2 Zone 2: Plants for planting
between waterways and paths

4. Plant Palettes for Waterway

Planting
4.1 Trees planting palette
4.2 Shrubs, creepers and climbers
planting palette
48
1. ABC Waters Programme and Definition of a Water-
way

1.1 ABC Waters Programme

Driven by the vision of beautiful and clean rivers and streams with landscaped
banks and kayakers paddling leisurely in picturesque lakes, Singapore has
undertaken the challenge of transforming itself into a City of Gardens and
Water.

Over the years, Singapore has gradually developed a pervasive network

of about 8,000km of waterways and 17 reservoirs for our water supply. To
realise the full potential of this water infrastructure, PUB launched the Active,
Beautiful, Clean Waters (ABC Waters) Programme in 2006. It is a long term
initiative to enhance our water and bring Singaporeans closer to water so
that they can better appreciate and cherish this precious resource.

By turning the network of utilitarian drains, canals and reservoirs into

beautiful and clean streams, rivers and lakes and integrating them with the
surrounding environment in a holistic way, new community and recreational
spaces are created, bringing the community closer to water so that they can
better enjoy our waters.

1.2 The definition of waterways

In the Sewerage and Drainage Act, “waterways” refers to drains which
include canals, culverts, conduits, rivers or watercourses. For the purpose
of this Chapter, ‘waterways’ will be confined to rivers, canals and drains
with a width of 600mm or more.

2. Plant Considerations for Waterway Planting

2.1 Considerations
Ease of maintenance and that the plants do not affect the structural integrity
of the concrete walls of the waterways are the primary considerations for
planting alongside waterways. No crane or boat should be required for
plant pruning. There should also be minimum shedding of leaves, no mass
flowering and fruiting from plants. This ensures that waterways will not be
clogged by leaves, flowers, and fruits. Concrete walls of the waterways
should not be damaged or uplifted by aggressive roots of plants.

2.2 Key plant characteristics

§ Mature plant height less than 20 m.
§ No seasonal mass leaf, flower and fruit shedding.
§ Non-aggressive root system.
 49
3. Waterway Planting Zones and Examples ABC Waters
Programme and
Definition of a
Waterway
There are two types of planting zones:
§ Zone 1 – Creepers/climbers for greening of the canal walls.
§ Zone 2 – Plants for planting between waterways and paths, e.g. roads,
footpaths, park connector networks. Plant Considerations
for Waterway
Shade tree Planting

Zone 1 Zone 2

Waterway Planting
Zones and Examples

Plant Palettes
for Waterway
Creeper/Climber Planting
Waterway planting

Waterway planting

Waterway planting

Footpath

Roadside/
Park planting
Canal

Two kinds of planting are done along waterways:

§ True ground planting

True ground planting is preferred if there is the luxury of space at site

50 § Cantilever planting

Cantilever planters can be considered if there are space limitations

3.1 Zone 1: Creepers and climbers for greening of the

canal walls
3.1.1 True ground planting
3.1.1.1 Alexandra Canal
§ Figure 1 & Figure 2
§ Bauhinia kockiana and Vernonia elliptica are planted along the railing.
(Figure 1)
§ Planting can be improved with an additional layer of dense shrub (Murraya
paniculata) planting beside the footpath. (Figure 2)
§ Effective in terms of maintenance and overall aesthetics.

Vernonia elliptica

Bauhinia kockiana

Figure 1
 ABC Waters 51
Programme and
Murraya paniculata Definition of a
Waterway

Plant Considerations
for Waterway
Planting

Waterway Planting
Zones and Examples

Vernonia elliptica Plant Palettes

for Waterway
Bauhinia Planting
kockiana

Figure 2

3.1.1.2 Sungei Whampoa-St. George’s Lane

§ Figure 3
§ Tristellateia australasiae is effective in terms of maintenance and overall
aesthetics.

Tristellateia australasiae

Figure 3
52 3.1.1.3 Sungei Ulu Pandan
§ Figure 4
§ Sphagneticola trilobata is planted with room to spread.

Sphagneticola trilobata

Figure 4

3.1.1.4 Geylang River

§ Figure 5
§ Thunbergia laurifolia and Ipomea batatas are planted beyond the railing.
§ When species are planted side-by-side, maintenance needs to be carried
out to ensure that the planting design is preserved. More aggressive spe-
cies may take over others.

Thunbergia laurifolia
Ipomea batatas

Figure 5
3.2 Zone 2: Plants ABC Waters 53
Programme and
for planting between Definition of a
Waterway
waterways and paths
3.2.1 True ground planting
3.2.1.1 Alexandra Canal
§ Figure 6 & Figure 7 Plant Considerations
for Waterway
§ Pennisetum advena ‘Ru- Planting
brum’ provides a good
buffer between the foot-
Waterway Planting
path and the canal. Zones and Examples
§ Planting can be improved Diospyros
by setting back Pennisetum malabarica
with a 500 mm mulched Plant Palettes
area from the footpath as for Waterway
Pennisetum Planting
grasses tend to spill over advena
and obstruct the footpath. ‘Rubrum’
(Figure 6)

Figure 6

§ Murraya paniculata provides a dense buffer between the canal edge and
the walkway.
§ The tree species selected for planting along the footpath provide shade and
interest along this stretch of the waterway. (Figure 7)

Syzygium zeylanicum
Leptospermum
madidum

Murraya paniculata

Figure 7
54 3.2.1.2 Sungei Whampoa-St George’s Lane
§ Figure 8
§ Dalbergia oliveri provides shade along the footpath.

Dalbergia oliveri

Figure 8

3.2.1.3 Sungei Ulu Pandan

§ Figure 9
§ Melaleuca cajuputi located in this location is optimal as it is farther away
from footpath, allowing for less maintenance.
§ The tree species selected are commonly used for waterway planting.

Melaleuca cajuputi

Figure 9
3.2.1.4 Geylang River ABC Waters 55
Programme and
§ Figure 10 & Figure 11 Definition of a
Waterway
§ Garcinia subelliptica in
this location is optimal as
it is beyond the safety rail-
ing and requires minimal Plant Considerations
for Waterway
maintenance. Planting
§ Ipomea batatas doubles
as a groundcover and Garcinia subelliptica
Waterway Planting
greens the canal wall. Zones and Examples
§ Garcinia subelliptica and Syzygium
myrtifolium
Syzygium myrtifolium will
also provide good screen- Plant Palettes
ing from the army camp for Waterway
Planting
site as the plants mature.
(Figure 10)

Ipomea batatas

Figure 10

§ The tree species are associated with water edge planting.

§ Leptospermum madidum is an alternative ‘weeping’ species that is slow
growing and requires less maintenance. (Figure 11)

Leptospermum
madidum

Figure 11
56 3.2.2 Cantilever planting
3.2.2.1 Geylang River
§ Figure 12
§ Tree planting provides shade along the footpath.
§ A cantilever planter is used as there is limited space along the waterway.

Leptospermum
madidum

Figure 12
4. Plant Palettes for Waterway Planting
4.1 Trees planting palette

SUITABLE TREE SPECIES FOR PLANTING ALONG WATERWAYS

OTHER CONSIDERATIONS

PLANT SPECIES MATURE TREE MASS CAN BE

SPECIES MAXIMUM LIGHT HEAVY SEASONAL LEAF WATERLOGGED MOISTURE
HEIGHT (M) FLOWER GROWN LANDSCAPE USES
ORIGIN TOLERANCE FRUITING SHEDDING SOIL ONLY REQUIREMENT
SHEDDING IN WATER

General/ Riverine/
Asteromyrtus Swampy coast/ Small Moderate to lots of
10 Non-native Full sun N N N N Y
symphyocarpa gardens/ Parks & water
Gardens

Y (But fruits are General/ Riverine/

Baccaurea Moderate to lots of
19 Native Full sun restricted at the N N N Y Small gardens/ Parks
parviflora water
base only) & Gardens

Barringtonia Moderate to lots of

15 Non-native Full sun N N Y N Y General/ Riverine
acutangula water

Roadside/ Riverine/
Full sun to semi- Moderate to lots of
Dillenia alata 12 Non-native N N N N Y Small gardens/ Parks
shade water
& Gardens

General/ Roadside/
Moderate to lots of
Fagraea racemosa 16 Native Full sun to shade N N N N Y Riverine/ Parks &
water
Gardens

General/ Roadside/
Kopsia Full sun to semi- Moderate to lots of
12 Native N N N N Y Riverine/ Parks &
singapurensis shade water
Gardens

General/ Riverine/
Leptospermum Moderate to lots of
4 Non-native Full sun N N N N Y Roadside/ Parks &
madidum water
Gardens

57
 58
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
MATURE TREE
PLANT SPECIES MASS CAN BE
HEIGHT (M) SPECIES MAXIMUM LIGHT HEAVY SEASONAL LEAF WATERLOGGED MOISTURE
FLOWER GROWN LANDSCAPE USES
ORIGIN TOLERANCE FRUITING SHEDDING SOIL ONLY REQUIREMENT
SHEDDING IN WATER

Riverine/ Marsh/ Bog/

Coastal/ General/
Lumnitzera littorea 25 Native Full Sun N N N Y Y Lots of water
Parks & Gardens/
Ponds & Lakes

Lumnitzera Riverine/ Marsh/ Bog/

8 Native Full sun N N N Y Y Lots of water
racemosa Coastal

General/ Roadside/
Melaleuca cajuputi 18 Native Full sun N N N Y Y Riverine/ Parks & Little to lots of water
Gardens

Parks & Garden/ Tall

Full sun to semi- Moderate water to
Murraya paniculata 20 Non-native N N N Hedge/ Roadside/
shade lots of water
Screening

Neonauclea pallida General/ Riverine/

7 Non-native Full sun N N N N YES moderate water
ssp. pallida Parks & Gardens

Ploiarium Moderate to lots of

15 Native Full sun N N N N Y General/ Marsh/ Bog
alternifolium water

General/ Roadside/
Saraca Moderate to lots of
20 Non-native Full sun N N N Y Y Riverine/ Parks &
thaipingensis water
Gardens

General/ Roadside/
Syzygium Full sun to semi- Moderate to lots of
15 Native N N N N Y Riverine/ Parks &
pachyphyllum shade water
Gardens
 OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
MATURE TREE
PLANT SPECIES MASS CAN BE
HEIGHT (M) SPECIES MAXIMUM LIGHT HEAVY SEASONAL LEAF WATERLOGGED MOISTURE
FLOWER GROWN LANDSCAPE USES
ORIGIN TOLERANCE FRUITING SHEDDING SOIL ONLY REQUIREMENT
SHEDDING IN WATER

General/ Roadside/
Coastal/ Riverine/
Syzygium
8 Native Full sun N N N Hedge/ Screening/ Moderate water
myrtifolium
Topiary/ Bonsai/
Container

General/ Roadside/
Moderate to lots of
Talipariti tiliaceum 8 Non-native Full sun N N N N Y Riverine/ Parks &
water
Gardens

General/ Roadside/
Talipariti tiliaceum Moderate to lots of
8 Non-native Full sun N N N N Y Riverine/ Parks &
‘Tricolor’ water
Gardens

General/ Roadside/
Talipariti tiliaceum Moderate to lots of
8 Non-native Full sun N N N N Y Riverine/ Parks &
var. purpurascens water
Gardens

Xanthostemon Moderate to lots of

6 Non-native Full sun N N N N YES General/ Roadside
verticillatus water

59
 60
4.2 Shrubs, creepers and climbers planting palette

SUITABLE SHRUBS, CREEPERS AND CLIMBERS FOR PLANTING ALONG WATERWAYS

PLANT MATURE OTHER CONSIDERATIONS

GROWTH PLANT MAXIMUM SEASONAL MASS CAN BE
PLANT SPECIES SPECIES HEAVY WATERLOGGED MOISTURE
FORM HEIGHT LIGHT LEAF FLOWER GROWN LANDSCAPE USES
(HABIT) (CM) ORIGIN FRUITING SOIL ONLY REQUIREMENT
TOLERANCE SHEDDING SHEDDING IN WATER
Acorus gramineus Pond/ Lake/ River/
Herb 30 Non-native Full sun N N N Y Y Lots of water
‘Variegatus’ Marsh/ Bog

Pond/ Lake/ River/

Acorus gramineus Herb 30 Non-native Full sun N N N Y Y Lots of water
Marsh/ Bog

Coastal/ Pond/ Lake/

Full sun to semi- Moderate to lots of
Acrostichum aureum Fern 300 Native N N N Y Y River/ Marsh/ Bog/
shade water
Screening

Coastal/ Pond/ Lake/

Acrostichum Moderate to lots of
Fern 200 Native Full sun to shade N N N Y Y River/ Marsh/ Bog/
speciosum water
Screening

General/ Parks
& Gardens/
Semi-shade to Moderate to lots of
Aglaonema nitidum Herb 100 Native N N N Y Small Gardens/
shade water
Interiorscape/ Indoor
Planting

General/ Parks &

Semi-shade to Moderate to lots of
Aglaonema simplex Herb 120 Native N N N Y Gardens/ Small
shade water
Gardens/ Interiorscape

Full sun to semi-

Alpinia aquatica Herb 200 Native N N N Y Y Riverine/ Marsh/ Bog Lots of water
shade

Angelonia Parks/ Gardens/ Small

angustifolia ‘Purple Herb 60 Non-native Full sun N N N Y Gardens/ Riverine/ Moderate water
Stripe’ Container

Parks & Gardens/

Angelonia
Herb 60 Non-native Full sun N N N Y Small Gardens/ Moderate water
angustifolia ‘Alba’
Riverine/ Container
 PLANT MATURE OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
GROWTH PLANT MAXIMUM SEASONAL MASS CAN BE
PLANT SPECIES SPECIES HEAVY WATERLOGGED MOISTURE
FORM HEIGHT LIGHT LEAF FLOWER GROWN LANDSCAPE USES
(HABIT) (CM) ORIGIN FRUITING SOIL ONLY REQUIREMENT
TOLERANCE SHEDDING SHEDDING IN WATER

Angelonia Parks & Gardens/

angustifolia Herb 60 Non-native Full sun N N N Y Small Gardens/ Moderate water
‘Balangdaros’ Riverine/ Container

Parks & Gardens/

Angelonia
Herb 60 Non-native Full sun N N N Y Small Gardens/ Moderate water
angustifolia
Riverine/ Container

Coastal/ Riverine/
Arundina
Orchid 150 Native Full sun N N N Y Y Pond/ Lake/ Marsh/ Lots of water
graminifolia
Bog

Parks & Gardens/

Asclepias
Herb 100 Non-native Full sun N N N Y Small Gardens/ Moderate water
curassavica
Riverine/ Container

General/ Parks & Gar-

Callicarpa longifolia Shrub (woody) 500 Native Full sun N N N Y Y dens/ Small Gardens/ Moderate water
Roadside

General/ Flowerbed/
Canna indica Herb 150 Non-native Full sun N N N Y Border/ Container/ Lots of water
Parks & Gardens

General/ Flowerbed/
Canna x generalis
Herb 240 Non-native Full sun N N N Y Border/ Container/ Lots of water
‘Red King Humbert’
Parks & Gardens

General/ Parks & Gar-

Cheilocostus
Herb 400 Native Full sun N N N Y dens/ Small Gardens/ Lots of water
speciosus
Roadside

Parks & Gardens/

Costus guanaiensis
Herb 600 Non-native Semi-shade N N N Y Small Gardens/ Moderate water
var. tarmicus
Riverine/ Container

Parks & Gardens/

Full sun to semi- Small Gardens/
Costus woodsonii Herb 370 Non-native N N N Y Lots of water
shade Flowerbed/ Border/
Container Planting

61
 62
PLANT MATURE OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
GROWTH PLANT MAXIMUM SEASONAL MASS CAN BE
PLANT SPECIES SPECIES HEAVY WATERLOGGED MOISTURE
FORM HEIGHT LIGHT LEAF FLOWER GROWN LANDSCAPE USES
(HABIT) (CM) ORIGIN FRUITING SOIL ONLY REQUIREMENT
TOLERANCE SHEDDING SHEDDING IN WATER

Parks & Gardens/

Full sun to semi- Small Gardens/
Crinum ‘Menehune’ Herb 100 Non-native N N N Y Lots of water
shade Flowerbed/ Border/
Container Planting

Parks & Gardens/

Crinum asiaticum Full sun to semi- Small Gardens/
Herb 150 Non-native N N N Y Lots of water
‘Variegatum’ shade Flowerbed/ Border/
Container

Parks & Gardens/

Small Gardens/
Cyclanthus bipartitus Herb 200 Non-native Semi-shade N N N Y Moderate water
Interiorscape/
Container

Riverine/ Swimming
Full sun to semi-
Cyperus papyrus Herb 300 Non-native N N N Y Y Poolside/ Focal Plant/ Lots of water
shade
Container

General/ Parks &

Gardens/ Small
Full sun to semi- Modrate to lots of
Dillenia suffruticosa Shrub (woody) 1000 Native N N N Y Gardens/ Riverine/
shade water
Coastal/ Marsh/ Bog/
Reforestation

Pond/ Lake/
Full sun to semi- River/ Aquarium/
Equisetum hyemale Herb 200 Non-native N N N Y Y Lots of water
shade Aquascape/
Phytoremediation

Hanguana Riverine/ Pond/ Lake/

Herb 200 Native Full sun N N N Y Lots of water
malayana Marsh/ Bog

Parks & Gardens/

Hedychium Full sun to semi-
Herb 300 Non-native Y Small Gardens/ Lots of water
coronarium shade
Riverine/ Container
 PLANT MATURE OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
GROWTH PLANT MAXIMUM SEASONAL MASS CAN BE
PLANT SPECIES SPECIES HEAVY WATERLOGGED MOISTURE
FORM HEIGHT LIGHT LEAF FLOWER GROWN LANDSCAPE USES
(HABIT) (CM) ORIGIN FRUITING SOIL ONLY REQUIREMENT
TOLERANCE SHEDDING SHEDDING IN WATER

Coastal/ Riverine/
Full sun to semi- Focal Plant/
Isolepis cernua Herb 50 unknown N N N Y Lots of water
shade Container/ Terrarium/
Aquascape

General/ Roadside/
Parks & Gardens/
Moderate to lots of
Leea angulata Shrub (woody) 1500 Native Full sun to shade N N N Y Small Gardens/
water
Hedge/ Screening/
Riverine

General/ Roadside
Tree/ Parks &
Full sun to semi- Gardens/ Small Moderate to lots of
Leea rubra Shrub (woody) 300 Native N N N Y
shade Gardens/ Hedge/ water
Screening/
Flowerbed/ Border

Riverine/ Pond/ Lake/

Lepironia auriculata Herb 150 Native Full sun N N N Y Lots of water
Marsh/ Bog

Parks & Gardens/

Small Gardens/
Hedge/ Screening/ Moderate to lots of
Marantochloa filipes Herb 200 Non-native Semi-shade N N N Y
Marsh/ Bog/ water
Interiorscape/
Container

Parks & Gardens/

Marantochloa Moderate to lots of
Herb 250 Non-native Semi-shade N N N Y Small Gardens/
purpurea water
Marsh/ Bog

Mussaenda Full sun to semi- Parks/ Gardens/ Small

Shrub (woody) 400 Non-native N N N Moderate water
‘Calcutta’ shade Gardens/ Riverine

Riverine/ Parks & Modearte to lots of

Osmoxylon lineare Shrub (woody) 300 Non-native Full sun N N N N Y
Gardens water

63
 64
PLANT MATURE OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
GROWTH PLANT MAXIMUM SEASONAL MASS CAN BE
PLANT SPECIES SPECIES HEAVY WATERLOGGED MOISTURE
FORM HEIGHT LIGHT LEAF FLOWER GROWN LANDSCAPE USES
(HABIT) (CM) ORIGIN FRUITING SOIL ONLY REQUIREMENT
TOLERANCE SHEDDING SHEDDING IN WATER

Parks & Gardens/

Coastal/ Beachfront/
160 (small growth
Pandanus Shoreline/ Riverine/
Herb form) 450 (large Non-native Full sun N N N Y Y Lots of water
amaryllifolius Pond/ Lake/ Marsh/
growth form)
Bog/ Hedge/
Screening/ Roadside

General/ Coastal,
Pennisetum Moderate to lots of
Herb 150 Non-native Full sun N N N Flowerbed/ Border/
alopecuroides water
Container

General/ Coastal/
Green Roof/ Vertical
Pennisetum advena Greenery/ Green
Herb 150 Non-native Full sun N N N Moderate water
‘Rubrum’ Wall/ Flowerbed/
Border/ Focal Plant/
Container Planting

Parks & Gardens/

Coastal, Beachfront/
Full sun to semi- Shoreline/ Riverine/
Pluchea indica Shrub (woody) 300 Native N N N Y Lots of water
shade Pond/ Lake/ River/
Marsh/ Bog/ Hedge/
Screening

General/ Parks & Gar-

Schismatoglottis Semi-shade to Moderate to lots of
Herb 50 Native N N N Y dens/ Small Gardens/
wallichii shade water
Indoor

Riverine/ General/
Schumannianthus Full sun to semi- Moderate to lots of
Herb 500 Native N N N Y Y Pond/ Lake/ River/
dichotomus shade water
Marsh/ Bog
 PLANT MATURE OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
GROWTH PLANT MAXIMUM SEASONAL MASS CAN BE
PLANT SPECIES SPECIES HEAVY WATERLOGGED MOISTURE
FORM HEIGHT LIGHT LEAF FLOWER GROWN LANDSCAPE USES
(HABIT) (CM) ORIGIN FRUITING SOIL ONLY REQUIREMENT
TOLERANCE SHEDDING SHEDDING IN WATER

General/ Roadside/
Parks & Gardens/
Full sun to semi- Coastal/ Hedge/ Moderate to lots of
Tarenna fragrans Shrub (woody) 250 Native N N N Y
shade Screening/ Riverine/ water
Skyrise/ Balcony/
Container

Riverine/ Swimming
Thalia dealbata Herb 150 Non-native Full sun N N N Y Y Poolside/ Container/ Lots of water
Phytoremediation

Riverine/ Flowerbed/
Border/ Swimming
Thalia geniculata f. Full sun to semi-
Herb 300 Non-native N N N Y Y Poolside/ Focal Plant/ Lots of water
ruminoides shade
Container/ Marsh/
Bog

Riverine/ Flowerbed/
Border/ Swimming
Thalia geniculata Herb 300 Non-native Full sun N N N Y Y Poolside/ Focal Plant/ Lots of water
Container/ Marsh/
Bog

Riverine/ Pond/
Lake/ Marsh/
Typha angustifolia Herb 300 Non-native Full sun N N N Y Lots of water
Bog/ Container/
Phytoremediation

Typhonodorum Full sun to semi-

Herb 200 Non-native N N N Y Pond/ Lake/ River Lots of water
lindleyanum shade

Parks & Gardens/

Anemopaegma Climber Hedge/ Pergola/ Moderate to lots of
Non-native Full sun N N N
chamberlaynii (woody) Trellis/ Groundcover/ water
Fence

65
 66
PLANT OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
MATURE
GROWTH MAXIMUM SEASONAL MASS CAN BE
PLANT SPECIES PLANT SPECIES HEAVY WATERLOGGED MOISTURE
FORM LIGHT LEAF FLOWER GROWN LANDSCAPE USES
HEIGHT ORIGIN FRUITING SOIL ONLY REQUIREMENT
(HABIT) TOLERANCE SHEDDING SHEDDING IN WATER
(CM)
Parks & Gardens/
Climber Full sun to semi- Hedge/ Pergola/
Argyreia nervosa Non-native N N N Moderate water
(woody) shade Trellis/ Groundcover/
Fence
Parks & Gardens/
Climber Hedge/ Pergola/ Moderate to lots of
Bauhinia kockiana Non-native Full sun N N N
(woody) Trellis/ Groundcover/ water
Fence
Parks & Gardens/
Climber Full sun to semi- Hedge/ Pergola/
Bauhinia galpinii Non-native N N N Moderate water
(woody) shade Trellis/ Groundcovers/
Fence
Parks & Gardens/
Clerodendrum Climber Full sun to semi-
Non-native N N N Pergola/ Trellis/ Moderate water
thomsoniae (woody) shade
Groundcover/ Fence

Parks & Gardens/

Clerodendrum x Climber
Non-native Full sun N N N Pergola/ Trellis/ Moderate water
speciosum (woody)
Groundcover/ Fence

Parks & Gardens/

Ipomoea batatas
Climber Non-native Full sun N N N Groundcover/ Contain- Moderate water
‘Blackie’
er/ Bed/ Border

Parks & Gardens/

Ipomoea batatas Full sun to semi-
Climber Non-native N N N Groundcover/ Contain- Moderate water
‘Marguerite’ shade
er/ Bed/ Border
 PLANT MATURE OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
GROWTH PLANT MAXIMUM SEASONAL MASS CAN BE
PLANT SPECIES SPECIES HEAVY WATERLOGGED MOISTURE
FORM HEIGHT LIGHT LEAF FLOWER GROWN LANDSCAPE USES
(HABIT) (CM) ORIGIN FRUITING SOIL ONLY REQUIREMENT
TOLERANCE SHEDDING SHEDDING IN WATER

Parks & Gardens/

Full sun to semi- Small Gardens/ Moderate to lots of
Ipomoea aquatica creeper Non-native N N N Y Y
shade Riverine/ Pond/ Lake/ water
Marsh/ Bog

creeper (herba- Full sun to semi- Riverine/ Marsh/Bog/ Moderate to lots of

Murdannia nudiflora Non-native N N N Y
ceous) shade General/ Groundcover water

Phryganocydia Climber Parks & Gardens/

Non-native Full sun N N N Moderate water
corymbosa (woody) Pergola/ Trellis

Parks & Gardens/

Groundcover/
Container/ Bed/
Climber Full sun to semi-
Quisqualis indica Non-native N N N Border/ Slope/ Lake Moderate water
(woody) shade
margin/ Wetland/
Roadside/ Coastal
sand dune/ Fence

Parks & Gardens/

Groundcover/ Contain-
Sphagneticola Creeper /
Full sun to semi- er/ Bed/ Slope/ Lake
trilobata Syn: Climber (herba- Non-native N N N Moderate water
shade Margin/ Wetland/
Wedelia trilobata ceous)
Roadside/ Coastal
sand dune

Thunbergia Climber Full sun to semi- Parks & Gardens/ Per- Moderate to lots of
Non-native N N N
grandiflora (woody) shade gola/ Trellis/ Fence water

67
 68
PLANT MATURE OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
GROWTH PLANT MAXIMUM SEASONAL MASS CAN BE
PLANT SPECIES SPECIES HEAVY WATERLOGGED MOISTURE
FORM HEIGHT LIGHT LEAF FLOWER GROWN LANDSCAPE USES
(HABIT) (CM) ORIGIN FRUITING SOIL ONLY REQUIREMENT
TOLERANCE SHEDDING SHEDDING IN WATER

General/ Roadside/
Parks & Gardens/
Small Gardens/
Tristellateia Climber
Non-native Full sun N N N Y Coastal/ Beachfront/ Moderate water
australasiae (woody)
Shoreline/ Vertical
Greenery/ Green
Wall/ Trellis/ Pergola

General/ Parks &

Volkameria inermis
Climber Full sun to semi- Gardens/ Small Moderate to lots of
Syn: Clerodendrum Native N N N Y
(woody) shade Gardens/ Roadside/ water
inerme
Coastal

Climber Full sun to semi-

Vernonia elliptica Non-native N N N Parks/ Hedge/ Fence Moderate water
(woody) shade
 69

SKYRISE
GREENERY
Vertical Greenery and
Rooftop Greenery

1. Definitions of Skyrise and Rooftop

Greenery
1.1 Typical characteristics of green roof
1.2 Typical characteristics of green wall

2. Designs for Sustainability —

Maintenance
2.1 Maintenance — Extensive green
roof
2.2 Maintenance — Intensive green roof
2.3 Maintenance — Front-accessed
green wall
2.4 Maintenance — Back-accessed
green wall
2.5 Plant selection for green wall

3. Designs for Maintenance — Safety

3.1 Protection from falls
3.2 Common working-at-height (WAH)
situations
3.3 Manual tree access (MTA)

4. Relevant CUGE Standards

5. Plant Palette for Skyrise Greenery

70
1. Definitions of Skyrise and Rooftop Greenery

“Skyrise greenery” is the collective term commonly used for rooftop and
vertical greenery.

“Rooftop greenery” is the collective term used to describe green roofs (both
flat and pitched types) and roof gardens (including ledge greening).

1.1 Typical characteristics of green roof

1.1.1 Extensive green roof

Inclined green roof at the Art, Design & Media (ADM) building, Nanyang Technological
University of Singapore

These refer to the extensive growing of low cover plants on rooftops using
shallow modular roof systems. The modular system (about 10 cm deep)
comprises a drainage cum irrigation sheet sandwiched between the roof’s
waterproofing membrane beneath and soilless or mineral substrate media
above for growing creepers, covering plants and turfgrass. Extensive green
roofs are traditionally developed for aesthetic and ecological benefits.

Generally, extensive green roofs are low in installation cost and lightweight
(90–150 kg/m2).They can also be placed on pitched roofs up to an
inclination of 30 degrees. Minimal maintenance is required. Inspection
should be performed at least once or twice a year. Plants selected are
usually of low maintenance and are self-generative. Extensive systems are
common in European countries, especially Germany, and increasingly
being installed in North American cities and locally as well.
1.1.2 Intensive green roof (roof garden) Definitions of Skyrise 71
and Rooftop Greenery

Designs for
Sustainability —
Maintenance

Designs for
Maintenance — Safety

Relevant CUGE Standards

Roof garden at Central Horizon, an HDB project at Toa Payoh Central Plant Palette for
Skyrise Greenery
Intensive green roofs, or roof gardens, are designed to be accessible.
They are often used for recreation and other social activities. Hence they
are associated with added weight, higher capital cost, more intensive
planting and higher maintenance requirements. The plant selection ranges
from ornamental lawns, shrubs and bushes to trees and palms. As they
are designed for usage, regular maintenance such as mowing, fertilising,
watering and weeding is required.
 72
1.1.3 Diagram comparison and representation of green roof
1.2 Typical characteristics of green wall (vertical greenery) Definitions of Skyrise 73
and Rooftop Greenery

Designs for
Sustainability —
Maintenance

Designs for
Maintenance — Safety

Relevant CUGE Standards

Plant Palette for

Skyrise Greenery

Green wall at ITE College Central, Ang Mo Kio

Vegetated walls are built mainly for aesthetic and ecological benefits. The
level of maintenance is often dependent on the design and safe accessibility
of these vegetated vertical surfaces. Vertical vegetated wall surfaces are
often more exposed to the drying effects of the wind, especially stronger
winds at an increased altitude. Growing plants in such a harsh environment
requires more care and frequent inspection of the plants and systems.

The plant selection ranges from ornamental groundcovers and shrubs to

climbing vines and cascading plants. These are usually designed for visual
appreciation. Regular maintenance such as fertilising, irrigation, and judicious
pruning (if the vegetated surfaces are safely accessible) are required on a
regular basis. There are various methods of planting on vertical surfaces,
with the cost getting more competitive and affordable in recent years.

1.2.1 Types of vertical greenery systems

Currently there are broadly four types of vertical greenery systems in the
market, namely the support type, carrier type, fabric type, and planter type
systems.

Each system has its own unique set of maintenance requirements,

advantages, and limitations. These characteristics have spatial implications
for a system’s eventual maintainability. Diagram 1 shows the typical profile
of all four system types.
74

5 6

3 7
2

15
1
14

13
2
12

3
4 11
5

6 10

7 9
8

Diagram 1. Different types of green wall systems

 75
2. Designs for Sustainability — Maintenance Definitions of Skyrise
and Rooftop Greenery

The term “sustainability” broadly encompasses the following aspects:

§ Economics
Designs for
§ Environment Sustainability —
§ Society Maintenance

§ Resource efficacy
§ Maintainability (includes safety). Designs for
Maintenance — Safety
This chapter focuses on the maintainability of vertical greenery and rooftop
greenery.
Relevant CUGE Standards
2.1 Maintenance — Extensive green roof
Green roofs are usually installed on non-accessible roof space, functioning
as a thermal barrier for the roof surface and/or as an aesthetic vegetated
roof surface. Such non-accessible roofs may have a low or no parapet. Plant Palette for
Skyrise Greenery

Maintenance along such unprotected elevated roof edges is risky. Unless edge
protection (such as guardrails, installed to a registered PE’s specifications) is
in place, such locations are high-risk spaces and not conducive for effective
maintenance work.

2.1.1 Unprotected green roof edge

§ Workers must be competent,

following safe work procedures,
with site supervision on the roof.
§ This is an example of an active-
edge-protection.

Suitable for:
§ Inaccessible roof space

Safety line/rail must be

no less than 3m from the
unprotected roof edge

§ Minimum 1 m height roof parapet

as passive-edge-protection.
§ Workers must be competent, follow-
ing safe work procedures, with site
supervision on the roof.

Suitable for:
§ Accessible roof space
§ Inaccessible roof space

Diagram 2. Maintenance works on extensive green roof

76 Lifelines or rails (active edge protection) should be in place. Informed, trained
workers and supervision will be necessary to ensure safety throughout
maintenance operation. Please refer to CUGE Standards CS E11:2014 —
Guidelines on Design for Safety of Skyrise Greenery for further information.

Passive edge protection is preferred and possible through holistic design

during project design phase. Please refer to Diagram 2 for examples of
passive edge protection and active edge protection for an extensive green
roof.

2.2 Maintenance — Intensive green roof (roof garden)

Roof gardens are usually designed as an outdoor communal landscaped
roof space. A broad range of plants can usually be found on a roof garden,
ranging from turf and groundcovers to small trees and palms.

Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4

Up to 2m 2m to 5m 5m to 8m 8m or more
from roof from roof from roof from roof
edge edge edge edge

Diagram 3. Graphical illustration on setback distance for rooftop trees

Tall plants planted along roof garden edges are of risk concern. Trees and
palms must be set back from the roof edge when planted in a roof garden
(Diagram 3).

For more information on suggested setback for rooftop trees, please refer to
CUGE Standards CS E09:2012 — Guidelines on Planting of Trees, Palms
and Tall Shrubs on Rooftop.
2.2.1 Shade Definitions of Skyrise 77
and Rooftop Greenery

Designs for
Sustainability —
Maintenance

Designs for
Maintenance — Safety

Relevant CUGE Standards

Plant Palette for

Skyrise Greenery
Diagram 4. Graphic representation of expected tree growth due to inadequate
direct sunlight

Sky courts are sheltered spaces and can be shady (Diagram 4), with
inadequate direct sunlight. In such an environment, plants will grow etiolated
over time. Tree canopies may grow lopsided, leaning outwards towards the
direction with more daylight. If planted too close to the edge, this expected
leaning of the tree canopy and branches can lead to maintenance problems.
Where possible, allow for more space around the tree for maintenance
access. Alternatively, use smaller plants.

Courtyard roof garden at Nanyang Polytechnic

In the image above, raised planters allow deeper rooting depth and can be
integrated with seats. Deep courtyards can get shady. The above example is
planted with shade-tolerant plant species.
78 2.2.2 Rooftop drainage
Drainage direction and adequate
drainage provision are pertinent to
avoid flooding, especially during
drainage
flow
û
tropical torrential downpours.

The finished level of the rooftop

greenery should ideally not
be higher than the adjoining
indoor floor level. The threshold
demarcating the exterior from the
interior space must be designed
ü
to keep rainwater out (Diagram
5).

ü
Diagram 5. Graphic representations of
rooftop drainage directions

Intensive retrofitted roof garden

In some situations, the rooftop greenery finish level is higher than the indoor
finish level due to roof level constraints, as in the case of some retrofitted roof
gardens (see image above). An adequate up-stand or a drain of adequate
capacity can be appropriately positioned to create an effective threshold in
such situations (Diagram 5).

Please refer to CUGE Standards CS E04:2010 — Guidelines on Filter,

Drainage and Root Penetration Barrier Layers for Rooftop Greenery
2.2.3 Design considerations to facilitate turf mowing Definitions of Skyrise 79
and Rooftop Greenery
The selection and placement of plants at the ground level as well as on a
roof garden can have implications on how subsequent plant maintenance
such as turf mowing, etc. is carried out.
Designs for
Sustainability —
The following landscape situations can occur at ground level landscapes Maintenance
as well as on roof gardens, especially larger ones with a large area of
softscape. Designs for
Maintenance — Safety

A
Relevant CUGE Standards

Plant Palette for

Skyrise Greenery

Diagram 6. Graphic representation of turf planting

A thin strip of turf alongside pavement (Diagram 6A) requires frequent

mowing and is of little aesthetic value. Diagram 6B and 6C are two examples
of softscape treatments that do not require mowing, thereby reducing
maintenance.

Approx. 1 m

Diagram 7A. Graphic representation of shrub bed width for easy maintenance
80 For shrub beds planted with shrub species that require frequent pruning along
the walkway or pavement, the shrub bed width should have dimensions that
allow easy maintenance access. The example in Diagram 7A suggests a
width of approximately 1 m so that there is no need to step into the planter
bed during maintenance.

Approx. 1.5 m

Diagram 7B. Graphic representation of shrub bed width for easy maintenance

For broader shrub beds with a larger area covered by shrub species requiring
frequent pruning, intermittent gravel or mulch paths can be considered to
allow workers access to the plants during maintenance without the need to
step into the established foliage. The above example (Diagram 7B) suggests
a gravel path approximately every 1.5 m (or wherever there is a change to
vegetation type) to facilitate plant maintenance access.

Diagram 8. Graphic representation of design consideration for turf that grows right
up to a vertical element

Turf that grows right up to a vertical element, such as a permanent seat, up-
stand, wall, step-up and other equivalent, cannot be easily mowed without the
mowing blade or strip coming into close contact with the surface’s finishing
(Diagram 8). This situation makes mowing around corners challenging. This
is depicted in the left diagram of a permanent garden seat. In the example
on the right, the base of the seat has a paved footrest flushed with the soil
level, allowing for easy turf mowing.
 Definitions of Skyrise 81
and Rooftop Greenery

Designs for
Sustainability —
Maintenance

Designs for
Maintenance — Safety

Relevant CUGE Standards

Plant Palette for

Skyrise Greenery

Diagram 9. Graphic representation of design consideration for turf with feature

elements

In the example as shown in Diagram 9A, the feature rock (e.g. a sculpture
or equivalent) has turf planted right up to its sides, making turf mowing
challenging. The example in Diagrams 9B and 9C have shrub (or
groundcover) planted instead. Gravel can also create a margin between the
turf and the feature rock to allow for easier turf mowing. Alternatively, hard
paving can also be used to create the margin.
82

No more than 1:6 slope

Diagram 10. Graphic representation of design for maintenance of sloping turf

Landscaped slope that has no more than a 1:6 incline is adequately gentle
and safe for grass cutting by mowing machines. Such gently sloped surfaces
and rooftop greenery can be landscaped with turf grasses.

For slopes that have more than a 1:6 incline, it is advisable to plant with ferns
and/or groundcovers. Such vegetation requires less frequent maintenance
compared to the maintenance-intensive turf and does not require the use of
a mowing machine.
Turf Shrub Paved Gravel

Example A Example B Example C Example D

Diagram 11. Graphic representation of design for maintenance of turf around trees

In Example A, the turf is planted right up to the base of the tree, making
turf mowing challenging, with risk of damaging the tree bark, which can
adversely affect the tree’s health.

Examples B, C, and D are suggested alternatives, using landscape design

treatments to the tree base to reduce turf-mowing challenges.
 Turf Shrub Paved Gravel Definitions of Skyrise 83
and Rooftop Greenery

Designs for
Sustainability —
Maintenance

Designs for
Maintenance — Safety

Example A Example B Example C Example D

Relevant CUGE Standards

Diagram 12. Graphic representation of design for maintenance of turf around a
lamppost

In Example A, the turf is planted right up to the base of the lamppost, making
Plant Palette for
turf mowing challenging. Examples B, C and D are suggested alternatives, Skyrise Greenery
with landscape design treatments to the base of the lamppost to reduce turf-
mowing challenges.

These design suggestions can also be applied to the base of garden furniture.
In general, fixed garden furniture and features should ideally be positioned
on paved, hardscape or decked surfaces to reduce turf-mowing challenges.

Example A Example B

Example C Example D

Diagram 13. Graphic representation of turf/shrub placement alongside parapet

In Diagram 13, Examples A and B are not ideal from a maintenance

standpoint because the taller shrubs planted beyond the glass parapets are
difficult to reach. Workers are very likely going to lean over the parapet in
order to reach the foliage to maintain these plants. It is also impossible to
reach the roots and soil volumes of these plants along these edges. Instead,
84 planting should ideally be within the threshold set by the parapets, as shown
in Examples C and D.

2.3 Maintenance — Front-accessed green wall

ITE College Central Wellington Primary School

In general, a green wall (e.g. Wellington Primary School) that is no more

than 2 m in height will be relatively easy to access vertically from the front to
maintain both the plants and the system. A front-accessed green wall taller
than 2 m can be reached with an elevated work platform (a ladder-stand-
platform, tower- scaffold, etc.), a pole pruner and/or a combination of these
equipment.

For a front-accessed green wall (e.g. ITE College Central) that is more than
2 m in height, have a flat, stable landing surface in front to allow for safe
deployment of an elevated work platform and equipment.

Front- Front-accessed
accessed green wall
green wall

Front-
accessed
green wall

Greens Water Paving

Diagram 14. Graphic representations of how different surface types in front of front-
accessed green wall impact maintenance access

The first example above has a vegetated foreground. Turfed surface can be
designed and landscaped with suitable supporting underlayers to provide
adequate load-bearing capacity for deployment of Mobile Elevating Work
Platforms (MEWPs) and/or other elevated work platforms, much like the
turfed fire engine access commonly seen in large developments.
The second example has a water body in the foreground, rendering the Definitions of Skyrise 85
and Rooftop Greenery
front vertical access challenging. A more versatile MEWP type, such as the
lightweight spider boom lift, will be necessary to effectively access the green
wall from the front. In general, an uneven, soft, and/or spatially cluttered
Designs for
foreground is challenging for effective deployment of elevated work platform. Sustainability —
Maintenance
The third example, with a flat, hard-paved foreground, allows for direct
and safe deployment of elevated work platforms such as MEWPs. This is Designs for
especially crucial for front-accessed green walls that are more than 4 m in Maintenance — Safety
height. Furniture, if any, should be removable from the foreground for spatial
clearance during the deployment of MEWPs and/or other suitable elevated
work platforms. Relevant CUGE Standards

The hard-paved foreground landing must be designed, dimensioned, and

built to the specifications of a registered architect and professional engineer
(PE). It needs to have an adequate load-bearing capacity for the safe Plant Palette for
Skyrise Greenery
deployment of MEWPs.

Please refer to CUGE Standards CS E11:2014 — Guidelines on Design for

Safety of Skyrise Greenery for more information.

2.4 Maintenance — Back-accessed green wall

Most green wall systems can be designed to be accessed from the back for
maintenance. Access space at the back allows workers a permanent passive
workspace access along these elevated greenery surfaces. Back access with
“open-able” green wall system must be designed with edge protection to
prevent workers from falling out during maintenance.

Edge protection for the back access can

be in the form of guard rails with mid-rails.
They must comply with WSHC requirements
and be of suitable height and load-bearing
capacity (especially against impact load).
The back-accessed maintenance walkway
edges must have toe boards or other
alternatives to prevent tools from rolling off
and dropping from a height.

Ideally, a safety line or rail is to be

designed and installed to the back wall
along the full length of the maintenance
walkway, constructed to a registered PE’s
Tree House Condominium has specifications. This is especially important
a façade of vertical greenery,
when the vertical greenery has full-height
composed of climbing vines, with
a back-accessed maintenance “apertures”, exposing the maintenance
walkway. Maintenance from the worker to the risk of falling.
front is kept to a minimum.
86 If there are cat ladders within the back-accessed maintenance walkway
space to connect the different maintenance walkway levels, they must be
designed and constructed to a registered PE’s specifications.

The back-accessed maintenance

walkway (see picture on left) should have
a minimum 600 mm internal clearance
width. The maintenance walkway must
be designed and constructed to the
specifications of a registered PE.

Each maintenance walkway level should

ideally have direct access to the building’s
permanent stair core with a clear spatial
directionality to allow workers to move
and escape easily during emergencies.
Workers must not work alone in this
maintenance walkway. A minimum of
two workers per level is required to keep
watch of each other.

In general, green walls (see picture

The vertical greenery at School of the
Arts (SOTA), composed of climbing above) with a well-designed back-
vines, is built against a corridor accessed maintenance space provided
space, allowing easy and safe access
at every level can be relatively well
to the planter and the climbing
vines. Front access to the climber maintained, and do not require MEWP
foliage, using a gondola, is kept to a maintenance access from the front. For
minimum.
such green walls, the foreground base
can be landscaped without impeding
maintenance.

Please refer to CS E11:2014 —

Guidelines on Design for Safety of
Skyrise Greenery for more information.
Diagram 15 represents a situation in which Definitions of Skyrise 87
and Rooftop Greenery
climbing vines are planted near the edges
of a sky court that is a few storeys high.
The climber vines are at the edge and
Designs for
have also grown very tall. Maintenance Sustainability —
access is very challenging even with the Maintenance
deployment of a gondola. Gondolas may
not have adequate reach of the foliage. Designs for
Maintenance — Safety
Grown dimensions and placement of
the selected plants have direct spatial
implications on safe maintenance Relevant CUGE Standards
accessibility to the plants. The supporting
system parts, such as the substrate,
drainage, irrigation pipe lines, supporting
sub-frames, grating, etc., need to be Plant Palette for
Skyrise Greenery
safely accessible for periodic inspection
Diagram 15. Graphic
and maintenance. representation of maintenance
issue with tall climbing vines
2.5 Plant selection for green wall
In both rooftop greenery and vertical greenery, the greenery system is
integral to the building envelope design and space making. When the
greenery system performs well, the resultant lush healthy foliage benefits the
building envelope aesthetically as well as improves the building’s external
microclimate. On the flipside, poor plant growth with unattractive foliage
can be equally apparent.

Skyrise greenery microclimates are diverse and dependent on surrounding

urban forms and heights. Where possible, in project phasing, set up
plant test plots (with mock-up surfaces, etc.) in consultation with skyrise
greenery consultants who have been engaged to ascertain the horticulture
performance of selected greenery systems and plant species prior to the
greenery installation. Such test plots will serve well to identify suitable plant
species as well as manage the building owners’ and users’ expectations of
the relevant greenery systems and subsequent maintenance.

Some plants species, such as Bromeliad spp. and Alocasia spp., may trap
water in their axials. If used, these plants should be regularly monitored every
few days for signs of mosquito breeding. Plants that can potentially trap
water are not allowed on non-accessible skyrise greenery where inspection
is infrequent.

Please refer to section 5 Plant Palette for Skyrise Greenery.

3. Designs for Maintenance — Safety

The term “maintenance” broadly means proper care or upkeep of a certain

product or item for a period of time. In order to carry out proper and
sustainable maintenance work on green wall and green roof, it is essential
to design for safety as contractors need to work at height most of the time.

This chapter will focus on the safety aspect of maintenance on rooftop

greenery and vertical greenery.
88 3.1 Protection from falls
Falls from height (FFH) is the major cause of injury and fatality at workplace.
Wherever possible, in the planning, design, construction, and maintenance
of rooftop and vertical greenery, the need to work at height must be reduced
and managed.

Where it is not possible to avoid work at height, the following passive and
active strategies should be considered.

ACCESS/EGRESS EDGE-PROTECTION
(to elevated work space) (of elevated work space)

Example: Example:
PASSIVE
Building’s permanent stair core Minimum 1m height fixed parapet

Example: Example:
ACTIVE
MEWPs, ladders, vertical rail, etc. Safety line + PPE

The design, installation, and maintenance of these safety features must

comply with industry standards and regulations.

Safety features, when appropriately introduced, can safeguard against

workplace accidents. However, when inadequately designed, installed,
utilised and/or maintained, they may create more risks and hazards.

Please refer to the Workplace Safety and Health Council’s website, www.
wshc.sg, for the Code of Practice for Working Safely at Heights. The onus
is on the building owner and relevant users to make sure that these safety
features are appropriately incorporated, maintained, and correctly utilised.

3.2 Common work-at-height (WAH) situations

SKYRISE GREENERY WAH — COMMON SITUATIONS

Vertical
Green roof Roof garden
greenery

Vertically
Working Working on Vertically
accessing
near green Working Reaching out narrow plant- accessing
the top of tall
roof edge on pitched beyond roof ed ledge crown of
green wall
with low or green roof edge with low or rooftop tree/
beyond 3M
no parapet no parapet palm
height

All work at heights for skyrise greenery must comply with the Workplace
Safety and Health Council (WSHC) Code of Practice for Working Safely at Definitions of Skyrise 89
and Rooftop Greenery
Heights.

Refrain from planting tall plants that are more than 2 m tall along roof edges
Designs for
to avoid: Sustainability —
§ Falling plant debris and/or tool(s) during maintenance Maintenance
§ The need to work in such a high-risk, elevated environment.
Designs for
For rooftop trees and palms setback recommendations, please refer to CS Maintenance — Safety
E09:2012 — Guidelines on Planting of Trees, Palms and Tall Shrubs on
Rooftop.
Relevant CUGE Standards
3.3 Manual tree access (MTA)
Where elevated work platforms cannot be safely deployed to access a
rooftop tree canopy for periodic crown maintenance (i.e. crown thinning,
crown reduction, etc.), manual tree access (MTA) is the next option. Plant Palette for
Skyrise Greenery

MTA requires operator skill, fitness, persistent concentration, and alertness.

The operators (a minimum of two must be on site to keep watch of each
other) must be trained, competent with their equipment, and able to spot
potential tree hazards.

The operational task of MTA requires constant commitment from managers,

supervisors, operators, and all other team members to ensure personnel
safety and that operational objectives are met.

For safety reasons, MTA should never be exercised on rooftop trees planted
along rooftop edges and rooftop zone 1. Please refer to section 2.5.

For more information on MTA procedures and requirements, please refer

to the Singapore Arboriculture Society website, www.sas.sg, for relevant
guidelines on:
§ Code of Practice – Tree Pruning
§ Tree Inspection Report Guidelines
§ SAS Advice on Portable Ladders

4. Relevant CUGE Standards

§ CS E01:2010 — Guidelines on Design Loads for Rooftop Greenery

§ CS E02:2010 — Guidelines on Design for Safety on Rooftop Greenery
§ CS E03:2010 — Guidelines on Substrate Layer for Rooftop Greenery
§ CS E04:2010 — Guidelines on Filter, Drainage and Root Penetration
Barrier Layers for Rooftop Greenery
§ CS E05:2012 — Guidelines on Waterproofing for Rooftop Greenery
§ CS E06:2012 — Guidelines on Irrigation for Rooftop Greenery
§ CS E07:2012 — Guidelines on General Maintenance for Rooftop
Greenery
§ CS E08:2012 — Guidelines on Design and Construction of Pitched
Green Roof
§ CS E09:2012 — Guidelines on Planting Trees, Palms and Tall Shrubs on
Rooftop
§ CS E10:2014 — Guidelines on Design Loads for Skyrise Greenery
§ CS E11:2014 — Guidelines on Design for Safety of Skyrise Greenery
 90
5. Plant Palette for Skyrise Greenery

REQUIRE
LOTS OF MODERATE LITTLE EXTENSIVE
SCIENTIFIC NAME FAMILY NAME GROWTH TYPE FULL SUN SEMI SHADE SHADE GREEN WALL MIST
WATER WATER WATER ROOFTOP
SYSTEM
VERTICAL
SUPPORT PANEL &
SYSTEM FABRIC
SYSTEM
Aeschynanthus spp. Gesneriaceae Creeper • • •
Agave spp. & hybrids Asparagaceae Succulent • • •

Aloe tenuior Xanthorrhoeaceae Succulent • • •

Alternanthera hybrids Amarantheceae Shrub • • • • •

Alysicarpus vaginalis Fabaceae Creeper • • • • •
Ananas spp. & hybrids Bromeliaceae Terrestrial bromeliad • • •
Antigonon leptopus & hybrids Polygonaceae Herbaceous climber • • 5m

Aptenia cordifolia Aizoaceae Succulent • • • • •

Arachis pintoi Fabaceae Creeper • • •

Aristolochia acuminata Aristolochiaceae Woody climber • • 3m •
Aristolochia gigantea Aristolochiaceae Herbaceous climber • • 5m
Asclepias curassavica Asclepiadaceae Herbaceous plant • • •
Asparagus densiflorus
Asparagaceae Scrambling Shrub • • •
‘Sprengeri’
Asplenium nidus Aspleniaceae Epiphytic fern • • • • •
Asystasia gangetica ‘Variegata’ Acanthaceae Creeper • • • • • •
Bauhinia kockiana Fabaceae Woody climber • • 3m
Bauhinia semibifida Fabaceae Woody climber • • 3m
Begonia spp. & hybrids Begoniaceae Rhizomatous herb • • • • •
 REQUIRE
LOTS OF MODERATE LITTLE EXTENSIVE
SCIENTIFIC NAME FAMILY NAME GROWTH TYPE FULL SUN SEMI SHADE SHADE GREEN WALL MIST
WATER WATER WATER ROOFTOP
SYSTEM
VERTICAL
SUPPORT PANEL &
SYSTEM FABRIC
SYSTEM

Bryophyllum x
Crassulaceae Succulent • • • •
crenatodaigremontianum

Caladium spp. & hybrids Araceae Herbaceous plant • • •

Callisia repens Commelinaceae Creeper • • • •

Calotropis gigantea Asclepiadaceae Herbaceous plant • • •
Carissa macrocarpa Apocynaceae Shrub • • •
Carpobrotus edulis Aizoaceae Creeper • • •
Ceropegia woodii Asclepiadaceae Creeper • • •
Codiaeum variegatum Euphorbiaceae Shrub • • •
Cordyline spp. & hybrids Agavaceae Shrub • • • •

Crassula ovata Crassulaceae Shrub • • • •

Crotalaria pallida Fabaceae Herbaceous plant • • •

Cryptanthus spp. & hybrids Bromeliaceae Terrestrial bromeliad • • • • •
Cuphea spp. & hybrids Lythraceae Shrub • • •
Cyanotis cristata Commelinaceae Creeper • • • • •

Cyathula prostrata Amarantheceae Creeper • • • • •

Epiphytic creeping
Davallia denticulata Davalliaceae • • • • • • • •
fern
Desmodium heterophyllum & D.
Fabaceae Creeper • • • • •
triflorum
Dianella ensifolia Xanthorrhoeaceae Herbaceous plant • • •
Dieffenbachia amoena Araceae Herbaceous plant • • • •

91
 92
REQUIRE
LOTS OF MODERATE LITTLE EXTENSIVE
SCIENTIFIC NAME FAMILY NAME GROWTH TYPE FULL SUN SEMI SHADE SHADE GREEN WALL MIST
WATER WATER WATER ROOFTOP
SYSTEM
VERTICAL
SUPPORT PANEL &
SYSTEM FABRIC
SYSTEM
Dischidia spp. Apocynaceae Creeper • • • •
Dracaena reflexa & hybrids Dracaenaceae Shrub • • • •
Dracaena surculosa & hybrids Dracaenaceae Shrub • • •
Drimiopsis maculata Asparagaceae Herbaceous plant • • • •

Drynaria quercifolia Polypodiaceae Epiphytic fern • • • •

Duranta erecta & hybrids Verbenaceae Shrub • • •

Echeveria spp. Crassulaceae Shrub • • •
Epiphyllum anguliger Cactaceae Succulent • • •
Epiphyllum hookeri ssp.
Cactaceae Succulent • • •
Guatemalense
Epipremnum pinnatum Araceae Herbaceous climber • • • •
Episcia spp. & hybrids Gesneriaceae Creeper • • •

Euphorbia milii Euphorbiaceae Shrub • • •

Euphorbia tithymaloides spp.

Euphorbiaceae Succulent • • •
& hybrids
Excoecaria cochinchinensis Euphorbiaceae Shrub • • • •
Ficus deltoidea Moraceae Shrub • • • •
Ficus pumila Moraceae Creeper • • • • •
Ficus punctata Moraceae Creeper • • • •
Ficus vaccinioides Moraceae Scrambling Shrub • • • • • •
Furcraea foetida ‘Striata’ Agavaceae Herbaceous plant • • •
Geophila repens Rubiaceae Creeper • • • •
 REQUIRE
LOTS OF MODERATE LITTLE EXTENSIVE
SCIENTIFIC NAME FAMILY NAME GROWTH TYPE FULL SUN SEMI SHADE SHADE GREEN WALL MIST
WATER WATER WATER ROOFTOP
SYSTEM
VERTICAL
SUPPORT PANEL &
SYSTEM FABRIC
SYSTEM
Grammatophyllum speciosum Orchidaceae Epiphytic Orchid • • • •
Habranthus gracilifolius Amaryllidaceae Herbaceous plant • • •
Haworthia spp. & hybrids Xanthorrhoeaceae Succulent • • •
Hemigraphis alternata Acanthaceae Creeper • • • • •
Hemigraphis alternata ‘Exotica’ Acanthaceae Creeper • • • • •
Hemigraphis repanda Acanthaceae Creeper • • • • •
Heterotis rotundifolia Melastomataceae Creeper • • • •
Homalocladium platycladum Polygonaceae Herbaceous plant • • • •
Hoya densifolia Apocynaceae Herbaceous climber • • • • •
Hoya diversifolia Apocynaceae Herbaceous climber • • • • •
Hoya obovata Apocynaceae Herbaceous climber • • •
Hoya pubicalyx Apocynaceae Herbaceous climber • • • •
Ipomoea mauritiana Convolvulaceae Herbaceous climber • • 4m
Ixora Dwarf hybrids Rubiaceae Shrub • • •
Kalanchoe pinnata Crassulaceae Succulent • • • •
Kalanchoe tomentosa Crassulaceae Succulent • • • •
Klanchoe millotii Crassulaceae Succulent • • •
Lantana camara & hybrids Verbenaceae Scrambling Shrub • • • •
Lespedeza bicolor Fabaceae Shrub • • • •

93
 94
REQUIRE
LOTS OF MODERATE LITTLE EXTENSIVE
SCIENTIFIC NAME FAMILY NAME GROWTH TYPE FULL SUN SEMI SHADE SHADE GREEN WALL MIST
WATER WATER WATER ROOFTOP
SYSTEM
VERTICAL
SUPPORT PANEL &
SYSTEM FABRIC
SYSTEM
Leucophyllum frutescens Scrophulariaceae Shrub • • • •
Liriope muscari Convallariaceae Herbaceous plant • • •
Lobelia chinensis Campanulaceae Creeper • • • •
Lonicera japonica Caprifoliaceae Woody climber • • 5m
Lysimachia procumbens Primulaceae Creeper • • • •
Mentha cultivar Lamiaceae Creeper • • • • •
Microsorum punctatum Epiphytic creeping
Polypodiaceae • • • • •
‘Grandiceps’ fern
Murdannia nudiflora Commelinaceae Creeper • • • • •
Neoregelia spp. & hybrids Bromeliaceae Terrestrial bromeliad • • • • •
Epiphytic creeping
Nephrolepis spp. & hybrids Oleandraceae • • • • •
fern
Ophiopogon spp. & hybrids Convallariaceae Herbaceous Plant • • • • •
Pandanus amaryllifollius Pandanaceae Shrub • • • • •
Pandanus pygmaeus Pandanaceae Creeper • • • •
Pellionia repens Urticaceae Creeper • • • • •
Pennisetum alopecuroides &
Poaceae Perennial Grass • • •
hybrids
Peperomia spp. & hybrids Piperaceae Herbaceous plant • • •
Philodendron spp. & hybrids Araceae Herbaceous climber • • • •
Phyllanthus cochinchinensis Phyllanthaceae Herbaceous Plant • • • •
Phyllanthus myrtifolius Phyllanthaceae Herbaceous Plant • • • •
 REQUIRE
LOTS OF MODERATE LITTLE EXTENSIVE
SCIENTIFIC NAME FAMILY NAME GROWTH TYPE FULL SUN SEMI SHADE SHADE GREEN WALL MIST
WATER WATER WATER ROOFTOP
SYSTEM
VERTICAL
SUPPORT PANEL &
SYSTEM FABRIC
SYSTEM
Epiphytic creeping
Phymatosorus scolopendria Polypodiaceae • • • • • • •
fern
Pilea microphylla Urticaceae Succulent • • •
Pilea nummularifolia Urticaceae Herbaceous climber • • • •
Pityrogramma calomelanos Pteridaceae Creeping fern • • • • • •
Platycerium coronarium Polypodiaceae Epiphytic fern • • • • •
Plectranthus amboinicus Lamiaceae Herbaceous plant • • •
Polyscias fruticosa (Dwarf) Araliaceae Shrub • • • • •
Portulaca spp. & hybrids Portulacaceae Creeper • • • •
Portulacaria afra Portulacaceae Herbaceous plant • • • • •
Pseudogynoxys chenopodioides Asteraceae Woody climber • • 3-6 m
Pteris ensiformis ‘Victoriae’ Pteridaceae Creeping fern • • •
Pteris semipinnata Pteridaceae Epiphytic fern • • •
Quisqualis indica Combretaceae Woody climber • • 8m
Russelia equisetiformis Plantaginaceae Creeper • • • •
Ruta graveolens Rutaceae Shrub • • • •
Sansevieria spp. & hybrids Asparagaceae Creeper • • • •
Schefflera arboricola Araliaceae Shrub • • • • •
Scindapsus pictus ‘Argyraeus’ Araceae Herbaceous climber • • •
Sedum mexicanum Crassulaceae Succulent • • • •
Sedum sarmentosum Crassulaceae Succulent • • • •

95
 96
REQUIRE
LOTS OF MODERATE LITTLE EXTENSIVE
SCIENTIFIC NAME FAMILY NAME GROWTH TYPE FULL SUN SEMI SHADE SHADE GREEN WALL MIST
WATER WATER WATER ROOFTOP
SYSTEM
VERTICAL
SUPPORT PANEL &
SYSTEM FABRIC
SYSTEM
Sedum x rubrotinctum Crassulaceae Succulent • • • •
Selaginella spp. Selaginellaceae Creeping fern • • • •
Serissa japonica & hybrids Rubiaceae Shrub • • • •
Sesuvium portulacastrum Aizoaceae Creeper • • • • •
Spathoglottis spp. & hybrids Orchidaceae Terrestrial Orchid • • • •
Sphagneticola trilobata Asteraceae Creeper • • • • •
Stachytarpheta indica Verbenaceae Shrub • • •
Stachytarpheta ‘Red Compacta’ Verbenaceae Shrub • • • •
Syngonium spp. & hybrids Araceae Herbaceous climber • • • •
Talinum paniculatum Portulacaceae Herbaceous plant • • • •
Talinum triangulare ‘Variegata’ Portulacaceae Herbaceous plant • • •
Telosma cordata Asclepiadaceae Woody climber • • • 10 m
Tetracera indica Dilleniaceae Woody climber • • • 5m
Thunbergia grandiflora Acanthaceae Herbaceous climber • • 10 m
Trachelospermum asiaticum
Apocynaceae Creeper • • • • • •
‘Tricolor’ & ‘Ogon Nishiki’
Tradescantia pallida Commelinaceae Creeper • •
Semi epiphytic
Tradescantia spathacea Commelinaceae • • • • •
herbaceous plant
Tristellateia australasiae Malpighiaceae Woody climber • • • 10 m
Vernonia elliptica Asteraceae Herbaceous climber • • • 3m •
Xiphidium caeruleum Haemodoraceae Herbaceous plant • • • • •
 REQUIRE
LOTS OF MODERATE LITTLE EXTENSIVE
SCIENTIFIC NAME FAMILY NAME GROWTH TYPE FULL SUN SEMI SHADE SHADE GREEN WALL MIST
WATER WATER WATER ROOFTOP
SYSTEM
VERTICAL
SUPPORT PANEL &
SYSTEM FABRIC
SYSTEM
Zephyranthes candida Amaryllidaceae Herbaceous plant • • • •
Zephyranthes rosea Amaryllidaceae Herbaceous plant • • • •

97
98

SPONTANEOUS
VEGETATION
Transforming Manicured Lawns
into Selectively Maintained
Biodiverse Gardens
HWANG Yun Hye

1. Introduction

2. Application
2.1 The first stage (0–0.5 years)
2.2 The second stage (0.5–1 year)
2.3 The third stage (1–1.5 years)
2.4 The fourth stage (1.5–3 years)
2.5 The fifth stage (after 3 years)

3. Further Considerations
 99
1. Introduction Introduction

Beyond the perception of spontaneous vegetation as insignificant weeds, the

ecological value of such greenery has been highlighted by many ecologists
Application
who argue that our categorisation is grounded in value judgments (Davis
et al., 2011). Spontaneous vegetation deserves a place in our city given
that it functions as part of the wider ecosystem (Del Tredici, 2010), acting
as an ecologically critical element in the urban landscapes (Dunnett & Further
Hitchmough, 2004). The novel visual forms offered are also opportunities Considerations
to be explored as a means to evoke a sense of place (Kühn, 2006) and as
a medium to synthesise into urban ecological design (Nassauer, 1995).
In fact, considering spontaneous vegetation as a component of manmade
landscape is not new. It has been widely applied in Dutch heemparks since
the 1920s under the name ‘managed naturalism’ (Koningen, 2008). Such
application extends the role of the landscape manager to become a mediator
between the people and nature. Nevertheless, nature-dependent landscape
management strategies are still held in low regard and have little influence
on the landscape industry in Singapore.

For such a compact island city, Singapore has a superlative contrast — a

primitive tropical jungle alongside highly controlled manmade greenery.The
land was originally covered by a regionally-specific form of lowland primary
rainforest that saw overwhelming growth of countless plant species within
an optimum ecosystem (Corlett, 1992; Terborgh, 1992). On the other hand,
much of the current manmade landscapes consist of mowed grass areas
as well as neatly pruned shrubs and trees that requires continual labour
intensive maintenance (Centre for Urban Greenery & Ecology, 2010),
further intensified by the local climate which bestows conditions ideal for
relatively faster growth in plants as compared to temperate countries. Most
importantly, manicured lawns without recreational purposes seem out of
place in the tropical setting.

Managed lawns within public parks, park connectors, roadside green,

campus green, as well as temporarily-open fields set aside for future
development, can act as suitable sites for creating biodiverse gardens with
the use of spontaneous vegetation. Besides these distinctive spaces, scattered
unnamed grass patches such as fenced-up lawns, park fringes and space
underneath elevated infrastructure can also offer prospective platforms to
add ecological value. This holds especially true since most of these areas
have the potential to attract more fauna when converted into a local habitat.
Currently, these sites are typically covered by a single exotic turf species,
Axonopus compressus (Cowgrass), and maintained with biweekly mowing
to retain their neat appearances.

This generic single species standard does not always perform well in all
contexts. For example, grassy areas that are shaded under wide tree
canopies may turn into bare compacted patches due to lack of sunlight.
Grass on steep slopes may also create issues such as soil erosion, with safety
implications for operators of knapsack grass-cutters. Open lawns that are
clipped short can furthermore decrease the effectiveness of the vegetation
in reducing surface temperatures, as compared to taller plants with higher
evapotranspiration and shade provision. The proposed transformation into
biodiverse gardens can thus be a feasible solution for such problematic
100 environmental issues, since spontaneous vegetation in general can easily
adapt and thrive well in most harsh urban conditions, such as full shade,
steep slopes and extremely hot areas.

In summary, the idea of transforming manicured lawns into biodiverse gardens

using spontaneous vegetation offers a plausible alternative for five reasons:
§ Promoting biodiversity in managed greenery to form local habitats is
befitting of a country that was once a tropical jungle, but has only a vestige
of the original left.
§ Singapore is climatically suitable for this initiative, where vegetation grows
and flourishes within a relatively short time in the hot and humid climate.
§ Allowing spontaneous vegetation to convert grassy areas into biodiverse
gardens can possibly save time and costs against labour-intensive
maintenance, as well as being a solution to problematic site conditions.
§ Naturalised gardens would provide the potential for aesthetically pleasant
and therapeutic environments that facilitate the up-close appreciation of the
dynamic processes in nature.
§ Beyond the conventional norm of landscape management to keep the
original design, maintenance could be extended to an incremental design
action in response to landscape processes, towards a more ecologically
productive and sustainable greening of Singapore.

2. Application

Images of lawns at 0 months, 8 months and 1.5 years (from above to bottom)

Transforming manicured lawns into biodiverse gardens requires

multidisciplinary actions by designers and managers. Most importantly,
management strategies have to be customised for maximum biodiversity
and to suit local site contexts. Based on empirical research projects1 to Introduction 101
convert manicured lawns into naturalised gardens in the campus of National
University of Singapore (NUS), time-based interventions are suggested in this
chapter for application onto existing manicured lawns in a broad context.
Application

2.1 The first stage (0-0.5 years)

Grass cutting is halted and the assigned area is redefined through observations
of changes in the landscape. There will be no notable changes of vegetation Further
volume within the first six months, but emerging groundcovers will slowly Considerations
increase in number of species. In most of cases, no regular maintenance is
needed except to keep the area clean. At this stage, the required actions are
as follows, with most to be retained in the long term:

§ No grass cutting within the assigned area.

§ Remove litter on a regular basis.
§ Selective grass cutting can be done once in two months, but only if there is
any adjacent infrastructure, such as paved footpaths or concrete drainage
areas, in order to avoid potential obstruction and flooding due to encroach-
ing by overgrown grass.
§ If necessary, a one-time loosening of any compacted bare soil or topping-
up of mulch can be done at the beginning, to encourage the emergence of
spontaneous vegetation.

2.2 The second stage (0.5-1 year)

The sixth month is a critical chronological corridor, which warrants interceptive
actions in order to achieve a better balance of biodiversity. The changes of
the plots become more apparent due to the growth in both the volume and
the number of spontaneous vegetation, including groundcovers and shrubs,
although in general, the original turf will still occupy more space than other
emerging vegetation.
§ Invasive species, including the creepers Mikania micrantha, Cissus hastata
and tall grass Imperata cylindrica, Ischaemum muticum should be removed
before they smother other plants, once in three months.
§ Ground herbs Lindernia spp., Spermacoce and Desmodium spp. or smaller
wild flowers Asteraceae, Vernonia, Emilia and slow-growing groundcovers
may be found intermixed within the original turf species Axonopus
compressus. These slow-growing perennials are highly recommended for
retention to enhance the biodiversity of the plot.

Plan view of a manicured lawn before (left) and after 1 year (right)

1
Applications are based on two academic research projects by the author in “Observation of Changing
Landscape: Vegetative Changes of an Un-maintained Site (2010–2012)” and “The Implementation
Feasibility of Spontaneous Vegetation as Landscape Materials (2012–2014)”, supported by NUS and
Ministry of Education Tier 1.
102 § Native shrubs Melastoma malabathricum, woody plants Dillenia suffruticosa
and Syzygium grande as well as a few seedlings of Ficus and Acacia
auriculiformis trees may pop up in scattered areas.

2.3 The third stage (1-1.5 years)

The number of fauna species will have significantly increased by this time,
and be visible inside the thick understory as well as using the taller shrubs.
As the second critical corridor, emerging plants would have exceeded the
existing turf species Axonopus compressus, while the growth of shrubs
have become distinctive and naturally occurring tree saplings have become
recognisable. Thin out overpacked groundcovers, such as Cyrtococcum
accrescens, or trim fast-growing groundcovers that have grown past 0.5
m to increase opportunities for establishment of other slower growing but
ecologically desirable plants. This action can be done every six months.
§ Retain ecologically desirable plants that are compatible with each other,
non-invasive but resilient, stress tolerant and self-sustaining without any
external aid, and are able to attract fauna as a food source or a shelter.
Long life spans and gradual growth are particularly desirable as well.
§ It is recommended to keep a sufficient volume of groundcovers and taller
grasses as these are essential in supporting cricket and grasshopper
populations.
§ It is recommended to keep a fuller variety of shrubs such as Melastoma mal-
abathricum, Murraya koenigii and Clidemia hirta as long as there are no
negative effects. For example, some tall shrubs such as Dillenia suffruticosa
may encourage mosquitoes to breed in the water accumulated on shedded
leaves. Monitoring is required once every 3 months.
§ Refine edges along the path by pruning encroaching branches of shrubs
once a month. This should be done for safety as well as to provide a
comfortable walking experience.

2.4 The fourth stage (1.5-3 years)

Various types of management action trimming, mowing, cleaning, removing, pruning,

thinning and transplanting (clockwise from top left)
 Introduction 103

Application

Further
Considerations

Fauna spotted at NUS plots and associated flora

This is the period when the growth in the total number of species slows down.
Garden settings would exhibit fewer changes at this stage as long as the
suggested maintenance activities are continued. Most tree saplings become
distinctive and some fast-growing trees can grow above 3.0 m if the plot
receives enough sunlight. Fauna and flora associations will become clearer
as stable niche habitats are formed. Annual plants will regenerate but in a
smaller area, and some fast-growing shrubs will attain the full height of their
mature stage.
§ Preserve flowering shrubs and woody plants as far as possible in order to
attract multiple fauna. For example, a fruit tree such as Morinda citrifolia
can be a local habitat for many types of fauna including a variety of ants,
spiders and fruit bats. Annual flowering plants such as Crotalaria spp.
supply nectar to bees, wasps, butterflies and moths as well as provide
shelter for birds with its lower branches.
§ Remove species that are susceptible to failure or breakage on sloped areas
for safety purposes, such as the self-seeding Acacia auriculifornis trees or
Spathodea campanulata, once in six months.
§ Prune the width and height of tree canopies once in six months. The removal
of denser and taller trees may eventually be warranted in order to balance
their population growth with regards to overshadowing other plants.
§ Remove fallen shrubs and branches, if any.
§ If the assigned area exhibits the ability to be a tree bank naturally germinated
by wind or birds, healthy tree saplings found growing, especially species
such as Syzygium spp. and Cinnamomum spp., can be transferred to and
stored in a nursery for use in other plots. Do this once in six months.
§ When developing into a walk-through garden, it is encouraged to derive a
path based on more dynamic scenery found in the plot so that pedestrians
can enjoy the full variety of plants. Mowing of the path can be done once
a month. The installation of landscape elements such as boardwalks or a
resting bench may be considered.
104 2.5 The fifth stage (after 3 years)

Perspective of a garden by spontaneous vegetation

This is the period when most suggested management activities become

routine. Considering that 5 years is the average time required to convert a
grass area into a young pioneer forest within a tropical context, subtraction
actions such as removing, cutting, pruning and thinning should continuously
be applied on these thicker and denser landscapes to fulfil the preferences of
various stakeholders.

3. Further Considerations

Suitable platforms to implement this nature-dependent maintenance strategy

include managed greenery that exists as “just green” but does not have active
human usage, such as fenced open lawns, unnamed scattered grass patches,
park fringes, grassed areas underneath MRT track and non-accessible green
roofs (see below). With this vision, managed greenery can springboard a
biodiversity boost in the city.

On top of the common actions described above which increase the ecological
value of grassed areas, garnering public support is compulsory for the
success of the gardens (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989). Leaving the gardens alone
to grow wildly may raise negative concerns in terms of overall tidiness as
well as safety. Therefore, it will be necessary to investigate what is perceived
as an “acceptable form of nature” in a tropical urban context (Kong & Yeoh,
1996).

It is recommended that the growth and development of native, rare and

endangered species be promoted if the site shows the ability to cater for
them. Specialised biological knowledge would be required to identify the
development potential of the plot. Accumulated data of fauna and flora that
emerge on these gardens will contribute to replicate desirable plant palettes
for naturalised planting designs. Such a list of plants will also be of value to
related professions.
In considering gardens as a living entity that can be sustained for a hundred Introduction 105
years, it is too early now to conclude the necessary management activities.
Continual monitoring processes over a longer period will certainly provide a
more comprehensive management regime.
Application

Further
Considerations

Perspective of NUS green roof colonized by spontaneous vegetation

References

Centre for Urban Greenery & Ecology, CUGE. (2010). Guidelines for Tropical Turfgrass Installation and
Management (Vol. CS B01: 2010.). Singapore: Centre for Urban Greenery and Ecology.

Corlett, Richard T. (1992). The Ecological Transformation of Singapore, 1819–1990. Journal of

Biogeography, 19(4), 411-420.

Davis, M., Chew, M. K., Hobbs, R. J., Lugo, A. E., Ewel, J. J., Vermeij, G. J., . . . Briggs, J. C. (2011).
Don’t Judge Species on Their Origins. Nature, 474(7350), 153-154.
Del Tredici, Peter. (2010). Wild Urban Plants of the Northeast: A Field Guide. Ithaca: Cornell University
Press.

Dunnett, Nigel, & Hitchmough, James. (2004). The Dynamic Landscape: Design, Ecology, and
Management of Naturalistic Urban Planning. London; New York: Spon Press.

Hwang, Yun Hye, & Tan, Yit Chuan. (2011, 19–21 January 2011). Emergent Vegetation on Planned
Greenery in Singapore. Paper presented at the IFLA APR Congress — Hospitality: The Interaction with
Land, Bangkok, Thailand.

Kaplan, Rachel, & Kaplan, Stephen. (1989). The Experience of Nature: A Psychological Perspective. New
York, USA; Melbourne, Australia: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge.

Kong, L., & Yeoh, B. S. A. (1996). Social Constructions of Nature in Urban Singapore.

Koningen, Hein. (2008). Creative management. In N. Dunnett & J. Hitchmough (Eds.), The Dynamic
Landscape (2nd ed.). London: Taylor & Francis.

Kühn, Norbert. (2006). Intentions for the Unintentional: Spontaneous Vegetation as the Basis for
Innovative Planting Design in Urban Areas. Journal of Landscape Architecture 1(2), 46-53. doi:
10.1080/18626033.2006.9723372

Leong, Kwok Peng. (2011). The Green Corridor: A Proposal to Keep the Railway Lands as a Continuous
Green Corridor. Retrieved from Nature Society (Singapore) website: http://nss.org.sg/documents/
TheGreenCorridor101103.pdf

Nassauer, Joan Iverson (1995). Messy Ecosystems, Orderly Frames. Landscape Journal, 14(2), 161–170.

Terborgh, John. (1992). Diversity and the Tropical Rain Forest. New York: Scientific American Library.
106

INNOVATION IN
AUTOMATION &
MECHANISATION
1. Introduction

2. Productivity Drive for the Landscape Industry

3. Improved Resource Capabilities

4. Transition to Mechanisation

5. Suitability of Site Conditions

6. Scheduling of Works

7. Innovation in Work Processes

8. Adoption of Industry Best Practices

9. Vertical Greenery

10. Automation and Monitoring Devices

11. GIS-GPS Technology Applications for Landscape

Management
 Introduction 107
1. Introduction

This chapter looks at some recent developments of innovation, technology

and creative solutions in the landscape industry. It offers a perspective on the Productivity Drive
factors that can influence innovation in automation and mechanisation in the for the Landscape
Industry
local market and a brief update on technology, devices and equipment that
could assist sustainable landscape management.
Improved Resource
One of the key elements of sustainability is the embracing of new technology Capabilities

and forms of innovation which are relevant, practical and affordable, and
that subsequently benefit the local population and the environment. The
Singapore government agencies and public bodies have invested much Transition to
Mechanisation
in environmental sustainability through research, financial credit schemes
and other development incentives to encourage the development of Green
projects, innovation and work productivity in the areas of automation and
mechanisation. Suitability of Site
Conditions

2. Productivity Drive for the Landscape Industry

Scheduling of Works
The Landscape Productivity Grant administered by the National Parks Board
is a new grant scheme since September 2013 to encourage landscape
companies to purchase landscape equipment for the purposes of achieving
productivity benefits and gain better operational efficiency when they work Innovation in Work
on projects (landscape design, construction and maintenance). Companies Processes
which are eligible for the grant will be able to defray the costs incurred for the
acquisition of new landscape equipment, including associated software and
packaged solutions and thus encourage greater adoption of mechanization Adoption of Industry
and automation. The scheme covers five areas of Mechanisation and Best Practices

Innovation, Nursery Innovation, Operations Improvement, Weed Control

and Human Resource Applications. More information is available at
https://www.cuge.com.sg/landscapeservices/Landscape-Productive-Grant- Vertical Greenery

Scheme.

Examples of equipment that qualify under this scheme are listed below. The
Automation and
table also shows the respective functions and applications. Monitoring Devices

TYPE OF EQUIPMENT AND ITS APPLICATION

Management of open lawns, sports fields and golf courses GIS-GPS Technology
Applications
for Landscape
Management
Four-wheeled ride-on mower for
Ride-on mower
mowing large lawn

Four-wheeled ride-on mower for

Ride-on aerator performing aeration on large
lawn
108

Flexible loader that can mount

Utility loader various types of attachments to
perform multiple tasks

Dethatcher/ lawn Equipment attached to mower

scarifier for removing thatch from lawn

Equipment attached to vehicle

Mechanised lawn
for sweeping leaf and leaf
sweeper
litters

Hydromulcher/ Power sprayer for sowing grass

hydroseeder sprigs / mulches

Equipment for stripping off and

Sod cutter
rolling up grass sods

Edger/ lawn edger/ Equipment for trimming lawn

stick edger edges

Digging works

Equipment attached to vehicle

Trencher
for digging trenches

Pruning, cutting, spraying and clearing works

Mechanised leaf
Machine for shredding leaves
shredder/ shredder
and plant wastes
equipment

Machine for shredding woody

Wood chipper
branches and plant wastes
 Introduction 109

Machine for grinding down

Stump grinder/ or level to grade the remains
stump cutter of tree trunk stump after felling
Productivity Drive
tree for the Landscape
Industry

Improved Resource
Chemical spraying set that Capabilities
can be mounted on vehicle or
Sprayer equipment wheeled platform to perform
power spray on plants for pest
control Transition to
Mechanisation

Preparing soil mix and potting in the nursery

Flexible compaction plate that Suitability of Site

can be mounted on vehicle to Conditions
Reversible plate
prepare soil mix in potting yard
compactor
and/ or soiling works in open
landscape
Scheduling of Works

Machine with drum for turning

Soil mixer and mixing various components
of soil mix Innovation in Work
Processes

Adoption of Industry
Conveyor belt machine system Best Practices
Potting machine for potting or placing soil mix
into pots in large quantities

Vertical Greenery

Table 1. Type of equipment and its application

Government subsidies are also available for other automation and Automation and
Monitoring Devices
mechanisation needs that support landscape works. These include MEPs
(Mobile Elevated Platforms) such as scissor lifts, aerial lifts, boom lifts and
earthmoving machines (excavators and skid loaders). Contractors may apply
for funding under the Mechanisation Credit (Mech C) of the BCA Construction GIS-GPS Technology
Applications
Productivity and Capability Fund (CPCF) which award grant up to 70% for Landscape
Management
depending on eligibility criteria such as the extent of impact the equipment
will have on productivity improvement. More information at http://www.
bca.gov.sg/mechc_online.

3. Improved Resource Capabilities

In addition, SMEs (Small and Medium Enterprises) can capitalise on various

government training grants for horticultural workers. The Skills Development
Fund (SDF) administered by the Workforce Development Agency (WDA)
awards fee subsidies between 40% and 90% depending on eligibility. More
information on SDF and CUGE training programmes can be found at the
following websites:
110 § https://www.skillsconnect.gov.sg/web/guest/applyfortraininggrant
§ https://www.cuge.com.sg/Professional-Certification-Programmes
§ https://www.cuge.com.sg/Workforce-Skills-Qualifications-Landscape.

Many SMEs have utilised these training benefits and groomed a well-trained
workforce. Coupled with adequate investment in machinery and equipment,
their resource capabilities have improved over the years. Moreover, for small
businesses on the rise, these types of fundings are windows of opportunity for
upgrading business standings despite various mechanisation and operational
barriers.

4. Transition to Mechanisation

There is a common assumption that mechanisation would lead to immediate

reduced headcount, which in turn translate into cost saving in contract sum,
higher productivity and improved service standards.

In reality businesses may need time to adjust to mechanisation in terms of

work processes and task redeployment. This is because there will be times and
situations when machinery cannot be used and manual labour is required for
urgent work. Often, it is not feasible for small businesses to give up workers,
especially those who can perform a wide variety of tasks. Productivity savings
should also be realistically weighed against operational costs such as fuel,
replacement of parts, servicing, and the transportation and mobilisation
of heavy machinery and ancillary parts. Generally, the combination of
mechanisation with the existing workforce would allow companies to do
more with the same headcount and therefore grow their business.

5. Suitability of Site Conditions

The use of the equipment and tools should be considered with a specific
site and/or nature of project in mind (Please refer to the approved list of
equipment in Table 1). An important consideration is the provision for access
and service infrastructure which must be made available by owners and
suitable for the appropriate type of machinery such as a ride-on mower or a
mechanised sweeper. For example, some existing site access points might not
have been constructed to take the weight of heavy machinery for prolonged
use, and this can lead on to other site problems. In other cases, the scale and/
or the fragmented nature of site and steep landform might hinder continuous
work flow and can be counter productive to the overall objectives.

For controlled watercourse and biodiversity sensitive areas, diesel spillage

from diesel operated machinery can be a concern. Mechanisation is
discouraged as it can disturb birds and wildlife habitats in terms of loud
noise, fume pollution, physical disturbance and surface ground compaction.

6. Scheduling of Works

In addition, businesses have to consider practical substitution of working

during downtimes such as equipment breakdown and servicing, as well as
unfavourable working conditions for machinery. The most common problem
in urban and highly sensitive areas is loud noise and dust emission. For
example, the use of stump grinders and air spades, which generate loud
noise and dust, restrict work scheduling and locations. Introduction 111

Other than noise restriction, work scheduling can also be affected by

working hours, traffic conditions and loading/ unloading restrictions where
Productivity Drive
transportation of heavy machinery is involved. In these scenarios, manual for the Landscape
labour may be required to give support to complete task quickly. Industry

7. Innovation in Work Processes Improved Resource

Capabilities
Innovation for productivity and sustainability is not restricted to acquiring
new machinery, equipment and tools. Identifying the areas of improvement in
work processes and aligning and adopting best industry practices, including Transition to
Mechanisation
automation have helped the landscape industry move forward. Collaboration
amongst inter-government agencies is essential for integrated management of
public roads, parks and waterways with shared infrastructure and facilities.
Suitability of Site
8. Adoption of Industry Best Practices Conditions

In the last ten years, the landscape industry has adopted many best practices
Scheduling of Works
in tree arboriculture and horticultural works, through improved work processes
and structured relevant skill training. For example, many safety measures and
streamlining of work processes on workplace safety and health matters have
been put in place for service providers working on public roads, and this was
Innovation in Work
done essentially through the collaborative Processes
efforts of inter-government agencies.

9. Vertical Greenery Adoption of Industry

Best Practices
For the wider landscape industry, the devel-
opment of cleaner products and new plan-
ning approaches has created spin-off in- Vertical Greenery
novative solutions for the urban landscape
challenges. Many solutions are found
through the integration of landscape and
building components. Automation and
Monitoring Devices

A case in point is the development of

‘Open-able’ vertical greenwall
vertical greenery in Singapore which until panels and service walkway GIS-GPS Technology
the beginning of the century had only with back access at the National Applications
existed as vertical trellis frames with soil University Hospital for Landscape
Management
filled planters. But today, vertical greenery
includes modular structures that now clad building facades and interior
spaces as a visual statement of green buildings. It gained wider public interest
and acceptance when the substrate media and modular support system were
introduced, as people saw the benefits of such lightweight and clean products
as being green, and new innovative technology as the way forward.

However, the proper provision of successful maintenance capability often

has the last word on the level of success of such installations in development
projects. There is a general willingness of owners to take a calculated
investment in exchange for government support and incentive schemes and/
or their own organisation’s greening policies. Government incentives through
co-fund assist schemes, trade off and award schemes to encourage building
112 owners to collaborate in cooling buildings with skyrise greenery.

What then followed was the search for more friendly automation and
mechanisation design, devices, equipment and design solutions to improve
high storey vertical planting. Initially, front access methods using boom lifts,
scissor lifts and gondolas were generally the accepted standard. Climbing
frames may have had back access platforms for plant maintenance. These
evolved into building design solutions which provided proper service core
back access to green wall panels, so that these panels can be pulled open
for trimming plants at high storeys.

The sky trellis at Cleantech Park One is an example of integrated solution

for mechanisation. A mobile platform was installed on fixed track at the roof
level to allow workers to reach the plants as they move along the trellis path,
much like a horizontal gondola.

Sky trellis platform at JTC Cleantech Park One

Very often innovation is associated with developing a new or modified tool

or equipment or device for performing a standard task. The first example
was an improvised design solution and the second a simple mechanisation
solution. Both were conceived at design stage and integrated as part of a
building feature. This shows the importance of maintenance considerations
and solutions being provided at early design development stage.

10. Automation and Monitoring Devices

Automated tanker watering can be a one-man operation instead of deploying

another worker to hold the hose sprinkler
Electronic and remote sensing devices including PLC (Programmable Logic Introduction 113
Controller), thermal and infra lights are now commonly used in landscape
and environmental management. These M&E controllers are used to facilitate
automatic irrigation systems, water pump and filtration systems for water
Productivity Drive
bodies and interactive water displays, and garden and security lighting. for the Landscape
Coupled with a datalogger and CCTV cameras, monitoring work can be Industry

analysed and tracked.

Improved Resource
For instance, monitoring silty wastewater discharge in sedimentation tanks, Capabilities
as Erosion Control Measures (ECM) for environmental management required
in construction works and data can be transmitted via SMS to concerned
parties. Data logger is also used for online noise monitoring in construction Transition to
Mechanisation
works.

11. GIS-GPS Technology Applications for Landscape

Management Suitability of Site
Conditions

The use of GIS-GPS technology has enabled data communication through

mobile phones and data computing via satellite with stronger connectivity
Scheduling of Works
and data availability.

Landscape Asset Environmental Impact Assessment

Management Park Asset & Project Planning and management
Tree Visual Track location and sizes e.g. obtain and analyse vegetation cover Biodiversity
Management
Assessment of plant massiing, grass and other landuse datasets with past Monitoring &
Track quantity, location & records and create modeling and
To perform
arboriculture
areas, slopes, ponds,
streams, biotopes, report on park shelters, seats,
bins, lighting, M&E utilities,
prediction for BCA NParks GreenMark Park
Management
Analyse data on
Innovation in Work
award submission and planning.
tasks in parks,
streetscape
roads, buildings and
other facilities. signages, sculptures for vegetation, soil, bird
habitats, roof
Processes
scheduling maintenance
and properties. and inspections. greenery etc.

GIS GPS
Web-based
3D Mapping &
Visualisation
Digital
Photogrammetry
Remote Sensing
Produce remote
Adoption of Industry
Mobile Apps Create 3D mapping & Modeling sensing imagery using
RADAR, LiDar multi-
Best Practices
Input, store and track data, images. Create 3D spectral, for
data images realtime photorealistic and data analysis.
with synchronization to
produce instant report,
Geospatial animated models.

updates for multi-tasking.

Landscape
Applications Vertical Greenery

Automation and
Equipment
Safety & Preparedness
Counter Monitoring Devices
Operations Management
Detect and count
cars, cyclists,
Equipment mounted Visualise in 3D map and Plant Identification & pedestrians in
or installed with images for tracking,
GIS-GPS enable Mobile Fleet Operations, Plant Health Monitoring parks, construction
monitoring and planning projects etc.
accurate setting out, Equipment & Asset Tracking Create 3D modelling for plant
decisions.
mowing, spraying, identifcation and analyse
Plan, track and tasking of tree plant health conditions.
planting and
pruning lorry cranes, ride-on mowers,
repair work.
water tankers etc. GIS-GPS Technology
Applications
Source: ApusGeo.com

The interaction between GIS technology and landscape management for Landscape
Management
Image courtesy of (www.ApusGeo.com)

Below are some developed areas of applications which are enabled by GIS-
GPS technology together with other hardware and software.
§ Tree and landscape management database built as mobile application for
inspection, tracking data or work output, data updates, web based commu-
nication between parties involved at realtime and retrieval via GIS cloud
storage.
§ The application can be extended to the monitoring and tracking of other
landscape elements in parks and facilities. RFID (Radio Frequency Identifi-
cation) which is transmitted via electro magnetic field has been used in BIM
(Building Information Modelling) for storing and retrieving data and can be
supplemented for more sheltered environments.
114 § Mobile tracking of landscape operations and vehicle fleet to manage and
deploy working teams, machinery and plant delivery, and planning activi-
ties in realtime environment.
§ GPS aid in landscape construction and maintenance where a mounted
GPS receiver and automation device can facilitate accurate land surveying,
trenching, mowing and application of fertilisers, for example in golf courses
and large open fields.
§ 3D mapping as well as modelling and visualisation have been used to aid
planning, management and redevelopment works. It can be applied to
study of biodiversity, modelling of ground terrain and building structures,
data input and analysis for environmental impact assessment, urban roof
greenery, parks and green infrastructure and waterways. It is also useful for
security management and emergency response and rescue works. Using
3D photogrammetry, photo images can be translated into 3D objects and
models simulated in virtual reality.
 115
Annex A: Case Scenarios for Potential Productivity
Savings

1. Introduction
2. Steep Slopes
3. Lawns
4. Plant Selection and Grouping
5. Mulches and Groundcovers
6. Micro-irrigation

1. Introduction

This compilation of common landscape scenarios is derived from an

interpretation of the illustrations and data used in Landscape Design
Guidelines for Productive Maintenance & Sustainability (published in 2012).
Findings from the publication are used here to show how more sustainable
options can lead to potential productivity savings, in addition to various
sustainable landscape solutions already addressed in the preceding chapters
of this book.

Common landscape problems have been identified in Scenario A and

alternative good practices are shown in Scenario B. Comparisons between
the options are further illustrated with photographs.

The data and examples taken from the original publication are purely
illustrative. The scenario images may not necessarily represent the case studies
from which lifecycle investment cost and ratio were calculated. In landscape
design, solutions are often site specific; therefore these case scenarios should
not be cited for direct site application.
116 2. Steep Slopes
Maintenance implications of grassed steep slopes

SCENARIO A SCENARIO B

Steep slope mostly established

Steep slope established with
Site Description with native ferns and other soft
a grass sward
herbaceous plants

Knapsack cutting along

Maintenance Knapsack cutting with safety
drain edges and control of
Activities harness
vegetation height

Maintenance Knapsack cutting crew/ Knapsack cutting crew/

Labour operators operators

Maintenance
Knapsack cutter and safety Knapsack cutter for edges and
Machinery/
harness control of vegetation height
Equipment

Maintenance Cycles
12 4
Per Year

§ Dangerous and difficult to Steep slopes established with

Productivity cut on steep slopes
native ferns do not require
Triggers § Operators need to use a
grasscutting
safety harness

Maintenance Higher maintenance Reduced maintenance as

Implications grasscutting is not required

§ The effect of natural and lush

embankment enhances diverse
plant species, biodiversity and
To create the desired effect
carbon capture
of an open grassed slope, it
may be necessary to stabilise
§ Over time, ferns,
Design & groundcovers and other low
the embankment with cellular
Construction growing plants will naturally
confinement system and
Implications establish themselves on
to minimise the impact of
embankments.
surface drainage and erosion
over time
§ Many grassed slopes can
be quickly reverted to this
design solution by ceasing
grasscutting activities
Life Cycle
Investment over
$17,000 $6,200
20-year period (site
area of 1000 m2)
Life Cycle
3 1
Investment Ratio
 117
Photo illustrations of best practices for maintenance of steep slopes

Grassed steep slopes may present an open Vegetated slopes are lush and can
and tidy appearance but they require significantly reduce maintenance labour.
labour intensive maintenance.

Grassed steep slopes are vulnerable to Self-sown/naturally occurring vegetation

soil erosion, and grasscutting is unsafe as stabilises and protects steep slopes from
safety harness is required for operators erosion. It requires minimal maintenance.
using knapsack cutters.

Grassed slope with symptoms of erosion. Groundcovers can provide surface

protection and it requires less maintenance.
118 3. Lawns
Maintenance implications of knapsack cutters and machine mowers

SCENARIO A SCENARIO B

Large open and relatively

Large open and relatively flat
flat lawn with minimal
Site Description lawn with uneven surfaces and
obstructions for mowing
obstacles for mowing grass
grass

§ Grasscutting using
§ Knapsack cutting of grass machine mower
Maintenance § Knapsack cutting of grass at
Activities base of obstacles
§ Knapsack cutting of edges
§ Blowing of debris from
§ Blowing of debris from paths paths
§ Mower operator
Maintenance § Knapsack operators
Labour
§ Knapsack operators
§ Blower operators
§ Blower operators
Maintenance § Ride-on mower operators
§ Knapsack cutters operators
Machinery/ § Knapsack cutters
Equipment § Blower
§ Blower
Maintenance
12 12
Cycles per Year

§ Smooth and even surfaces

Uneven bumpy surfaces and
and unobstructed access for
Productivity obstructions restrict the use of
mowers
Triggers machine mowers, which is more
efficient for large lawns. § Well-compacted soil to
facilitate machine mowers

§ Knapsack cutting is labour

Maintenance intensive for large lawns Provide unobstructed access
Implications § Uneven surfaces can cause for machine mowers
trip hazards for workers

Provide well-graded and Provide well-graded and

Design &
well-compacted surfaces and well-compacted surfaces
Construction
unobstructed access to facilitate and unobstructed access to
Implications
machine mowers facilitate machine mowers

Life Cycle
Investment over
$80,000 $43,200
20-year period
(site area 1000m2)

Life Cycle
1.9 1
Investment Ratio
Photo illustrations of best practices for lawn maintenance 119

Exposed and shallow roots have caused

uneven surfaces. It restricts continuous
Planting groundcovers around the tree
machine mowing and a knapsack cutter
base protects roots and eases grasscutting.
has to be used.

Exposed surface tree roots create Continuous and open lawn allows good
obstructions to machine mowers. movement of machine mowers.

The grass is being protected to reduce the

impact of heavy vehicular path and should
be properly reinstated after completion of
Vehicle damage to a lawn can lead to work.
soil compaction and uneven surfaces. It is
necessary to reinstate the lawn to even and
well-graded surface.
120

Long, thin grass strips require significant

edge trimming, and require unnecessary
maintenance input. Continuous lawn edges and level pathways
allow freer maintenance movement.

Poor reinstatement of grass after trenching Properly reinstated grass should be lush,
creates uneven surfaces for the lawn. evenly graded and compacted and level
with path or above it.
4. Plant Selection and Grouping 121

Maintenance implications of species and layout

SCENARIO A SCENARIO B

§ Landscaped bed § Landscaped bed

§ Little consideration given § As well as aesthetic
Site Description to growth habits of plants, considerations, plants are
allowing climbers to grow over selected according to their
groundcovers and with different growth requirements and
water requirements functionality

Individual species requiring

§ Occasional pruning of
different maintenance regimes
Maintenance shrubs and covering plants
within the mixed landscape,
Activities § Both plants require little
e.g. with different water
requirements watering and light level

Experienced gardener
Gardener capable of
Maintenance appreciative of differing growth
performing basic trimming
Labour and requirements of plants and
and weeding
trimming skills

Maintenance Hand tools for pruning, Hand tools for pruning,

Machinery/ weeding, fertilising and disease weeding, fertilising and
Equipment control disease control

Maintenance
12 12
Cycles per Year

§ Failure of individual species § Consistently healthy plants

Productivity within garden beds § Low labour input to
Triggers § High labour input to maintain maintain landscaped bed to
landscaped bed to design intent design intent

Life Cycle
Investment Over
$4,800 $1,300
10-year period
(site area 100m2)

Life Cycle
5 1
Investment Ratio

Higher levels of gardening Grouped plantings can be

Maintenance expertise required for managed as a whole for
Implications management of individual moisture, nutrient, aeration
rather than the grouped plants and light requirements

Plant sourcing and planting Plant sourcing and planting

Design & investment are likely to be investment are likely to
Construction higher due to the higher number be lower due to the lower
Implications of plant variety that requires number of plant variety that
sourcing requires sourcing
122 Photo illustrations of best practices for plant selection and grouping

Frequent pruning is required to keep plants Less frequent pruning is required of taller
from pedestrians. plants (behind) and covering plants along
pathway.

Slow-growing plants under shade will Compatible selection of plants with same
require more care and separation from the growing conditions in bioswale.
fast-growing groundcovers competing for
space within the planting bed.

Spot planting of shrubs in lawn requires Underplanting of shade-loving shrubs

high maintenance weeding and pruning below trees on one side with lawn edge
around the single base. levelled with the plaza allows ease of
maintenance.
5. Mulches and Groundcovers 123

Impact of mulches and groundcovers on landscape maintenance

SCENARIO A SCENARIO B

§ Groups of trees within

lawn
§ Groups of trees within lawn
§ Remedial work undertaken
Site Description § Due to poor soil and shading, — dense, quickly spreading
tree roots are exposed below
and shade tolerant
the tree canopies
groundcover established
over 6 months
§ Preparation of soil,
planting of groundcover
§ Fortnightly hand cutting of § Weekly attention during
grass establishment
Maintenance
Activities § Fortnightly grass edge § Fortnightly grass
trimming of grass around base edge trimming around
of trees groundcover bed
§ Quarterly weeding of
groundcover
Maintenance
Ground maintenance crew Ground maintenance crew
Labour
§ Planting and watering
Maintenance tools/equipment
Machinery/ Knapsack cutter § Knapsack cutter
Equipment § Machine mower (if bed/
grass edge suitable)
Maintenance
24 4
Cycles per Year
§ Bare areas under trees
§ Poor soil, exposed tree roots,
but some grass patches in the § Dense and healthy
area require regular cutting coverage
Productivity
Triggers
§ Unhealthy trees § Healthy trees
§ Tree trunks damaged from § Undamaged tree trunks
grass cutting and roots
§ Shallow tree roots damaged
from grass cutting
§ Once remedial treatment
Regular weeding around is completed, maintenance
Maintenance
individual tree base is time frequency is substantially
Implications
consuming reduced
§ Less weeding
Design & Provide underplanting or mulch
Construction to protect bare areas after trees
Implications are established
Life Cycle
Investment over
$1,024 $807
10-year period
(site area 200 m2)
Life Cycle
1.3 1
Investment Ratio
124 Photo illustration of best practices for using mulches and groundcovers

Avoid knapsack cutting too close to tree Sweeps of mulches in tree clusters can
collar by mulching and reducing weeding ease mowing maintenance.
maintenance.

Mulches and covering plants can protect

Remnant grass patches are unproductive trees from soil compaction.
for grasscutting. Narrow strips should be
fully replaced by groundcovers.

The young establishing tree is affected by Mulching reduces weed growth around the
overgrowth of weeds. base of the establishing tree.
 125

The narrow grass strip along the path edge

creates excessive maintenance.

Gravel can serve as mulch to protect soil

surface and reduce weeding maintenance.

Mulch can deter people from trampling Laying precast slabs over bare patches
over the area and protect trees from soil can quickly protect grass or planting from
compaction. further damage.

Benches on soft surfaces and near Hard paving beneath benches can avoid
groundcovers require regular weeding. the need for plant maintenance.
126 6. Micro-irrigation
Impact of automated watering

SCENARIO A SCENARIO B

§ Landscaped bed § Landscaped bed

Site Description § Watered by hand with water § Retrofitted with an
supply from an approved water automatic micro irrigation
source system for watering

Check timing controls and

Maintenance
Hand watering functioning on automatic
Activities
micro irrigation system

Maintenance
Ground maintenance crew Ground maintenance crew
Labour
Maintenance
Automatic micro irrigation
Machinery/ Garden hose
system
Equipment

Maintenance
52 52
Cycles per Year

§ Effective delivery of
§ Efficiency in watering irrigation
Productivity
practices § Lower water use
Triggers
§ High water use § Adequate soil moisture
content

§ Labour intensive
§ Water intensive § Labour saving
Maintenance § Watering undertaken
Implications
§ Water saving
during daytime shifts, often in
the middle of the day when
§ Flexible hours of operation
evaporation rates are high

Design & Irrigation design and

Construction specifications by irrigation
Implications specialist

Life Cycle
Investment over
$1,050 $750
10-year period
(site area 500m2)

Life Cycle
1.4 1
Investment Ratio
 127
Annex B: Checklist for Sustainable Landscape

This checklist may be used during site inspections to identify landscaped

areas that need to be refurbished for better maintenance, and prior to
commencement of design and laying out of a park, garden or greenery that
complements a building. Look up the contents of this book for ideas and tips
for good design, implementation and maintenance.

Requirements for Development Plan Submission

o 1. The link provides details into NParks’ greenery provision and tree
conservation requirements for works along the roadside and within
developments:
https://www.nparks.gov.sg/partner-us/developers-architects-and-
engineers/development-plan-submission-requirements

Steep Slopes
o 2. Alternative planting such as groundcover may be considered for
steep slopes that show signs of erosion or are becoming unsafe for
grasscutting.

o 3. Grass can be left to self-establish into low vegetative cover to reduce

maintenance needs, if it does not cause other problems.

Lawns
o 4. Improve the gradient, layout and access of lawns to allow the use
of machine mower. Lawns should be reasonably flat without bumps
or holes.

o 5. Remove minor obstacles (loose or temporary objects) or improve

housekeeping to facilitate machine mowing, which is more productive.

o 6. Upgrade the access, kerbs and edging, turning radius, etc. of large
lawns to allow machine mowing.

Plant Selection and Grouping

o 7. Group plants that have the same water requirements for ease of
maintenance.

o 8. Underplanting of groundcovers can be implemented (replacing grass)

to reduce weeding and the straggly effect of taller and established
shrubs.

o 9. Manage quick-growing plants to prevent overgrowth and avoid

smothering slower-growing desired species.

o 10. Sun- and shade-loving plants to be grown in correct and suitable

locations.
128 Mulches and Groundcovers
o 11. Mulches and groundcovers to be provided around tree bases.

o 12. Horticultural waste materials to be reused or shredded for composting

within the same site.

Micro-irrigation
o 13. Organise plants that have the same water requirements in the same
landscaped beds.
List Of Contributors 129

NO. NAMES CHAPTERS

1. Chang Hyun Jung Waterway Planting
2. Chang Yi Ning Waterway Planting
3. Cheng Siew Lee Roadside Planting
4. Foke Andrew Parks
5. Fong Yok King Waterway Planting
6. Galistan Amanda Grace Parks
7. Govindasamy Vivek Lawns
8. Hwang Yun Hye Spontaneous Vegetation
9. Kobayashi Tamako Parks, Skyrise Greenery
10. Liu Huei Lyn Waterway Planting
11. Ng Yin Seng Skyrise Greenery
12. Ow Lai Fern Genevieve Roadside Planting
13. Poh Choon Hock Skyrise Greenery
14. Yong Wai Weng Jason Roadside Planting
Innovation in Automation and Mechanisation;
15. Yang Pih Foon
Annexes
130
List of CUGE Publications
(Available for purchase at www.cuge.com.sg/research/catalog.php.)

1. Guidelines on Design Loads for Skyrise Greenery

2. Guidelines on Design for Safety of Skyrise Greenery
3. Specifications for Soil Mixture for General Landscaping Use
4. Guidelines on Water Quality Monitoring for Tropical Ponds
5. Guidelines on Water Quality Assessment and Management for Tropical Ponds
6. Guidelines for Tropical Turfgrass Installation and Management
7. Guidelines on Design Loads for Rooftop Greenery
8. Guidelines on Design for Safety for Rooftop Greenery
9. Guidelines on Substrate Layer for Rooftop Greenery
10. Guidelines on Filter, Drainage and Root Penetration Barrier Layers for Rooftop Greenery
11. Guidelines on Waterproofing for Rooftop Greenery
12. Guidelines on Irrigation for Rooftop Greenery
13. Guidelines on General Maintenance for Rooftop Greenery
14. Guidelines on Design and Construction of Pitched Green Roof
15. Guidelines on Planting of Trees, Palms and Tall Shrubs on Rooftop