PRINCIPLES AND GUIDES OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

This is a gender-
sensitive ISAIAS B. CATIAN
instructional
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PRINCIPLES AND GUIDES IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

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PRINCIPLES AND GUIDES IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Principles and Guides in Animal

Husbandry

A Learning Package for

An Sc 11 – Introduction to Animal Science

Isaias B. Catian
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PRINCIPLES AND GUIDES IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Principles and Guides in Animal Husbandry

A Learning Package for An Sc 11 – Introduction to Animal Science

Copyright © 2021 Isaias B. Catian

and Jose Rizal Memorial State University

All rights reserved. No part of this course module may be reproduced or used in any
manner whatsoever without the express written permission of the author except for the
use of brief quotations in a book review.

Page and cover designed by: Isaias B. Catian

ISBN_________

First Edition.__________

Published by:

JOSE RIZAL MEMORIAL STATE UNIVERSITY

Gov. Guading Adaza St. Sta Cruz, Dapitan City, 7101
Tel. No. (065) 908-8294
jrmsumain.univpres@gmail.com
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PRINCIPLES AND GUIDES IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Table of Contents

TITLE PAGE

Unit 1 Overview of Animal Science 6

What is animal science? 8
Domestication of farm animals 8
Classification of common farm animals 9
Animals and ecosystem 10
Animals and their economic utility 11
Common terms in farm animals 12

Unit 2. Anatomy and Physiology 22

Definition of terms and classification of anatomy 24
Nomenclature for systematic anatomy 24
External parts of farm animals 25
Nervous system 32
Endocrine system 35
Special senses 39
Cardiovascular system 40
Respiratory system 48
Excretory system 50
Reproductive system 52
Mascular system 66
Skeletal system 67
Integumentary system 71

Unit 3. Animal Nutrition 83

Definition of terms 85
Composition of plants and animals 87
Nutrients 87
Classification of feedstuff 97
Digestive system 99
Formulating ration 110

References 122
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PRINCIPLES AND GUIDES IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

UNIT 1
OVERVIEW OF ANIMAL SCIENCE

The term Animal Science has evolved considerably through the

years from other terms. The course title in the previous years was Animal
Husbandry which signified animal agriculture. The term Animal Science
as the course title has been preferred by academicians starting in the
1970’s. It denote a deeper meaning than the term animal husbandry
which connotes animal agriculture or nursing animals . The term animal
science connotes a deeper knowledge and understanding of the animal
body and response to outside factors to bring about the desirable
efficiency in the production out of the animals being raised. Nonetheless,
whether one uses Animal Science or Animal Husbandry, these terms are
equivalent to Zootechny which derived from the Greek words Zoon which
means life and techne which means art or skill.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

 tabulate the gathered information during the tour on your locality in

different livestock and poultry farms on breeds; strain or variety; type or
class; and its population; management operation (feeding, care and
practices, health program, etc.; constraints or problems encountered and
others.
 conduct a research in the internet about the livestock and poultry
production trends in the Philippines for the last three years .
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PRINCIPLES AND GUIDES IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Pretest

Let’s See What You Already Know

Before you begin this module, take this test to find out how much you already know
about our topic. You may also view this quiz on google class using this code: ________

Name: ___________________________ Score: ___________

Year & Section: ____________________ Date: ____________

Multiple Choice.

Directions: Choose the best answer of each item below and write the letter on the space
provided before each number.

______ 1. The average gestation period of beef cattle is

a. 270 days b. 283 days c. 290 days d. 273 days
______ 2. Bullock is usually a stag that is used for
a. milk b. draft c. meat d.fattening
______ 3. Scientific name of goat
a. Capra aries b. Ovies hircus c. Capra circus d.Capra hircus
______ 4. The term for male goat is
a. buck b. boar c. ram d. stag
______ 5. The term for female sheep is
a. doe b. dam c. ewe d. mare
______ 6. The term for young goat is
a. kid b. nanny c. billy d. gouty
______ 7. The act of parturition in sheep is
a. sheeping b. lambing c. darling d. ewing
______ 8. The castrated ram is called
a. wether b. fether c. bether d. rather
______ 9. This refers to the meat of rabbit
a. mutton b. lapan c. star meat d. venison
______10. This refers to the meat of cattle slaughtered before one year of age
a. venison b. veal c. beef d. mutton
______11. Term applied to designated mature domestic cocks and hens
a. poultry b. fowl c. chicken d. chicks
______12. Young domestic ostrich in the downy stage
a. chick b. poult c. keet d. gosling
______13. A male fowl one year old or over
a. cob b. gobbier c. cock d. drake
______14. Unsexed female fowl is known as
a. capon b. pullet c. poulard d. poult
______15. Race of domestic fowls which maintains distinctive characteristics of shape,
growth, temperament and color of egg shells
a. variety b. strain c. breed d. type
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PRINCIPLES AND GUIDES IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Thank you for answering the test..

Don’t feel bad if you got a low score. This topic helps
you understand the basic knowledge and principles of animal
science. If you study this module carefully, you will learn the
answers to all the items in the test and much more.
You may now start Unit 1.

Content

What is animal science?

Animal Science is defined as an art, science, and industry of breeding,

feeding, care and management, and the marketing and processing of animals and
their products for the purpose of obtaining profit from the enterprise.

1. As an art.
Art means the selection of animals largely on the basis of beauty and good
looks in addition to production performance. Beauty may be defined as the
harmonious proportion of the various parts of the animals so that they present
an overall pleasing sight to the beholder

2. As a science.
Science is a well- ordered and systematically body of knowledge. The
procedure in deriving this body of knowledge is referred to as the scientific
method through experimentation.

3. As an industry.
It is the aspects that combines art and science to make animal production
a profitable activity.

Domestication of farm animals

Before the human race learned to tame and raise animals, it was dependent on
hunting and wild plants for food and clothing. The domestication of animals began when
early humans had contact with wild animals, which they hunted for food and skins. After a
period of time these early humans began to confine some of these animals to ensure a
steadier supply of food and clothing. These animals were bred in captivity to replace those
that were used. Humans later learned to select animals with certain desirable
characteristics to use for breeding purposes. As a result of selective breeding identifiable
breeds began to be developed that would breed true for those characteristics that were
determined to be desirable.
With the domestication of animals came the beginning of a more settled way of
life. Domesticated animals supplied a surer source of food and clothing. A better food
supply meant an increase in population. More people made it possible to divide the labor
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PRINCIPLES AND GUIDES IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

within the tribe. Some historians believe that the human race would never have become
civilized without the domestication of animals.
Development of the field of Animal Science began with the domestication of
animals in the Neolithic (New Stone Age) period. It was at this period that men first
practiced agriculture and animal husbandry. The domestication of animals marked the first
step toward civilization of the most primitive tribes of humans. It was the beginning of
humanity’s transformation from the savage to the civilized way of life from nomads, or
wanderer, to eventually, urban dwellers. The herding of animals became indicative of the
superiority of one tribe over another. Historically, the great livestock countries of the world
have supported the most advanced civilizations and have been the most progressive and
power.

Classification of common farm animals

Farm animals are classify into the following:

Kingdom: Animalia – Animals cannot produce their own food.

– Animal move from one place to another.

Phylum: Chordata – animals with backbones which include all farm animals.

Class: All farm animals either belong to mammalia or aves.

Mammalia – members of class mammalia share the following characteristics:

1. they have four –chambered heart

2. they are warm-blooded, or homeothermic (they can maintain

their own body temperature).
3. they have a diaphragm that separates the thoracic, or chest,
and abdominal cavities; this helps them breathe more
efficiently.
4. their bodies are covered with hair, which provides insulation.
5. the embryo develops in the mother’s uterus ,and the young
are born alive.
6. the mother secretes milk for the young through the mammary
glands.
7. common domesticated animal belong to this class include
cattle, sheep, goat, horses, carabao and swine.

Aves – members of class aves share the following characteristics:

1. have four-chambered hearts
2. homeothermic instead of hair , their bodies are covered with
feathers which provide insulations.
3. they do not have a diaphragm; instead they have light,
hollow bones and an air-sac system attached to the lungs.
4. they lay eggs in which their young develop. They do not
secrete milk to nourish the young.
5. these animals have beaks and gizzards instead of teeth.
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PRINCIPLES AND GUIDES IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

6. all birds such as chickens, ducks, geese, ostrich, rheas,
quail, and turkey belong to this class.

Order : Artiodactyla = even – toed, hoofed mammals .

Family : Bovidae – ruminants having polycotyledonary placenta; hollow, non

deciduous, unbranched horns; and nearly universal presence
of a gallbladder (cattle, carabao, goat and sheep).

The scientific name of an animal includes its genus and species names. The genus
name is capitalized; the species is not. In written material, the genus and species names
are underlined or italicized. The classification of common farm animals are shown in Table
1.

Table 1. Classification of common farm animals

Common Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species

name
Cattle Chordata Mammalia Artiodactyla Bovidae Bos taurus (most of
the domestic
breeds)
Cattle Chordata Mammalia Artiodactyla Bovidae Bos indicus
(humped
cattle)
Buffalo Chordata Mammalia Artiodactyla Bovidae Bubalus bubalis
Sheep Chordata Mammalia Artiodactyla Bovidae Ovis aries
Goat Chordata Mammalia Artiodactyla Bovidae Capra hircus
Horse Chordata Mammalia Perissodactyla Equidae Equus caballus
Swine Chordata Mammalia Artiodactyla Suidae Sus scrofa(evolved
from wild hog
of Europe)
Swine Chordata Mammalia Artiodactyla Suidae Sus vittatus
(evolved from
wild hog of
East India)
Swine Chordata Mammalia Artiodactyla Suidae Sus domesticus
(domesticated
swine)
Chicken Chordata Aves Galliformes Phasianidae Gallus domesticus
Turkey Chordata Aves Galliformes Meleagrididae Meleagris gallopavo
Duck Chordata Aves Anserformes Anatidae Anas platyrhynchos
Ostrich Chordata Aves Struthioniformes Struthionidae Struthia camelus
Goose Chordata Aves Anserformes Anatidae Anser anser

Animals and ecosystems

In an ecosystem the continued growth of plants and animals depends on

maintenance of the balance between the food producers (plants and the food consumers
(animals and man). The earth receives energy from the sun in the form of electromagnetic
radiation. All 1 % of all the energy reaching the earth from the sun can be used by plants
and so will enter the food chain. Phototrophs (green plants) are able to synthesize their
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PRINCIPLES AND GUIDES IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

own organic compounds by using the sun’s energy through the process of photosynthesis.
Carbohydrates are produced directly by photosynthesis but with the addition of nutrients
(nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur) plants are able to produce complex biochemical
compounds such as amino acids, lipids, nucleic acids and vitamins. All other organisms
(heterotrophs) rely upon these autotrophs (self-feeders) to provides them with their energy
and protein requirements for their energy growth and reproduction either directly (by eating
plants-herbivores) or indirectly (by eating other animals - carnivores).

Animals and their economic utility

Although animals are relatively inefficient in the production of food, they are
important components of the food production systems. Table 2 shown farm animals and
their uses.
Animal have the following attributes that enhance the ability of an agricultural system
to produce food for man:

a. Animal can feed on and convert plants and other material which could
have otherwise gone to waste into rich human food
b. Animal products have chemical composition that closely resemble man’s
dietary requirement and therefore more digestible and nutritious.

Table 2. Farm animals and their uses

Species Scientific Name Main Uses
Birds
Chicken Gallus gallus G. domesticus Meat, eggs and
amusement
Ducks
Mallard/Pekin Anas platyrhynchos
Muscovy Anas moschata
Goose Anser anser
Turkey Meleagris gallopavo
Pigeon Columbia livia
Quail Coturnix coturnix
Guinea fowl Numida meleagris
Ostrich Strauthus camilos
Swan Cygnus olor
Pea fowl Pavo cristatus
Pheasants Phasianus colchicus
Mammals
Horse Equus caballus Traction, transport and
amusement
Ass/Donkey Equus asinus Traction and transport
Mule (hybrid of male ass and mare) Traction and transport
Camel Camelus dromedaries Traction and transport
Cattle Traction, transport.
meat, milk, hide,
fertilizer, fuel
Humpless Cattle Bos taurus
Zebu Cattle Bos indicus
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PRINCIPLES AND GUIDES IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Bufallo Bubalus bubalis (water type) Traction, transport.
meat, milk, hide,
fertilizer, fuel
Bubalus carabanensis (river
type)
Sheep Ovis aries Meat, milk and wool
Goat Capra hircus Meat and milk
Pigs Meat
Asiatic Sus vittatus
European Sus scrofa
Rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus Meat and skin
Guinea pig Cavia cobaya Meat and skin

Common terms in Farm Animals

Some common terms in farm animals is presented in Tables 3.

Table 3. Common terms applied to farm animals and other information

Farm Animals
Cattle Buffalo Sheep Goats Swine Poultry Horse
Group of Drove/Stock
Herd Herd Flock Flock Flock Herd
animals /Herd
Rooster Studhorse
Adult male Bull Carabull Ram Buck Boar
Cock Stallion
Adult female Cow Caracow Ewe Doe Sow Hen Mare
Ram
Carabull lamb
Young male Bull calf Buckling Boarling Cockerel Colt
calf Tup
lamb
Heifer Ewe
Young female Caraheifer Doeling Gilt Pullet Filly
calf lamb
Newborn
Piglet
regardless of Calf Caracalf Kid lamb Kid Chick Foal
Shote
sex
Castrated Steer Cara steer
Wether Wether Barrow Capon Gelding
male Bullock Bullock
Meat Beef Carabeef Mutton Chevon Pork Poultry Horse
Breeding Serving Serving Tupping Serving Coupling Copulating Covering
Parturition Calving Calving Lambing Kidding Farrowing Hatching Foaling
Offspring with Calf at Calf at Clutch
Suckling Suckling Suckling
mother foot foot Brood
Age of
puberty with
8 - 10 24 - 36 5-7 7 - 10 4-7 4-6 15 - 24
female
(months)
Estrous cycle
21 21 16 20 21 22
(days)
12 – 18 24 – 36 34 – 38
Estrus length 18 -24 hrs 48 – 72 hrs 4 – 8 days
hrs hrs hrs
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PRINCIPLES AND GUIDES IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Late
10-15 estrus
Mid-estrus 30
hours 18-26 1-2 day
Time of 3-4th day Late 30 hours minutes
after hours before
ovulation of estrus estrus after start after
end of after estrus
of estrus laying
heat start of
heat
Gestation
283 324 148 150 114 346
(days)
Offspring per
1 1 1-2 2 8-10 1
parturition
Mammary
4 4 2 2 4-9 pairs 2
glands
Age of
puberty of
10 - 12 4-6 4-6 4-8 13 - 18
male
(months)
Volume 0.75 –
5-7 1.0 200 -300 75-150
ejaculate (cc) 1.5
1.2 2.0 2.0 100-200 150
Sperm/cc
billion billion billion million million
Female to
male ratio at
25-40 35-60 30-50 25-50 10-15 20-30
normal
breeding
Normal
Temperature 37-41 38-39 38-40 38-40 38.5 - 39.5 40 - 42 37.5-38.5
(oC)
Normal
respiration 18-28 24-29 12-24 12-20 15-24 14-26 8-16
rate/min*
Normal Heart
60-70 56-60 70-80 70-80 60-80 130-160 32.44
Rate/min*
Expected
productive life 10 20 6-8 6-10 6-8 20-25
(y)

General Terms

Parturition Act of giving birth

Gestation Pregnancy time from conception to birth
Conception Act of fertilization
Dam Female parent
Sire Male parent
Fertility Ability to produce fertilizable ova and to provide proper
environment for the initiating cell division and embryonic
development. Ability to produce large number of sperm
capable for fertilization.
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PRINCIPLES AND GUIDES IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Fecundity or Ability to give birth to offspring frequently or numerous young at
prolificacy frequent intervals
Sterility Inability to produce normal young
Impotency Failure to copulate
Puberty Sexual maturity, as exhibited by first heat or ovulation
Weanling Young animal after separation from its dam
Weaning The process of separating the young from its dam
Breed A race of domestic animals which maintains distinctive
characteristics of shape, growth, temperament and shell
color of eggs produced
Synthetic breed Refers to new breeds developed by crossing two or more older
breeds
Strain A family of any variety of domestic animal that possess and
reproduces with mark regularity common individual
characters which distinguishes this from other families of the
same varieties
Variety A subdivision of a breed, used to distinguished animals having
the standard shaped and other characteristics of the breed to
which they belong, but differing in color (1:e, hide, plumage),
shape of comb and other features from other groups of the same
breed

Livestock

Cattle and Carabao:

Ox Ruminant member of the bovine family or sometimes the male

used for draft purposes
Cattle Domesticated bovine animals
Bull Male breeding ox of any age
Cow Mature female ox, one that has given birth
Heifer Young female ox under 3 years of age, usually one that has not
yet given birth
Steer Male ox castrated before sexual maturity
Stag Male ox castrated after sexual maturity
Calf Young ox of either sex, under one year of age
Bull calf Young male calf under one year of age
Carabull Mature male carabao
Young female carabao under three years of age usually one that
Caraheifer has not yet given birth
Caracow Mature female carabao, one that has given birth
Transmitting ability The ability of an animal to pass on either good or bad traits to its
progeny
Proven Sire Bull about whom one have sufficient unselected information to
indicate his transmitting ability
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PRINCIPLES AND GUIDES IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Horse

Stallion Mature male horse; if the stallion is used for breeding purposes,
the term studhorse is preferred
Mare Mature female horse, broodmare is the term for the female horse
used for breeding purposes
Colt Young male horse usually up to 3 years old
Filly Young female horse usually up to 3 years old
Foal Young horse of either sex below one year of age
Gelding Horse which was castrated while young
Yield Mare or dry One which has not produced any young during the breeding
mare season
Ridgling Stallion with only one testis or none in its scrotum
Equitition Horsemanship, the art of riding on horseback

Swine

Boar Male pig of any age

Sow Mature female pig, one that has given birth
Gilt Young female pig under one year of age, usually one that has
not yet given birth
Shote Young pig of either sex, weighing approximately 60 kg
Barrow Male pig which was castrated while young; or a pig that was
castrated before the secondary sex characters have
developed.
Stag Male pig castrated after sexual maturity
Weaning Young pigs separated from the sow, about 5 weeks old
Suckling Young pigs from birth up to weaning
Litter Group of pigs born in one farrowing
Litter size The number of young pigs born in one farrowing

Sheep and Goat

Ram Male sheep of any age for breeding purposes

Ewe Female sheep of any age
Lamb Young sheep of either sex below one year of age
Wether lamb Male sheep which was castrated while young preferably
between one to three weeks of age
Shearling Yearling sheep with two teeth
Fleece Wool covering the sheep
Buck or Billy goat Male goat of any age
Pelt Wool and skin of a sheep
Doe Female goat of any age
Kid Young goat of either sex below one year of age
Wether goat Male goat castrated before the secondary sex characters have
developed
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PRINCIPLES AND GUIDES IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Meat and Meat Products

Meat Properly dressed flesh derived from mature animals in good

condition at the time of laughter
Slaughteing From fasting through stunning, bleeding up to (flaying, scalding,
scraping, defeathering or dressing) and evisceration
Butchering From splitting and quartering, to cutting the carcass into retail
cuts
Meat type:
Beet Ox, 1 year old and above
Veal Ox, less than 1 year old
Pork Pig
Venison Deer
Mutton Sheep, 1 year old and above
Lamb Sheep, less than 1 year old
Chevon Goat
Horsemeat Horse
Game meat Game animals (wild hunted)
Carabeef Carabao beef, caraveal

Poultry

Poultry A collective term for all domestic birds rendering economic

service to man. Domesticated animals are those that live
and multiply under the care of man); Refers also to a
dressed carcass of fowls
Fowl A term applied to all poultry especially to mature domestic cocks'
and hens
Chicken One of the common poultry species; different from turkeys,
ducks, geese, etc.
Chick Young chicken while in the downy stage.
Cock or rooster A male fowl one year old or older
Cockerel A male fowl less than one year old
A broad general term, that designates the poultry raiser who
Breeder produces fowls for any special purpose with the object of
improving their value or in conformity with an agreed
standard of excellence
Beak Projecting mouth parts of the chicken and turkeys consisting
upper and lower mandible
Bill Projecting mouthparts of waterfowls
Capon A caponized male, readily distinguished by the undeveloped
comb and wattles
Drake A male of a duck family
Duck A female of the duck family
Duckling A young of the duck family in the downy stage of plumage
Plumage The feathers of a fowl
Poult Young of the domestic turkey
Pullet A female fowl less than one year old
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PRINCIPLES AND GUIDES IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Now that you had learned about overview

of animal science, do the succeeding learning
activities. If you have questions regarding the
activity, you may visit our google class with this
code: ______ or contact me to the number
indicated in the course guide. If you had poor
connectivity, you are given another week to
accomplish the tasks.

Learning Activity No. 1

Tabulating the gathered information during the tour

 Directions: Conduct a tour on different livestock and poultry farm (semi -commercial,
backyards) in your locality and tabulate the gathered information on breeds; strain or
variety; type or class; and its population; management operation (feeding, care and
practices, health program, etc.; constraints or problems encountered and others.


Management Operation
Strain/ Type/
Farms Animals Breed Population Care & Health
variety class Feeding
practices program

Submit your work in a designated place provided by your professor, before the date as
reflected in your study schedule.
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PRINCIPLES AND GUIDES IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Bases of Computing Grades for the Activity:

The bases of rating your activity can be viewed in the Rubric for Miniature project
found in the appendix.
You may access the rubric in the classwork using this code: ______

GOOD
CRITERIA VERY GOOD FAIR UNACCEPTABLE
(7 pts)
(10 pts.) (5 pts.) (3 pt.)
1. Number of More than Four to five Two to three Only one farm is
farms visited five farms are farms are farms are visited visited
visited visited
2. Number of More than Four to five Two to three Only one livestock
livestock and five livestock livestock livestock species specie and one
poultry species and species and and two to three poultry specie is
classified more than five four to five poultry species classified
poultry poultry are classified
species are species are
classified classified
3. Management Highly Moderately Slightly identified Hardly identified the
operations identified the identified the management management
are identified management the operations operation.
operation. management
operation.

Learning Activity No. 2

Conducting a research in the internet

Directions: Conduct a research in the internet about the livestock and poultry
production trends in the Philippines for the last three years. Make a comparison on
the production trends each year either increased or decreased.

 Livestock
Remarks
Difference Difference
Livestock 2018 2019 2020 (increase/
2018 -2019 2019 -2020
decrease
1. Cattle
2. Swine
3. Goat
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PRINCIPLES AND GUIDES IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

 Poultry
Remarks
Difference Difference
Poultry 2018 2019 2020 (increase/
2018 -2019 2019 -2020
decrease
1. Chicken
2. Duck

Submit your work in a designated place provided by your professor, before the date as
reflected in your study schedule.

Bases of Computing Grades for the Activity:

The bases of rating your activity can be viewed in the Rubric for Miniature project
found in the appendix.
You may access the rubric in the classwork using this code:

GOOD
CRITERIA VERY GOOD FAIR UNACCEPTABLE
(7 pts)
(10 pts.) (5 pts.) (3 pt.)
1. Recentness 2018 – 2020 2017 – 2019 2016 – 2018 Less than 2016
coverage coverage coverage coverage
2. Number of More than four Three livestock Two livestock Only one
livestock and livestock species and species and two livestock specie
poultry species and three poultry poultry species and one poultry
compared more than four species are are compared specie is
poultry species compared compared
are compared
3. Differences With all the With yearly With yearly Lacking yearly
and Remarks yearly differences and differences differences
differences and limited remarks without remarks without remarks.
all have remarks

Thank you for completing the task. If you have not

completed the task, or you have difficulty in accomplishing
the activity, please send me a message to our google class
or you may ask clarifications through a text message or
phone calls on the contact number included in your course
guide.
And now, you are ready for the assessment.
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PRINCIPLES AND GUIDES IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Assessment/Post test

Let’s See What You Have Learned From This Unit

Before you proceed to the next unit, take this test to find out how much you learned
about this unit. You may also view this quiz on google class using this code: ________

Name: ________________________ Score: _________

Year & Section: ________________ Date: ___________

Multiple Choice.

Directions: Choose the best answer of each item below and write the letter on the space
provided before each number.

____ 1. Ability of the female animals to give birth numerous offspring at frequent intervals.
a. Parturition b. Conception c. Fertility d. Fecundity
____ 2. They are able to synthesize their own organic compounds by using the sun’s
energy through the process of photosynthesis.
a. Autotrophs b. Phototrophs c. Heterotrophs d. Fungi

____ 3. Development of the field of Animal Science began with the domestication of
animals in what period?
a. Old Stone age b.New Stone age c. Metal Age d. Ice age
____ 4. Animals that can maintain their own body temperature.
a. homeothermic b. Poikilothermic c. Ectothermic d. Heterothermic

____ 5. The process of separating the young ones from its dam.
a. postering b. weanling c. weaning d. culling

____ 6. The following are Class Aves or animals that lay eggs in which their young
develop Except. a. bat b. chicken c. crocodile d. quail

____ 7. Young animals from birth to weaning under the care of the dam is called ___?
a. piglets b. sucklings c. kid d. shote

____ 8. A collective term for all domesticated birds rendering economic service to man
a. livestock b. chicks c. fowl d. poultry

____ 9. Which of the following is the scientific name of Europian cattle _____.
a. Bos taurus b. Bos taurus c. bos taurus d. Bos Taurus

____10. The number of young animals born in one farrowing

a. litter size b. farrowing index c. farrowing size d. litter
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____11. It is period of animals from the time of conception until birth.

a. fertilization b conception c. gestation d. lactation

____12 The meat of chicken which is coming from a newly won from a cock derby.
a. poultry meat b. chicken meat c. game meat d. hot meat

____13 A mature male horse that is utilized for breeding purposes.

a. redhorse b. colt c.. stag d. stallion

____14 The domestication of animals came the beginning of a more settled way of life
and source of ________.
a. food and clothing b. food and shelter
c. clothing and shelter d. food hunting

____15. This refers to new breeds developed by crossing two or more older breeds.
a. natural breed b. variety c. strain d. synthetic breed

You did a great job! If you have not completed the task, or you have
difficulty in accomplishing the activity, please send me a message to our
google class, or you may ask clarifications through a text message or phone
calls on the contact number included in your course guide. You may write
your insights or thoughts about the activity on the space provided.
You had just completed this unit. You are now ready to take Unit 2.
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PRINCIPLES AND GUIDES IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

UNIT 2
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

The proper understanding of structure, however, implies a knowledge of

function in the living organism. Anatomy is therefore almost inseparable from
physiology, which is sometimes called functional anatomy. For example to
achieve maximum animal performance, the animal raiser must have a basic
understanding of their structural make up and of how the various systems of the
body function. Through this knowledge, animal raiser manipulate the body
functions of the farm animals to attain maximum production. One example of
how the knowledge of physiology has been adapted to poultry production is
manipulation of light to promote egg production. Additionally the structure of the
digestive tract of the fowl is very different from that of the ruminant or of the non-
ruminant; hence, feeds and procedures must be designed accordingly.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

 enumerate the external parts of the different animals and enumerate their
functions
 tabulate the organs and their functions of the different system of the
animals
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Pretest

Let’s See What You Already Know

Before you begin this module, take this test to find out how much you already know
about our topic. You may also view this quiz on google class using this code: ________.

Name: ____________________________ Score: __________

Year & Section: ______________________ Date: ___________

Direction: Arrange the jumbled letters of a word or words to answer the given statement.
Write your answer on the space provided before each number.

__________________1. The study of the functions of the structures and of the animal’s
body. (Olypisygho)
__________________2. The study of development anatomy covering the period from
conception (fertilization) to birth. (Olymrygebo)

__________________3. An organs specializes in impulse conduction or relay of

message from effector organ to the nervous system and
vice versa. (Nurseon)
__________________4. The range of effective ambient temperature within which an
animal does not have to increase normal metabolic heat
production to offset heat loss to the environment. (Orcfmo
zeno)
__________________5. The act of giving birth to young and marks the termination of
pregnancy. (Rationatpur)
__________________6. It is a system where blood circulates in the body. This includes
the heart, the blood and the blood vessels. (arcodalivsucra
stymes)
__________________7. A glands which are ductless and release their secretions directly
into the blood stream. (Encriodne slagnd)
__________________8. A gas exchanger, to load the blood with oxygen and remove
excess carbon dioxide. ( Rasyripoter smetys)
__________________9. The process of procreation or the multiplication of the species.
(redunociptor)
__________________10. It is formed in the kidneys through a filtration of blood and then
passed through the ureters to the bladder, where it is stored.
(niure)

Thank you for answering the test.

Don’t feel bad if you got a low score. This topic helps you
understand the basic concept and body processes of animals and
its functions. If you study this module carefully, you will learn the
answers to all the items in the test and much more.
You may now start Unit 2.
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Content

Definition of terms and classification of anatomy

Anatomy – is a branch of science that deals with form and structure. It is the study of
the composition and structures and tissue of the animal’s body.

Physiology – is the study of the functions of the structures and of the animal’s body.

Classification of Anatomy

Anatomy is classify into several branches:

1. Gross anatomy – is the study of structure that can be seen by unaided eye.
 also known as macroscopic anatomy.

2. Microscopic anatomy – is the study of tissues and cells that can be seen
only with the aid of a microscope .
 the study of tissues is known as histology while the study
of cells is known as cytology.

3. Comparative anatomy – is a study of the structure of various species of

animals in comparison with each other.

4. Embryology – is the study of development anatomy covering the period from

conception (fertilization) to birth.

Nomenclature for systematic anatomy

The approach to the study of anatomy will chiefly by individual systems. This
method of study is referred to as systematic anatomy. Nomenclature for systemic anatomy
is presented in Table 4.

Table 4. Nomenclature for systematic anatomy

System Name of Study Chief Structure

Skeletal Osteology Bones
Articular Arthrology Joints
Muscular Myology Muscles
Digestive Splanchnology Stomach, Intestine
Respiratory Splanchnology Lungs, Air Passage
Reproductive Splanchnology Ovaries, Testes
Urinary system Splanchnology Kidney, Bladder
Endocrine Endocrinology Ductless glands
Nervous Neurology Brain, Spinal cord, Nerves
Circulatory Angiology Heart, Vessels
Integumentary Dermatology Skin
Sensory Esthesiology Eye, Ear
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External parts of farm animals

The external parts of different farm animals are shown in Figures 1a, 1b, 2a, 2b,
3, 4, 5a, 5b, 6, 7a and 7b.

1. Cattle

Figure 1a. Parts of Bull

Figure 1b. Parts of Cow

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2. Carabao

Figure 2a. Parts of Carabull

Figure 2b. Parts of Caracow

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3. Horse

Figure 3. Parts of Horse

4. Sheep

Figure 4. Parts of Sheep

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5. Goat

Figure 5a. Parts of Buck

Figure 5b.Parts of Doe

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6. Swine

Figure 6. Parts of Swine

7. Chicken

Figure 7a. Parts of Rooster

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Figure 7b. Parts of Hen

Microscope anatomy – Animal cells and tissues

1. Definition of terms

a. Cell – basic unit of life.

b. Tissues – is a group of cells.
c. Organ – is a group of tissues.
d. System – is a group of organs

2. Cell structure

A typical cell consists of three main parts, the cytoplasm, the nucleus, and
the cell membrane. The animal cell can be divided into three (3) distinct component
parts: cell membrane ,cytoplasm, and nucleus.

1. Cell membrane

The cell membrane has many important functions:

a. It separates the content of cells from external environment.
b. It controls the exchange of substance between cell and
environment.
c. It acts as a receptor site recognizing external stimuli
The cell membrane is said to be partially permeable as it allows certain
substance to free pass through it but prevent movement of other substance.
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2. Cytoplasm

The cytoplasm consist of the following:

a. Mitochondria – involved in respiration. It is the powerhouse of cell
because it breakdown complex molecules like sugars resulting
from the release of energy (ATP).

b. Endoplasmic reticulum
There are two kinds of endoplasmic reticulum:
i. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum – without ribosome attached.
ii. Rough endoplasmic reticulum – with ribosome attached.

Functions of Endoplasmic Reticulum:

1. Production of protein , especially enzymes ( rough ER)
2. Production of lipid and steroid ( smooth ER)
3. Production of substances throughout the cell

c. Ribosomes – Ribosomes are small granules found mostly in the

cell cytoplasm (cell liquid).The functions of
ribosomes is to assemble protein. Ribosomes may be
attached to endoplasmic reticulum or occur in groups
(polysomes) free floating in the cytoplasm.

d. Golgi apparatus. The function of golgi apparatus is to modify, sort

and package large molecules (lipid and proteins) either for
secretion or transport to other parts of the cell.

3. Nucleus. The nucleus is the largest cell organelle and a typically

ovoid in shape.

The main functions of nucleus:

a. Contain the cell genetic information in the form of DNA
b. Controls the cell’s activities
c. Carries instructions for protein coded in the of DNA
d. Controls cell division
e. Synthesis RNA and ribosome

The nucleus is surrounded by a membrane envelope called to

nuclear membrane.

3. Animal tissues

The primary types of tissues includes:

1. Epithelial tissues – which cover the surface of the body, line body
cavities, and form the active parts of glands.
 in general the epithelial tissues are classified as
simple (single layered) and stratified (many layered).
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2. Connective tissues – which support and bind other tissues together, and
from which, in the case of bone marrow, the formed
elements of the blood are derived.
 as the name implies , serve to connect other tissues.
They give form and strength to many organs and
often serve for protection and leverage.
 Connective tissues include yellow elastic tissue,
collagenous (white fibrous)tissue, reticular (net like)
tissue, adipose(fat) tissue, cartilage(gristle), and bone.

3. Muscle tissues – which specialized in contracting.

The three types of muscle tissue are: striated voluntary skeletal)

muscle, smooth (involuntary, visceral, unstriated) muscle, and cardiac
(involuntary striated) muscle. The type, function and location of muscle
is presented in Table 5.

Table 5. Type, function and location of muscles

Type Functions Location
Skeletal muscle tissue Voluntary movement of Muscles usually attach to
bones bones
Smooth muscle tissue Involuntary movement of Walls of hollow internal
internal organs organs
Cardiac muscle tissue Heart movement Heart muscles

4. Nervous tissues – which conduct impulses from one part of the body
to another.
 The essential cell making up nervous tissue is the neuron
(nerve cell). This consist of a nerve cell body and two or more
nerve processes (nerve fiber). The process are called axons if
they conduct impulses away from the cell body and dendrites if
they conduct impulses toward the cell body.

Nervous System

The nervous systems is responsible for all the complicated process that make
up the animal’s adjustment to both the external and the internal environment. It
accomplishes its function by means of conduction pathways (nerve fibers) and centers
that work like the wires and switchboards of a telephone system.

Basic unit of nervous system

The nervous system is composed of:

a. brain ,
b. spinal cord
c. nerves.
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Essentially all parts of the body are supplied with the nerves. The nerve cells
or neurons specializes in impulse conduction or relay of message from effector organ
to the nervous system and vice versa. Neurons may be classified according to the
direction of impulse conduction as follows:

1. Apparent (sensory) neurons – transmit nerve impulses from effector organ to

the spinal cord or brain.

2. Efferent (motor) neurons – transmit nerve impulses away from the brain or
spinal cord to or towards muscles or glands
(effector organs).

3. Interneurons – conduct impulses from an afferent neuron to an efferent neuron

within the central nervous system (CNS) which is made up of
the brain and the spinal cord. The effector organ could either be
the skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle or some other glands.

Divisions of the nervous system

The divisions of the nervous system can be divided into three groups:

1. Central nervous system (CNS)

 consists of the brain and spinal cord which are protected by surrounding bone
called skull and vertebral column respectively.
 the master control system for the entire body. The gross anatomy of
mammalian brain is presented in Figure no. 2

a. Brain

Brain is enclosed in cranial part of the skull and is divided into three major
parts:

1. Forebrain – is the largest part and fills most of the cranial cavity.
 It consist of cerebrum which involved with voluntary
movement and senses.

Cerebrum – the largest portion of the brain.

 It serves as the decision-making center of the brain and
controls such mental activities as voluntary muscle control
and interpretations of various sensations, for example,
hearing, seeing, and tasting.
 It also involved in reasoning.

2. Midbrain – extends caudally from the forebrain.

3. Hindbrain – is beyond the midbrain.It consist of cerebellum, the pons

and the medulla oblongata
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a. Cerebellum – functions as a coordinator of the brain’s other

centers and is a mediator between them and the
body.
 It functions also as a coordinator of muscular activity in
eating, vocalizing , running and walking.
 damage to the cerebellum results
incoordination , which interferes with voluntary muscular
action, but does not cause paralysis

b. Pons and medulla oblongata – control reflex actions such as

breathing, swallowing, vomiting , and blinking of eyelids.
 usuallyact independently of the cerebrum and
cerebellum.

Spinal cord

The spinal cord is located in the center of the vertebral column and is
main line through which message are transmitted to and from the brain to
various body parts. It is a continuation of medulla oblongata. The spinal cord
receives sensory, or afferent, nerve fibers, which transmit impulses from
different parts of the body via dorsal roots of spinal nerves. They also yield
efferent, or motor, nerve fibers, which transmit impulses from the brain and
spinal cord to various body parts through the ventral roots of the spinal nerves.

2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

The peripheral nervous system provides a means of communication from

the environment (both external and internal), where stimuli are received by
receptor organs, to the central nervous system, and from the central nervous
system to the proper effector organs in the body, muscles, or glands.
Peripheral nervous system is consists of nerves that branch out from the
CNS and connect it to other body parts. The PNS includes the cranial nerves,
which arise from the brain, and the spiral nerves, which arise from the spinal cord.

3. Automatic nervous system (ANS)

This is the portion of the nervous system that has the ability to function
independently of the CNS. This part of the nervous system, which transmit stimuli
to the hearty, smooth muscle and glands and conduct impulses from the viscera
to the CNS. The ANS is composed of two major divisions, the sympathetic and
parasympathetic.

a. Sympathetic nervous system – its fibers connect to the spinal cord only
in thoracolumbar portion.

b. Parasympathetic nervous system – its nerve fibers arise from cranial

nerves and from the sacral portion of the spinal cord. It is located in the
cranio –sacral portion.
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Figure 8. Gross anatomy of mammalian brain

Endocrine System

Glands and its classification

Glandular epithelial cells are specialized for secretion or excretion. Secretion

is the release from the gland cell of a substance that has been synthesized by the
cell, and which usually affects other cells in other parts of the body. Excretion is the
expelling of waste products that are not of use to the animal body.

Glands may be classified either as:

1. Endocrine glands – are located in different body regions of the body and
contain cells that secrete chemical substances known as hormones.

 are ductless and release their secretions directly into the blood stream.
For this reason the endocrine gland is referred to as glands of internal
secretion.

 Endocrinology is the science that deal with the study of endocrine

glands and their secretions.

2. Exocrine glands – their secretion release into ducts that lead to the body
surface or to cavities and their surface s within the body.

Glands usually considered to be endocrine include the pituitary,

thyroid, parathyroid, pancreas, adrenal, the gonads (ovaries and testes),
and placenta. The pineal gland and thymus are sometimes also included.
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Many of the endocrine glands and the hormones that they secrete
are shown in Table 6a and Table 6b.

Chemical nature of hormones

Chemically hormones fall into five general classes: (1) proteins and
glycoproteins, (2) peptides, (3)amines, (4)steroids and (5) nonsteroids lipids.
Proteins, glycoproteins, and peptides are composed of amino acids.

Hormones have an important effect on body processes such as growth,

fattening, reproduction, egg laying. A high rate of performance in all animals
depends on the proper level and balance of these of these chemical substances
at their points of activity. Hormones believed to instruct cells how to use metabolic
energy (e.g. growth, work, or fat deposition).

Regulation of hormone secretion

The activity of endocrine glands is carefully balanced. If a gland becomes

either too active or not active enough illness results. For good health and
development the glands must work together as a unit. Secretion of hormones by
endocrine glands may be regulated in several ways.

Feedback mechanism

An interaction between two hormones may regulate the secretion rate of

both. This interaction is known as a feedback mechanism. For example, the
production of LH by the anterior pituitary gland stimulates the testes to secrete
testosterone. As more and more testosterone is produced by the testes it enters
the bloodstream and is carried to the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland where
it causes a decreased production of LH .Thus when concentration is high. LH
production is decreased whereas when testosterone secretion is low, LH
production is increased.

Chemical homeostatis

Hormone secretion may be controlled by the blood level of chemicals (not

a hormone) on which the hormone acts. For example, a high concentration of blood
calcium causes a low secretion rate of parathyroid hormone, the hormone secreted
by the parathyroid gland. A low concentration of blood calcium permits release of
the parathyroid hormone. This interaction between calcium and parathyroid
hormone keeps calcium at as fairly constant in the bloodstream is especially
important in lactating animals. Another examples of chemical regulation of
hormone secretion is the role of blood glucose in the control of insulin secretion.
High levels of blood glucose trigger secretion of insulin by the pancreas. Low levels
of blood glucose inhibit the secretion and trigger the release of other hormones
that act to increase blood glucose concentration (e.g., epinephrine, cortisol, and
glucagon).
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Table 6a. Hormones secreted by the endocrine glands and their major functions

Gland Hormone Action of Hormone

Hypothalamus Gonadotropin-releasing Stimulates release of LH and FSH
hormone (GnRH)

Corticotropin – releasing Stimulates release of ACTH

hormone (CRH)

Thyrotropin – releasing Stimulates release of TSH

hormone(TRH)

Growth Hormone – Stimulates release of growth

releasing hormone hormone
(GHRH)

Growth hormone – Inhibit release of growth hormone

inhibiting hormone
(Somatostatin)

Prolactin releasing Stimulates release of prolactin

hormone (PRH)

Prolactin –inhibiting Inhibits release of prolactin

hormone(PIH)

Oxytocin Causes ejection of milk , Expulsion

of eggs in hens and uterine
contraction
Testes(also Development of the external
produced in genitals in the male fetus;
small amounts Testosterone development and maintenance of
in the ovaries male secondary sex characteristics
and placenta of sperm production; stimulates male
the female) sex drive (libido
Uterus Causes luteolysis and a decrease
PGF2
of progesterone production
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Table 7b. Hormones secreted by endocrine glands and their major functions
Gland Hormone Action of hormone
Controls water retention in the kidney,
reduces excretion of urine, and the raises
Antidiuretic(ADH) blood pressure.
also called • lack of this hormone produces the
Posterior Vasopressin disease called diabetes
Pituitary insipidus
Gland Stimulates the contraction of the smooth
muscle of the uterus during parturition and
Oxytocin
facilitates milk letdown from the mammary
gland.
• regulates the size of animal
Growth or • excess growth hormone results to
Somatotrophic unusually large animals (gigantism) while
hormone (STH) absence or impaired production results to
dwarfism.
Anterior •stimulates the growth of Graafian
Follicle Stimulating
Pituitary follicles in the ovary and the production of
Hormone (FSH)
Gland spermatozoa in male
•Stimulates ovulation and the
Luteinizing
development of corpus luteum in the ovary
hormone
and causes the secretion of testosterone in
(LH)
male
•necessary for the efficient functioning
Thyrotrophic
of the thyroid gland and aid in regulating
hormone (TTH)
metabolism
• essential for functioning of the adrenal
Adrenocorticotropic cortex
Hormone (ACTH) • absence of the hormone results in
gradual degeneration of adrenals
•consist principally of cortisol, cortisone
and corticosterone
•promote gluconeogenesis, decrease
Glucocorticoids inflammatory reaction affect muscle tone or
excitability of nerves, inhibit cartilage
growth and development and have roles
in fat and water metabolism
• aldosterone is the principal
Adrenal Gland
mineralocorticoid
•it is an electrolyte regulating hormone
Mineralocorticoids
which has a potent effect on water
metabolism. It controls the reabsorption of
sodium from kidney tubules.
•virtually identical to those produced by
Androgenic
the testicles and have the same physiologic
hormones
effect
•This hormone contains iodine and it
Thyroid Gland Thyroxine
functions to control metabolism
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• it functions to control metabolism and
Calcitonin
bone development
Parathyroid Parathormone •control calcium levels of the blood
•regulates blood sugar levels
• without insulin, blood glucose levels rise
Insulin abnormally high to overcome the threshold
Pancreas resistance of the cells and results to the
disease called diabetes mellitus
Functions in the metabolism of liver
Glucagon
glycogen
• secreted in graafian follicle which
Estrogen
stimulate female sex drive (libido)
• prepares the uterus for reception of a
fertilized ovum, •suppress the development
Progesterone of new graafian follicles
Ovary •prepare the mammary gland for lactation
• hormone that maintain pregnancy
• this hormone functions to relax the
pelvic ligament , cervix and vaginal
Relaxin
musculature which is secreted just before
parturition.

Special Senses

Sensation is the result of afferent impulses from stimuli that eventually reach a
conscious level in the cerebral cortex. Special senses include smell, sight, taste, hearing
and equilibrium. Organic sensations include hunger, thirst, sensation of bladder fullness
and sexual sensation.

1. Tongue: Organ of taste

Taste buds, the end organ for sense of taste, consist of fusiform gustatory cells
intermingled with sustentacular (supporting) cells arranged in somewhat barrel–shaped
group. Nerves fibers terminate around the gustatory cells. There are three specific taste
modalities in man:
1. Bitter taste – at the base of the tongue
2. Sour taste – in the lateral sides of the tongue
3. Sweet and salty – in the tip of the tongue

2. Nostril: Organ of smell

Nerve impulses from the olfactory receptor bulb of the brain and along the
two tracts which channel the impulses to interceptive center or cells deeper within
the brain.

3. Ear: Organ of hearing and balance

There are three main parts of the ear:

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1. External ear – it extends from the exterior as far as as the tympanic

membrane.

2. Middle ear – it extends from the tympanic membrane into air-filled excavation
within the estrous temporal bone.

3. Inner ear – it is also excavated in the petrous temporal bone but is filled with
fluid.

Auricle or pinna – a funnel-shaped outer composed of skin and elastic

cartilage.

There are three auditory ossicles in the middle ear:

a. Malleus or hammer
b. Incus or anvil
c. Stapes or stirrup

The inner ear is an essential portion of the organ of hearing and equilibrium.
Because of its complex shape it is called labyrinth.

There are two main parts of the inner ear:

a. Osseous labyrinth – is within the temporal bone
b. Membranous labyrinth – a layer of covering for the walls of the
osseous labyrinth.

4. Eye: Organ of sight

Conjunctiva – a thin epithelium which covers the anterior surface of the

eyeball and cornea.

Eyelids – two flaps of skin that serves to close or cover the eye.

Eyelashes – special hairs which acts as protective screens and dust filters

Meibomian gland or tarsal gland – specialized sebaceous gland located at

the base of the hair follicles of the lashes of the upper eyelid.

Third eyelid – transverse sheet of thin, transculent membrane located in

the medial canthus of the eye.

Cardiovascular System

The cardiovascular system is a system where blood circulates in the body. Its
includes the heart, the blood and the blood vessels.

1. Anatomy of the cardiovascular system

The heart, arteries, capillaries, and veins make up the major parts of the
circulatory system. The heart is a muscular organ that pumps blood throughout the
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body. Bloods leaves the heart through the aorta, which branches into smaller
arteries and eventually into the capillaries that reach tissues in all parts of the body.
In the capillaries an exchange takes place: nutrients and oxygen go into the cells
while carbon dioxide, water, and waste products enter into the blood. From the
capillaries the blood enters small veins that converge into larger veins, eventually
leading back to the heart.

2. Division of the circulatory systems

The two main divisions of circulatory system are as follows:

a. Blood circulatory system – this include the heart, vascular bundles, and the
blood. This referred to as close system because the liquid (the blood) flows
through a definite circuit. When the ventricles are contracting, the atria are
relaxing; as the atria contract, the ventricles relax. The rhythmic cycle of
contraction and relaxation forces the blood to move through the circulatory
system.

b. Lymphatic circulatory system – this consist of the lymph (fluid) and the lymph
vessel. This referred to as an open system because it does not have a definite
circuit. As blood circulation throughout the body, fluid from the blood leaks into
the tissues. A network of vessels known as the lymphatic system collects the
fluid that is lost by the blood and returns it to the circulatory system.

3. Systems of blood circulation

Circulation is the movement of blood through body’s blood vessel. There

are three system of blood circulation, namely:

i. Pulmonary circulation – convey venous blood from the right side of the heart
to the lungs where gaseous exchange takes place and
returns arterial blood to the left side of the heart.

ii. Systematic circulation – conveys arterial blood from the left side of the heart
to the body tissues and returns venous blood from
the tissues to the right side of the heart.

The systematic circulation includes the following special systems of blood

circulation:

a. Coronary circulation – supplies blood to the heart itself.

b. Hepatic circulation – supplies arterial blood to the liver.
c. Cerebral circulation – supplies arterial blood to the brain.
d. Renal circulation – supplies arteries blood to the kidney.

iii. Portal circulation – which involves the intestines and the liver.

a. Splanchnic circulation – supplies arterial blood to the digestive tract.

b. Fetal circulation – supplies arterial blood to the fetal placenta.
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4. Components of circulatory system

A circulatory system requires three components:

1. A transport fluid ( blood)
2. A pump to create pressure (heart)
3. A series of vessels to carry the fluid.

5. Heart

The heart is located in the thoracic cavity between the lobes of the lung.
The heart’s function is to pump the blood around the body. The mammalian heart
has two sides, separated by septum. The left hand side pumps oxygenated blood
to all the body except lungs, while the right hand side pumps deoxygenated blood
to the lungs. The heart consists mainly of cardiac muscle which can contract
without becoming fatigued. Failure to perform this function (heart failure) terminate
life.
Both side of the heart have two chambers:
a. Atria (Atrium-singular) receives blood from the veins.
b. Ventricles  force blood out of the heart.

The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the body via the
superior and inferior vena cavae and forces blood into the right ventricles. This
pushes blood out of the heart to the lungs via pulmonary arteries. Oxygenated
blood re-enters the heart from the lungs, via the pulmonary veins, which transport
blood to the left atrium. The left atrium passes the blood into the muscular left
ventricle which forces the blood around the body via aorta. The flow of the blood
in circulation and gross anatomy of mammalian is presented in Figure 9.

There are two sound produced by the heart namely:

1. “ Lub” sound – is the first sound produce caused by the closure of the
mitral and tricuspid valve.
– This is a low , slightly “ lub” sound.
2. “Dup” sound – is the second sound produce caused by the closure of
the aortic and pulmonary valves just after the end of
ventricular systole.
These two sound are normally hear using the stethoscope
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PRINCIPLES AND GUIDES IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Figure 9. Gross anatomy of mammalian heart

6. Pulse

Pulse determines the rate, rhythm, and amplitude of the heart and can be
taken using our ears and fingers or stethoscope or electrocardiogram( ECG). The
following are the sites for taking the pulse rate in animals:

▪ Horse > submandibular artery (face)

▪ Cattle > facial artery (face) and coccygeal artery (tail)
▪ Pig > femoral artery (thigh) and coccygeal artery (tail)
▪ Goat and sheep > femoral artery
Terms associated with pulse rate;

1. Bradycardia > marked slowing of the heart rate

2. Tachycardia > increase rate
3. Arrhythmia >no heart beat

7. Blood vessel

Blood vessels resemble the branching of a tree, in that the arteries start as
large vessels and divide into smaller and smaller branches. A system of vessels
of circulating the blood are as follows:

1. Arteries – the blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart to the
various body tissues.
 Arteries are elastic enough to smooth out the pulsation of the blood
caused by the pumping action of the heart , which helps to maintain
a steady blood pressure.
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PRINCIPLES AND GUIDES IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

 oxygen content of blood is high (oxygenated blood) except

pulmonary artery.
 diameter of lumen is relatively small(enough for erythrocytes to
passed)
 blood pressure and flow high .
 Aorta is the largest artery in the body while arterioles is the smallest
arteries in the body.
 relatively low blood volume.
 blood flow pulsatile
 no valves are present

2. Veins – the blood vessels that carries blood from the various body
tissues to the heart.
 The running through the veins is called unoxygenated blood.
 oxygen content of blood is low – CO 2 content is high
(deoxygenated)except pulmonary veins.
 diameter of lumen relatively large
 valves are present – preventing back flow of blood.
 blood pressure and flow low ( 1 k Pa)
 high blood volume
 blood flow non- pulsatile
 Vena cava is the largest veins.

3. Capillaries – a tiny tubes and a thin- walled vessels which are only large
enough in diameter to accommodate a single file of erythrocyte.
 The wall acts as a selectively permeable membrane that permits
water, oxygen and nutrients to leave the blood for tissue calls and
permits waste products from tissue cells to enter the blood.
 carry blood through body tissues connecting the arterial system to
the venous system.
 oxygen content of the blood is lost through capillary wall to the body
tissues.
 diameter is very small ( approximate the same size a red blood cell).
 valve are not present
 blood pressure is medium
 very low blood volume
 blood flow is non - pulsatile

8. Blood

Blood is the material that circulates through the circulatory system. It is

somewhat sticky and viscous, having about five times the viscosity of water and
specific gravity about 1/20 greater than water (1.06) and an average pH of a about
7.4. In color, it ranges from the bright red of oxygenated blood to the dark red of
un- oxygenated blood. It is slightly alkaline ii reaction and has a distinctive odor
and a salty taste, and makes up from 6 to 10 % of the total body weight.

The major functions of blood in the body are listed below:

1. Transport nutrients from the digestive system to the body tissues
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PRINCIPLES AND GUIDES IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

2. Transport oxygen from the lungs to the tissues.

3. Transport carbon dioxide from tissues to the lungs
4. Waste products from various tissues are carried to the kidneys for
excretion.
5. Help regulate body temperature by transferring heat from the internal
organs toward the surface of the body;
6. Transport hormone from the endocrine gland to the needed organ bodies.
7. Maintain the electrolyte balance and pH level in the body
8. The clotting ability of blood prevents excess loss of blood from injuries.
9. Help protect the body against disease organisms

9. Component of whole blood

The blood is separated into two categories of plasma and cells:

1. Plasma – the fluid portion of the whole blood

 Makes up about 50-60 % percent of the total volume.
 Also referred as the “ internal environment” which directly or indirectly
Bathes all cells of the body and protects them from external influences.
 Plasma proteins consist of two major types: albumin and globulins.
 Albumins is important in binding and transporting many substances in the
blood.
 Gamma globulin fraction of the plasma proteins is associated with immunity
and resistance to disease. It provides the immune response,
i,e, antibodies to reach with antigens.
 yellow in color.
 consist of 90 % water and 10 % dissolved substances including the waste
products from digestion of urea, amino acids , hormones and inorganic
ions (Ca 2++, Na + , K+ , Cl - , HCO 3 )

 The composition of blood plasma varies from vessel. There is a constant

exchange of substance between body tissues and plasma.

2. Blood cells

The three kind of blood cell in blood include:

a. Red blood cell – otherwise known as erythrocyte.
 are formed in the red bone marrow of adult vertebrates.
 In mammals the red blood cells do not have nuclei although they are
originate from cells that do contain nuclei. As the cell mature they lose
their nuclei and acquire hemoglobin.
 Hemoglobin consist of iron and globulin
 Hemoglobin is an iron – containing pigment which is the principal
oxygen transport medium
 Red blood cells are formed in the red bone marrow of adult vertebrates.
They are presence in larger amount than the white cells or the
platelets.
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Functions of red blood cells

1. Helps in transporting the oxygen to the cells and carbon dioxide to
the lungs.
2. Give blood its characteristics red color
3. Help maintain a normal pH level in the body.

RBC abnormalities:

 Anemia – is an abnormality in which red blood cells are reduced in

number and or hemoglobin.

 Polycythemia – it is an abnormality in which excessive number

of RBC are found in the circulating blood.

b. White blood cell – otherwise known as leucocytes

 contain nucleus and can live for many months or years.
 the main function of white blood cell is to protect the body
against invasion by foreign cells or substances.

White blood cell is divided into two groups:

1. Granulocytes – are leucocytes that contains granular material within
their cytoplasm.
▪ Neutrophils – first line of defense against the infection and
constitute the greatest number of all the WBC.
▪ eosinophils – red - staining granules in the cytoplasm and
increases in number during allergic reactions.

2. Agranulocytes – are leucocytes that contain very little granular

material in their cytoplasm.
▪ Monocytes – the largest WBC and involved in phagocytosis.
▪ Lymphocytes – it produces antibodies, neutralizes or fixes toxins,
and aid in fat resorption from the intestines.

WBC Abnormalities:

▪ Leucopenia > decrease in the number of white blood cells.

▪ Leucocytosis > increase in the number of white blood cells.

3. Blood platelets – otherwise known as thrombocytes

 platelets are small particles that occur in large numbers in the
blood. They live about ten (10) days and are being continually
replaced from the bone marrow
 they are not cells but rather they are tiny fragment of other cells.
 function chiefly to reduce loss of blood from injury because
platelets attach themselves to injuries in blood vessels and
release a chemical necessary for blood clotting. They are sticky
and form a plug at the site of the injury.
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10. Hemopoiesis

Hemopoiesis is the formation of blood cells. All blood cells in the adult
animal have a common origin- the primordial stem cells in the bone marrow. The
process of erythrocyte formation is called erythropoiesis. The process of leukocyte
formation is called leucopoiesis.

11. Lymphatic system

The lymphatic system is auxiliary to the circulatory system, carrying lymph

(a tissue fluid) into capillaries of the circulatory system. A small amount of lymph
is carried back to the blood through a system of fine capillaries of the lymphatic
system that are located adjacent to the blood capillaries. The lymphatic capillaries
merge into larger trunks that eventually feed into large duct that merge into the
circulatory system.
Both lymphatic and the circulatory system absorb nutrients from the
digestive system (primary the small intestine) for transport to the tissues of the
body.

Functions of lymphatic system

 returns tissue fluid to the bloodstream from the extracellular spaces
 filters out and phagocytize bacteria and other foreign material
 helps maintain homeostasis and tissue health
 produces antibodies and lymphocytes
 absorbs and transport fat from the intestine to the bloodstream.

Lymphoid organs
Lymphoid organs refer to diverse tissues such as the spleen, thymus, tonsils and
Peyer’s patches

1. Spleen
i. largest lymphoid organ
ii. act as a blood reservoir
iii. act as lymphatic organ
iv. act as blood forming organ in young animals
v. act as graveyard for old red blood cells
vi. site for antibody production

2. Thymus
 a lympho-epithelial organ that serves as source of lymphocytes

3. Tonsil and Peyer’s patches

 they are primarily act as regional lymph nodes
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PRINCIPLES AND GUIDES IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Respiratory System

1 Functions of the respiratory system

 supplies oxygen to the blood
 removes carbon dioxide from the blood
 assist in the regulation of the acidity of the extracellular fluid of the body
 temperature regulation
 elimination of water
 phonation (voice production)

In large animals, including man make use of two systems:

1. Blood circulatory system to carry to and from the tissues large quantities of
oxygen and carbon dioxide, with the help of hemoglobin; and

2. Respiratory system, a gas exchanger, to load the blood with oxygen and
remove excess carbon dioxide. In man and other farm animals, the respiratory
surfaces are folded within the body to prevent drying of the delicate
membranes; air saturated with water vapor is drawn into intimate contact with
the blood flowing through the pulmonary capillaries, and gases are exchanged.

These two systems cooperate to supply the needs of the tissues. One
system supplies air; the other supplies blood. The ultimate purpose is the
transfer of gases between air and cells. The respiratory system is an air, pump
which draws fresh air through the air tubes to small air sac (alveoli) that have
thin membranes. The circulatory system is a blood pump which the whole
output of the heart through fine thin- wall blood tubes (capillaries) surrounding
the alveoli.

2. Phases of respiration

1. External respiration – includes the movement of air into and out of the
lungs (breathing), the passage of oxygen from the lungs to blood, and the
passage of carbon dioxide from blood to lungs, the means by which oxygen
is carried to the cells and the means by which carbon dioxide is carried from
the cells back to the lungs.

Breathing is the act of bringing air and blood into intimate relationship
within the lungs and consists of two phases: inspiration and expiration. The
inspiration during which air is brought into lungs, and expiration during which
air is expelled from the lungs.

2. Internal respiration – is concerned with the utilization of oxygen and

production of carbon dioxide by the cells and is often eferred to as cellular
respiration.

3. Mammalian respiratory system structures

The mammalian respiratory structures in vertebrates are as follows:

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PRINCIPLES AND GUIDES IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

1. Nostril. Air is drawn into the system through the nostrils; air may also be
drawn into the system through the mouth.

2. Nasal cavity. Here the air is warmed and moistened and dust particles are
filtered out. Smelling also occurs here. The nasal cavity is separated from
the mouth by the hard and soft palates.

3. Pharynx. This is where the passage from the nostril s and the mouth are
joined. The air and food passages cross in the pharynx. The esophagus is
the food passage. The epiglottis is flap of tissue that closes when food is
swallowed, thus preventing the food from entering the passage to the
lungs. The epiglottis opens when a breath is drawn in, allowing the air to
pass to the lungs.

4. Larynx. Controls inspiration and expiration of air, prevent inhalation of

foreign object s, and is essential for voice production .Larynx is also known
as the voice box.

5. Trachea. The larynx opens into trachea, a tube that leads to the bronchi.
The wall of the trachea is lined with a series of C- shaped rings of cartilage.
These helps to maintain the shape of the passage during breathing.

6. Bronchi. At the lower end the trachea the tube divides into two braches
called the bronchi (singular bronchus). These branches lead to the two
lungs of animal. The lung of mammals are located in the thoracic cavity.

7. Bronchioles. Each bronchus keeps subdividing into smaller branches

called bronchioles.

8. Alveolus. The bronchioles terminate in the alveoli(singular alveolus).The

walls of the alveoli are very thin, about one cell thick, and are covered by a film
of fluid that as a surfactant. This fluid is a complex of protein, polysaccharides.
The alveoli are surrounded by tiny blood capillaries. Here is where the actual
exchange of gases occurs, which is the real function of the respiratory system.
Because the air contain a higher concentration of oxygen than the blood,
oxygen passes through the cell wall membrane into the bloodstream.
Conversely, there is higher concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood than
in the air.

4. Avian respiratory system

The avian respiratory system is different in some ways from the mammalian
system. Birds do not have nostril; they do have nasal chamber in the upper
mandible that opens into the mouth. The trachea leads down from the mouth to
the lungs and divides into bronchi. The syrinx, a structure that allows the bird to
make sounds, is found at the lower end of the trachea. Birds have a system of air
sac that are extension of the bronchi. These air sac extend into the bones of the
bird. Instead of alveoli, the avian respiratory system has small air capillaries in the
lung tissue through which air circulates and gas exchange takes place. Birds do
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PRINCIPLES AND GUIDES IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

not have a diaphragm; breathing is accomplished by muscle action in the thoracic

and abdominal regions and is additionally helped by the movement of the wings.

5. Physiology of respiration

An animals breathes by utilizing muscles to enlarge the chest cavity, thus

forcing air in, and reduce the chest cavity, thus forcing air out. Air enters the body
through the nostrils or mouth, passes through the nasal passage to the pharynx,
then goes through the trachea to the lungs. The lungs contain air sac called alveoli
where oxygen from the air is exchanged for carbon dioxide from the body. When
the air is expelled from the lungs, the carbon dioxide is removed from the body.
The respiratory also helps to control the temperature of the animal’s body and to
produce sound’s by utilizing the larynx.

6. Types of breathing

The following terminology is used to characterize types of breathing:

1. Costal ( thoracic) – involves considerable movement of the ribs; occurs
when more air is needed than movement of the diaphragm produces.
2. Abdominal ( diaphragmatic ) – diaphragm contraction produces visible
movement of the abdomen occurs during ordinary quiet breathing .
3. Eupnea – normal quiet respiration
4. Dystocia – difficult breathing.
5. Apnea – absence or cessation of respiration.
6. Hyperpnea – increase depth or rate or rate of breathing or both.
7. Polypnea – rapid , shallow breathing.

Excretory System

Animals need to excrete because they take in substances that are excess to the
body’s requirements and many of the chemical reactions in the body produce waste
products. If these substances were not removed they would poison cells or slow down
metabolism.
The major waste products in mammals are carbon dioxide that is removed by the
lungs, and urea that is produced when excess amino acids (from proteins) are broken
down. Urea is filtered from the blood by the kidneys.

The kidneys and urinary system

The urinary system, also known as the renal system or urinary tract (Figure 10),
consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and the urethra.

The purpose of the urinary system:

a. to eliminate waste from the body
b. regulate blood volume and blood pressure
c. control levels of electrolytes and metabolites and
d. regulate blood pH
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PRINCIPLES AND GUIDES IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

The urinary tract is the body's drainage system for the eventual removal of urine.
The kidneys have an extensive blood supply via the renal arteries which leave the kidneys
via the renal vein. Each kidney consists of functional units called nephrons. Following
filtration of blood and further processing, wastes (in the form of urine) exit the kidney via
the ureters, tubes made of smooth muscle fibres that propel urine towards the urinary
bladder, where it is stored and subsequently expelled from the body by urination (voiding).
The female and male urinary system are very similar, differing only in the length of the
urethra.
Urine is formed in the kidneys through a filtration of blood. The urine is then passed
through the ureters to the bladder, where it is stored. During urination, the urine is passed
from the bladder through the urethra to the outside of the body.
The kidneys in mammals are bean-shaped organs that lie in the abdominal cavity
attached to the dorsal wall on either side of the spine. An artery from the dorsal aorta
called the renal artery supplies blood to them and the renal vein drains them.

Figure 10. The urinary system

To the naked eye kidneys seem simple enough organs. They are covered by a
fibrous coat or capsule and if cut in half lengthways (longitudinally) two distinct regions
can be seen - an inner region or medulla and the outer cortex. A cavity within the kidney
called the pelvis collects the urine and carries it to the ureter, which connects with the
bladder where the urine is stored temporarily. Rings of muscle (sphincters) control the
release of urine from the bladder and the urine leaves the body through the urethra. The
dissected kidney is shown in Figure 11.
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PRINCIPLES AND GUIDES IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Figure 11. The dissected kidney

Reproductive System

Functions of male and female farm animals in reproduction

Reproduction is the process of procreation or the multiplication of the species.

Reproduction in farm animals is very important because it is the basis of production. Milk,
meat, egg, wool and leather can be produced only when the animals reproduce.
Reproduction in the female is a complex process that involves the entire animal body.

The female animals function in reproduction are:

1. to produce the female reproductive cells, the egg or ova
2. to develop the new individual, the embryo, in the uterus.
3. to expelled the fully developed young at the time of birth or parturition;
4. to produce milk for the nourishment of the young

The male farm animals functions in reproduction is through the production of the
male. Male reproductive cells (sperms) capable of fertilizing the egg or ovum. All farm
animal’s are mammals except poultry. The fertilized egg or ova of mammals are developed
in the reproductive organ of the female while the fertilized egg of poultry are expelled and
then developed through incubation.

Female reproductive tract of farm animal

1. Mammal (Cattle, carabao, goat and sheep)

Reproduction is a complex process that involves the entire animal body. To

understand better the reproductive process, it is important to know the parts and
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PRINCIPLES AND GUIDES IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

functions of the organs involved. The female reproductive tract is presented in Figure
12..

a. External genitalia

The vulva is the external portion of the female genitalia that comprises the
vestibule, labia majora , labia minora , clitoris , and vestibular gland junction.
Clitoris is a highly sensitive organ and small erectile organ situated just inside
the portion of the vulva furthest removed from the anus.

b. Internal genitalia

The female internal genitalia including the uterus, oviduct and ovaries are
supported by broad ligament. This ligament consists of: the mesovarium,
supporting the ovary; the mesosalphinx, supporting the oviduct; and the
mesometrium, supporting the uterus.

1. Vagina – located within the pelvis and connected to the uterus anteriorly and to
the vulva posteriorly. It has multiple functions in reproduction, namely:

a. the organ of copulation (sexual intercourse), in which semen is

deposited during natural mating.
b. Serves as birth canal during parturition and excretory duct for
secretion of the cervix , uterus and oviduct.

2. Uterus – the uterus of the domestic mammals consist of a body (corpus), cervix
and two horn (cornua). This organ contains the fetus during pregnancy.
In farm animals except poultry, the uterus is bipartite type, meaning it
has two parts , the body and the horns.
 the body of uterus serves as the site of implantation for cattle, carabao,
sheep, goat and horse while for swine, uterine horn serves as the site
of implantation.
 implantation is the process whereby the new embryo becomes
established at a developmental site in the uterus , where it will then
develop and become a fetus.
 cervix is the neck of the uterus which is a heavy , smooth muscle
sphincter that is tightly close except during estrus (heat) or parturition.
at the time of estrus, the cervix slightly relaxes, permitting the entrance
of the spermatozoa into uterus. The inner surface of the cervix is
arranged in a series of circular ridges or rings called annular folds.

3. Ovaries  the primary sex organ of the female .

 the primary function (cytogenic function) of the ovary is the production
of the ova, the female gamete.
 the process by which the reproductive organ (ovary) produces the
ova or eggs is called oogenesis.
 the secondary function ( endocrine function)of the ovary is the
production of hormones: estrogen ( female sex hormone and
progesterone that maintain pregnancy.
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PRINCIPLES AND GUIDES IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

 thus the ovary is the primary part of the female reproduction organ
that performs both egg release and endocrine functions.
 the ovarian cortex contains ovarian follicles (graafian follicles) and /or
corpora lutea (CL) at various stages of development or regression

4. Oviduct  otherwise known as a fallopian tube or uterine tube.

 the oviducts or fallopian are the two convoluted tubes that extend
from the uterine horns to the ovaries .

The oviduct is divided into four functional segments:

 fringe-like fimbrae (border / outer margin) that helps in attracting the ovum
to get inside ; transport ovulated eggs from ovarian surface to the
infundibulum.

 infundibulum, the funnel –shaped abdominal opening near the ovary;

infundibulum is highly sensitive and can catch anything that comes near
it, a reason why oviduct serves as the usual site for fertilization because
it can catch the egg or ova that is
ovulated from the ovary.

 the distal dilated ampulla, where fertilization and early cleavage (cell
division)of fertilized eggs take place.

 isthmus , the narrow proximal portion of the oviduct connecting it to the

uterine lumen.

Figure 12. Female reproductive organs

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Reproductive tract of poultry ( Chicken)

The female reproductive of chicken is shown in Figure 13 and it is

made up of the two main organs namely:

1. Ovary – in almost all species of birds, including poultry they have two ovary:
the left and right.
 only the left ovary is functional.
 the right ovary is nonfunctional because it does not develop.
 responsible for the production of ova (egg) that developed into
egg yolk.

2. Oviduct – there two oviduct of all avian species: left and the right ovary but
only the left is functional.

The oviduct of the poultry (chicken) has five main parts:

a. Infundibulum – the funnel shape end of oviduct that is close to the ovary.
 catches the ovulated ova or egg from the ovary.
 site of fertilization.
 the first part of the oviduct.

c. Magnum – the second and largest section of the oviduct.

 Secretes the thick white (albumen) of the egg.
 it takes about 3 hours for the thick white to be
placed around the yolk in the magnum.

d. Isthmus – the third section of the oviduct.

 the two shell membrane(inner and outer membrane) are
added in the yolk and albumen.
 the yolk and thick white well stay in this part for
about 1 ¼ hours.

e. Uterus – the thin white and the outer shell are added to the egg in this
part.
 the egg remains in the uterus about 20 hours.
 after the egg is completed in the uterus, it moves to
the vagina.

f. Vagina – where the complete egg stays for a short time before is laid.

It takes about 25 to 27 hours for a chicken to produce one egg.

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Figure 13. Hen’s reproductive system

Reproductive stages

1. Puberty

The stage of life in which animals become sexually mature and the secondary
characteristics first become obvious is known as puberty. In the female, this is the age at
first estrus. The term sexual maturity means that the animal is capable of reproduction. At
this stage reproductive organ undergo a great increase in size.
Puberty is influenced by the breed and genotypes of the animal. In general,
smaller breeds of particular species attain puberty earlier. Climate also influences onset
of puberty. It is believed that warm climate favor early puberty. A high plane of nutrition
has been found to favor early puberty.
Puberty is the period during which reproductive organs first become functional.
Puberty is basically the result of gradual adjustment between increasing gonadotrophic
activity and the ability of the gonads to simultaneously assume steroidogenesis and
gametogenesis.

2. Estrous cycle and Hormones

Estrous cycle is defined as the interval from the beginning of one heat period to
the beginning of the next . Estrous cycle is controlled directly by
hormone from the vary and indirectly by the hormones from the
anterior pituitary gland.

The term hormone means “to set in motion” or “to arouse”. Hormones are
chemical messengers released from endocrine (ductless) glands. They travel via the blood
stream to have an effect on distant target organs. The onset of puberty , average age of
service, length of estrous cycle, length of estrus are presented in Table 7.
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Table 7. Onset of puberty, Average Age First Service, Length of Estrus

Cycle and Length Estrus

Age at Length Estrous Cycle Length of Estrus

Puberty (days)
Animal
(months)
Range Average Range Average
Range
4-12
16-18
Cattle (6-8 more 16-24 21 6-35 hours
hours
common)
1-5 days
Sows :
Swine 4 -7 18-24 21 40-60 hr 3 days
Gilts:
24-28 hr
Sheep 4 -8 14-20 16 1-3 days 30 hours

Goats 5 to 6 12-30 days 22 2 – 3 days 2 ½ days

4½-7½
Horses 10-12 10-37 22 5 days
days
Native
5 to 6
Carabao 19 to 23 21 18 hours
hours

Stages of Estrous Cycle

The estrous cycle is divided into several stages namely:

a. Proestrus – this is the period of preparation for sexual activity.
 during this period , follicle increase in size, vaginal wall thickens
and uterine vascularity increases.
 this first period of the estrous cycle is referred to as the “ building
up” stage.

b. Estrus – this is a period of sexual activity when the female will permit.
 it is also a period of heat and greatest receptivity to male.
 estrus ends or terminates when ovulation occurs.

c. Metestrus – the female animal will not permit mounting.

 is the period just after ovulation.

d. Diestrus – characterized by the complete lack of sexual desire.

e. Alternative that may follow after diestrus :

1. Proestrus – if the female animals are not pregnant , the estrous cycle
will repeat again in stage 1(proestrus).
2. Anestrus – long period of sexual inactivity due to pregnancy.
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Hormones involved in Estrous Cycle

1. Proestrus – Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) is released from the anterior

pituitary gland upon receiving the correct signals from the brain.
 FSH acts upon the germinal epithelium of the ovary to
cause the formation of the (Graaffian follicle) containing the
ovum or eggs.
 FSH also causes the increase of estrogen in the follicle to
be secreted by follicle.

2. Estrus – estrogen (the female sex hormone ) are now released from follicle to
acts on the cows behavior and cause her to display estrus.

Signs of Heat (Estrus)

 restlessness and sometimes bellowing and mooing.

 Clear mucus discharge
 Reddening and swelling of the vulva
Mounting other animals not in heat and allows itself to be mounted.
 Frequent urination in a very small amount.

3. Metestrus – luteinizing hormone (LH) is released from the anterior pituitary

gland.

 LH gradually softens and breaks down the wall of the follicle to

cause ovulation (release of ovum from follicle) and causes the
growth of the corpus luteum (CL or Yellow Body) at the ovulation
site.
 during this period, the level of estrogen and LH fall and corpus
luteum begin to function.

4. Diestrus – this period is predominated by the influence of progesterone from

the corpus luteum on all accessory sex structures.
 the corpus luteum develops and after 3 to 5 days produces
progesterone (pregnancy hormone).
 progesterone acts on the brain inhibiting the LH production
and sexual activity.

Progesterone causes four things to happen:

▪ the fertilized egg(embryo) is implanted in the uterus.
▪ other eggs are stopped from forming.
▪ The pregnant condition is maintained
▪The mammary gland begin to develop. The mammary glands
produce the milk to feed the young when they are born.

5. Alternative:

a. Proestrus – if the female is not pregnant, the estrus of the female

animal releases hormone–like compounds called
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prostaglandin.
 prostaglandin cause luteolysis (dissolving of the
corpus luteum). This causes cessation of
progesterone production and removes the inhibition
to sexual activity. This allows the cycle to start again.

b. Anestrus due to pregnancy

 the presence of a fetus (developing animal) inhibits
the release of prostaglandin from the uterine wall.
Because of this the corpus luteum remain and
produces progesterone which maintain the
pregnancy.

 progesterone will stop the formation and

development of new Graafian follicles in the ovaries,
resulting in a condition known as anestrus. Regular
estrous cycle can start after the termination of
pregnancy.
Other hormones

 Relaxin – is a water nonsteroid polypeptide hormone that is produced by the

corpus luteum of the ovary in the late pregnancy.

 it causes relaxation of the ligaments around the pelvis enlarging

the birth canal. It is responsible for the characteristics of “springing”
in the late pregnancy.
 Oxytocin – also known as milk let-down hormone
 is produced in the posteriors pituitary gland. Oxytocin hormone
have the following:
a. Causes milk let- down.
b. Contraction of the uterus which aids in expelling the calf at
parturition (birth) and expelling the afterbirth (placenta)
immediately after parturition.
c. Causes the contraction of uterus during mating help sperm
transport to the oviduct.

 Prolactin – is produced in the anterior pituitary gland. It action is to maintain

the corpus luteum and initiate and maintain lactation. It is also
involved in maternal pattern.

3. Pregnancy

Pregnancy otherwise known as gestation is refers to the condition of a

female while young are developing within her uterus. When the sperm and the egg
unite (fertilization), conception occurs, which is the beginning of the gestation
period. The gestation period extends from fertilization, implantation, placentation
and continued growth of the fetus. The gestation period for cattle, carabao, horse,
goat and sheep is equivalent to the incubation period in poultry. The gestation and
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incubation period of the different livestock and poultry species are presented in
Table 8.

Table 8. The gestation and incubation period of the different livestock and poultry
species

Gestation Period Poultry Incubation Period

Animal
(Days) Species ( Days) Normal
283
Cow Chicken 21
(278 289 )
336
Mare Turkey & Duck 28
(310 to 370)
148
Ewe Muscovy duck 33-35
(144 to 152)
114
Sow (110 to 116) Goose 28-32

151
Doe Guinea 26-28
(140 to 160)
MurrahBufallo Quail 16-18
317
Philippine Carabao Pigeon 18
(295 to 339)
Ostrich 42
Swan 35-40

Ovulation

Ovulation is the release of the egg cell from the ovary. The number of young
that an animal gives birth to at one time be an indication of the number of egg cells
released. The time of ovulation is usually near the end of the estrus period. Some
animals ovulate after the estrus periods.

Animals that have several young at one birth release more than one at
ovulation. These offspring are said to be fraternally related. They each come from
a different egg cell. Sometimes one egg cell divides to form two animals. These
two animals are identical.

Fertilization

Fertilization is the union of the capacitated spermatozoa and ovulated egg.

Before a spermatozoon could attach and penetrate the ovum, it has to undergo
the process of capacitation. During the process, the sperm surface components
are modified or removed by the female genital tract secretions resulting to
acrosomal activation. Sperm capacitation is believed to start at the uterus and
completed at the isthmic part of the oviduct. It takes about six hours to be
completed after the introduction of the sperm into the female tract. Once the ovum
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penetration is completed, the ovum surface undergoes changes to prevent fusion

with another spermatozoon. Afterwards, the one-cell stage or zygote is formed.

Implantation

Following fertilization, the new zygote is transported down the oviduct into
the body of uterus where implantation for cattle, carabao, goat, horse and sheep
occur while in sow occur in uterine horn. Implantation is a gradual process in farm
mammals.
Research indicates that implantation occurs 10 to 18 days after fertilization
in the ewe, 12 to 24 days after in the sow, 20 to 32 days after in the cow, and 35
to 60 days after in the mare.

Placentation

Placentation is defined as a process of the development of fetal

membranes or extra-embryonic membranes (placenta). The placenta is formed
by the fusion of the chorion and uterine mucosa. Placenta has several important
functions:
1. Transmission of nutrients from mother to young.
2. Transmission of waste products from young to mother
3. Protection of young from shock and adhesions by means of amniotic
fluid,
4. Prevention of the transmission of bacteria and other large molecular
substances from mother to young.
5. Secretion of hormone.

The placental barrier in domestic mammals prevents large molecules such

as antibodies and some of the fat- soluble vitamins (vitamin A) from passing in
large amounts from mother to young. As a general principle, blood from the fetus
never mixes with blood from the dam. The placenta consists of an arrangement
of membranes such as:

a. Amnion  is the innermost membrane, closest to the fetus.

 sometimes called as the second water bag.
 acts as a urinary and solid waste receptacle of the embryo.

b. Allantois  located between the amnion and chorion.

 sometimes called the first water bag,
acts as a urinary and solid waste receptacle of the embryo.

c. Chorion the third and the outer membrane surrounding the embryo,
amnion and allantois cavity.

an exchange of gases (carbon and oxygen)and nutrients

occurs between the blood vessels of the fetal circulation and
blood stream of the mother.
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General types of placentation among animals

a. Diffuse placenta  it consists of a simple apposition of fetal and

maternal epithelia. Sow and mare have diffuse placenta.

b. Cotyledonary placenta  the cotyledons from the fetal placenta

are attached to the caruncles of the maternal placenta
through which the uterine blood flows . A curuncles with
attached cotyledon is called placentome. Sheep, goat,
carabao and cattle have cotyledonary placentary.

4. Parturition, dystocia and lactation

Parturition

Parturition or labor, which is the act of giving birth to young marks the
termination of pregnancy. If the young are carried throughout a normal gestation,
it is full term pregnancy. Abnormally early termination of pregnancy is called
abortion, or premature birth.

Signs of approaching parturition

1. Production of colostrum, creamy or pink secretion from the udder.
2. The white stringy vaginal mucus becomes more profuse
3. The mucus plug in the cervix liquefies.
4. The female animal usually moves to a quiet spot away from the rest
of the herd.
5. Heifers, may become restless and loss their appetite.
6. The vulva swells up to six times its normal size.

Induction of Parturition
1. The fetus produces a hormone which acts on cotyledons and uterus
to release prostaglandins.

2. Prostaglandins dissolves the corpus luteum, consequently lowering

the levels of progesterone, and causing contraction of uterine
muscles.

3. Oxytocin is released in the later stages to increase the strength of

contractions.

Stages of Parturition
1. Uterine contractions occurs gradually force the water bag against
the uterine side of the cervix causing it to dilate.
2. Actual delivery of the fetus
3. Delivery of the placentation

Dystocia

Dystocia is refer to the difficulty of giving birth to young. Causes of dystocia

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are: Improper presentation , disparity or size of the dam and fetus (too large a
fetus or too small a birth canal). Pathogenic condition of the fetus that include:
hydrocephalus (water in the brain), Siamese twins and monstrosities such as
calves with two heads or extra appendages.

Lactation (period of suckling)

Lactation, the production of milk by the mammary gland, is the

distinguishing characteristics of mammals who’s young at first feed solely on milk
from their mothers.
Even after they start to eat other feeds, the young continue to nurse until
they weaned. The mammary gland serves two functions:
(1) provides nutrition to animal offspring and
(2) is a source of passive immunity to the offspring.

Estrogen cause growth of the duct system of the udder and progesterone
stimulates udder development of the milk secreting gland called alveoli. Prolactin
has a dual role. Before parturition it stimulates udder development. Afterwards it
encourages milk production. Colostrum (first milk) is a rich source of antibodies
bodies which prevent infection until the young animal builds up its own resistance
(immunity).
Suckling stimulates the release of oxytocin (milk let down hormone) to
cause contraction of the milk secreting tissues. Milk is forced into the ducts and
teats to facilitate easy removal.

Male reproductive tract

Knowledge on the reproductive organ of the male farm animals will helpful to
fully appreciate the role of male in reproduction. The reproductive organs of male
poultry is similar to male mammalian except that the testicle of poultry held within the
body cavity. Figure 14 shows the male productive organs.

The male reproductive system consists of the following:

1. Testes – are the primary male sex organ.

 the primary function of the testes is the production of
spermatozoa.
 through the process of spermatogenesis.
 the secondary function (endocrine function) of the testes is the
synthesis or production of the sex hormone , testosterone.
 testosterone is a sex drive hormone.
 testosterone is responsible for the development of the
secondary sex characteristics such as muscular development
at the rear quarters and shoulders , aggressiveness , and libido.
 the testicles is composed of the following structures:
a. Seminiferous tubules the seat of spermatozoa
productions
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b. Rete testes  structure which receives spermatozoa from
the Tubules
c. Vasa efferentia a tubules that connect the rete testes to
the epididymis .
 serves as channel of spermatozoa to the epididymis.
d. Cell of leydig which secrete testosterone , are located in
the connective tissue between the
seminiferous tubules.

2. Epididymis – the vasa efferentia (efferent ductile) converge to form the

head of the epididymis.
 the epididymis is a long, convulated or coiled tube that
consists of the head, body and tail, where the spermatozoa
from the seminiferous tubules passes through its way to the
vas deferens.
 the epididymis serves as the place where spermatozoa
mature prior to ejaculation.

3. Vas deferens – connects the epididymis to the urethra and serves as a

transportation tube that carries the sperm containing fluid
from each epididymis to the urethra in the penis.

4. Ampulla – is a thickened glandular extension of the vas deferens .

 acts a valve to prevent urination while the male is sexually
excited.
 ampulla are found in the bull, stallion , goat and ram, a farm
animals which ejaculated rapidly. It is not present in the boar.

5. Urethra – is a duct connecting the bladder to the external orifice at the

distal end of the penis which passes through the penis. It has
two functions:
a. Carrying urine for excretion from the bladder to the
external orifice.
b. Transporting semen to the reproductive tract of the
female.
 Hence, the urethra serves as a common passageway for
semen during ejaculation and urine during urination.

6. Penis – it is the organ of copulation , erection and ejaculation of the

spermatozoa.
 it is mainly composed of erectile tissue. It is composed of the root
(attachment), the body (main portion )and the enlarged free end
called the glans penis.

Accessory male reproductive organs

a. Vesicular glands (Seminal vesicles)

 the name “ seminal vesicles “ fits the stallion , the name “vesicular glands
“is more appropriate for bull , boar and ram.
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contribute nutrient for the sperm including ascorbic acid , citric , inorganic
phosphorus and fructose.
 to flush the urethra and acts as vehicles for spermatozoa transport.

b. Cowper’s gland
 this also called the bulbo-urethral glands.
 produce a viscid mucus –like substance which changes the pH of the
urethra towards neutral.

c. Prostate gland
 produces an alkaline secretion that help gives semen its characteristics
odor.

Figure 14. Male (bull) reproductive organs

Physiology in male reproduction

1. Erection

Erection of the penis is essentially an increase in the turgidity of the organ caused
by a greater inflow than outflow of the blood. In natural mating, erection is important for
the deposition of sperm in the vagina.
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2. Ejaculation

Ejaculation is a reflex emptying of the epididymis, urethra and accessory glands of

the male reproductive organ. In artificial insemination, ejaculation is very essential for
semen collection.

Muscular System

Muscular system is consist of a muscle cells. Muscle cells are often referred to as
muscle fibers or myofiber. Hence, the term “fiber” when referring to muscular tissues has
a very different meaning than when referring to the connective tissues, in which “fiber” are
extracellular substances rather than cells. There are other terms specific to muscle cell
terminology, which use prefixes myo-(muscle) and sarco-(flesh).

Component of muscle fiber

1. Myosin – is a cigar-shaped, thicker and denser strand of protein with
projections on the side referred to as myosin head.

2. Actin – is slender and lesser dense than myosin.

Types of muscles

There are three kinds of muscle found in the body, namely:

a. Skeletal muscles  also called striated voluntary muscle.
 is the largest component of red meat animal products.
 usually attached to the skeleton by tendons.
skeletal muscles are controlled by the voluntary nervous
system which mean they are under the conscious
control of mind.

b. Smooth muscles  also called smooth or unstriated involuntary muscles.

 is located in the digestive , reproductive and urinary
organs.
 smooth muscles are activated by the automatic nervous
system

c. Cardiac muscles  also called striated involuntary muscles

 is found only in the muscular wall of the heart.

Muscle functions

The functions of the muscle are as follows:

1. Pumping of blood around the body.
2. For respiration
3. Movement of extremities
4. Movement of nutrient along the gastrointestinal tract.
5. Transport of urine to the urinary bladder from the kidneys and
emptying of the bladder.
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Skeletal system

Components of the skeleton

The skeletal system of class Mammalia is compost of bones, cartilage,

teeth and joints. However, the bone is the main component of the skeletal system.
Bones are composed of calcium compounds (primarily tricalcium phosphate) and
a gelatin-like protein called ossein.

Types of skeletal systems

There are two types of rigid skeletal systems: endoskeleton and

exoskeleton. The endoskeleton is found on the inside body; the exoskeleton is
typically a hard shell on the outside of the body. Vertebrates such as farm animals
have endoskeleton while the arthropods such as insects and crustaceans
generally have exoskeleton.

Functions of the bones

1. Protection of vital organs

 the central nervous system (brain , spinal cord and nerve are protected
by the skull and vertebral column.
 heart, abdominal organs and lungs are protected by rib cages.
 internal parts of urogenital system are protected by the pelvis.

2. Giving rigidity and form to the body

 animals without a skeleton of some type have no or little regular form.
The skeleton gives the basis for external structure and appearance of
most animals.

3. Attachment site and leverage for muscular movement

 locomotion, defense , offense , grasping and other activities depends of
muscle attachment to levers. With muscle attached, the bones of the
skeleton acts as levers permitting the animal to move.

4. Storing mineral
 the entire skeleton serves as a dynamic storage area for minerals,
particularly calcium and phosphorus. These mineral are deposited and
withdrawn as needed.

Classification of bones according to gross appearance

Based on the gross appearance (shape), bones are classified as follows:

1. Long bones – also known as ossa longa (Figure 15)
 function chiefly as levers and aid in support locomotion
and prehension.
 the best examples of long bones are found in the
extremities
Examples: Pectoral Limb and Pelvic Limb.
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Figure 15. Composition of long bone.

2. Flat bones – also known as ossa plana

 function chiefly for protection of vital organs such as
the brain, heart and lungs.
Examples: sternus and skull

3. Short bones – also known as ossa brevia.

 These bone somewhat cuboid; or approximately
equal in all dimensions.
 function in absorbing concussion and they are found
in a complex joints such as the carpus (knee) and
tarsus(hock), where a variety of movement as well
as absorption of shock are desired.

4. Irregular bones – also known as ossa irregularia

 these are the bones of irregular shape. They have
various function and are not so clearly specialized.
They are unpaired.
Ex.: vertebrae and bones of cranial base (atlas)
5. Pneumatic bones – these bones contain air space or sinuses that
communicate with exterior.
 these bones are found among animals belong to
Class Aves (birds) which make lights for flight.
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Division of the body skeleton

The term skeleton applies to the framework of hard structure which support
and protects the soft tissues of the animals. This term is usually restricted to the
bones and cartilages as well as the ligaments which bind them. The three division
of the body skeleton are the axial skeleton, appendicular skeleton and visceral
skeleton. The classification of major bones in vertebrae is presented in Table 9a
while the comparison of pectoral limb and pelvic limb bones is presented also in
Table 9b.

1. Axial skeleton – this part of the skeleton includes all bones except those of
the limb or appendages. These bones give form to the
body of the animals.

This axial skeleton comprises the following:

a. Skull – this part of the skeleton which forms the basis of the head.
b. Vertebrae column – the vertebrae column is composed of median,
unpaired, irregular bones called vertebrae. The
different vertebrae are as follows:
i. Cervical vertebrae – located in the neck region.
 Atlas is the first cervical vertebrae.
 axis is the second cervical vertebrae.
ii. Thoracic vertebrae – located on the chest or shoulder region.
 this vertebrae form the basis for a dorsal
prominence known as withers.
iii. Lumbar vertebrae – located on the loin region .
 this vertebrae form the long arm of the bone in
a T- bone steak.
iv. Sacral vertebrae – this vertebrae is located in the pelvis region.
 Sacral vertebrae are round to form a single
wedge-shape bone known as sacrum.
v. Caudal (coccygeal) vertebrae – located in the tail.

c. Rib – one of a series curved bones that form a cage to enclose

support and protect the heart and lung.
rib occur in pair , articulating with the thoracic vertebrae of spinal
column at the back and with the sternus.

d. Sternum – otherwise known as breastbone.

2. Appendicular skeleton – they are pectoral limb and pelvic limb.

 pectoral limb in the front legs of the animal.
 Pelvic limb are the hind legs of the animal.

3. Visceral skeleton – consists of such bones as may be developed in the soft

tissue of certain organs or parts, such as:
• Os rostri –snout of pig
•• Os cordis - heart of cattle and sheep
••• Os penis – penis of dog
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Table 9a. Classification of major bones of an animal body

Skeletal
Name of Bone Classification
Component
Skull Group of flat & irregular bones
Axial Vertebrae Irregular bones
Ribs Modified long bones
scapula Modified long bones
humerus Long bones
radius Long bones
ulna Long bones
Pectoral carpus Group of short bone
metacarpus Long bones
first & second phalanx Long bones
third phalanx Modified short bone
digital sesamoid Short bone
illium Modified long bone
ischium Modified long bone
pubis Modified long bone
femur Long bone
Pelvic patella Short bone
Tibia Long bone
fibula Modified long bone
Tarsus Short bone
metatarsus Long bone

Table 9b. Comparison of pectoral and pelvis limb

Pectoral Limb (Front) Pelvic Limb (Hind)
Pectoral girdle (shoulder gridle) Pelvic girdle (oscoxae)
Scapula (Shoulder blade) illium
Clavicle schium
Coracoid Pubis
Humerus (arm bone) Femur (thigh bone)
Radius (forearmbone) Tibia (leg)
Ulna (forearm) Fibula (leg)
carpus (knee) Tarsus (hock)
Metacarpus (cannon) Metacarpus (cannon)
Phalanges Phalanges

Major difference between mammal and avian skeletal systems

Avian bones tends thinner, harder, and more brittle than mammalian
bones. Generally, more bones of the avian skeleton contain air spaces than do the
bones of mammals. Avian bones develop almost exclusively from cartilage over a
period of several months after hatching. The avian rib cage does not move as
much as the rib cage in mammals. The avian rib cage thus has little involvement
in breathing. The avian skull does not contain any teeth.
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Integumentary System

The word integument comes from a Latin word that means to “cover”. Integument
is the protective covering of the body and is continuous at the natural opening with mucous
surfaces of the digestive , respiratory and urogenital tract. It consists of skin, hair, hooves
and claws, horn, feather and other epidermal derivatives. Associated with the common
integument are sweat and sebaceous glands and numerous sensory nerve ending.

The most important functions of integumentary systems are listed below:

1. Protection – prevents the entry of microorganisms.

 acts as permeability barrier
 provides protection against abrasion and ultraviolet.
2. Vitamin D production – skin exposed to ultraviolet light produces
Cholecalciferol (Vit D3) that is modified in the liver and then the
kidneys to form active vitamin D.
3. Sensation – the skin contains sensory receptors for pain, touch, hot, cold but
pressure that allow response to the environment.
4. Excretion – skin glands remove small amounts of waste production (urea,
uric acid, phosphorus) but are not important in excretion.
5. Helping to regulate body temperature.

Skin
Skin is the exterior covering of the body and continuous with exterior
membranes of the respiratory, urogenital and digestive tracts.

Two main layers of skin:

1. Epidermis – the outer layer of the skin.

 protect underlying tissues against water loss, mechanical injury,
and the effects of harmful chemical.
 In farm animals, keratin is forming cow, goat and carabao horn
and bird feathers and scale. Keratin is produced by
keratinocytes cells of the epidermis.
 The epidermis contain also melanocytes , a cell which produce
melanin , a pigment responsible for the color of the skin.
 Melanin also protect the animals from the ultraviolet rays of the
sun.

2. Dermis – is the innermost layer of the skin . It lies beneath the epidermis and
contains blood vessels, nerve ending, glands, sense organs,
smooth and hair follicles. When the body needs to conserve heat on
a cold days, the blood vessels in the dermis narrow , helping to limit
heat loss. On the heat days, the blood vessels widen, warming the
skin and increasing heat loss. Beneath the dermis is hypodermis, a
layer of fat and loose connective tissue that insulates the body.
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The dermis contain two types of glands:

1. Sweat glands – also known as sudoriferous glands
 these glands produce the watery secretion known as
sweat, which contains salt water and other compounds.

The functions of the sweat glands are:

 To cool the body through the evaporation of water of the
sweat.
 To eliminate waste products in the form of sweat.

 sweating may take place with the evaporation of water

as fast as it is produced, called insensible or cutaneous
perspiration; or with the formation of droplets of liquid,
referred to as sweating.
 among farm animals , the horse sweats on the body,
the carabao and cattle on the muzzle, and the pig on the
snout while poultry do not sweat but pant.
 the sweat nerves are aroused to produced a sweat by:
 Impulses from the skin due to heat.
 Increases temperature of blood
 A change in the blood composition namely an
increase in the carbon dioxide content.
However, the main cause of sweating is increase in the temperature
of the blood.
2. Sebaceous glands – these glands produce the oily secretion known as
sebum that spread out along the surface of the
skin. Sebum, which is oily and semi-liquid,
solidifies upon exposure to air.

Sebum serves as follows:

a. to protect the skin from harmful substances
b. to impart gloss to the hairs
c. preventing the hair from becoming dry and brittle
d. making the hairs soft and supple
e. wards off moisture on the skin
f. lessens the water from the body of the animal

 sebaceous glands are connected to hair follicles except on the

eyelids , lips, glans penis , vulva.
 gerumen, a kind of sebum in the ear, discourage insects and
prevents passage of foreign bodies into the ear.

3. Accessory organ of the skin

 In poultry , accessory (modified appendages)of the skin are:

a. Comb – is the fleshy protuberance on the top of the head.

b. Wattle – usually red in color are pendulous growths of flesh at either side of
the base of the beak and upper throat.
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c. Snood – is a fleshy protuberance at the base of the upper beak found only
in the turkey.
d. Earlobe – is a fleshy patch of bare skin below each ear which vary in color ,
depending on the breed.
e. Beak , claws and spurs – are horny and keratinized structures of birds.
f. Scales – covered the exposed parts of legs and feet.

In poultry , the skin and feathers collectively form the integument;

that is the outer protection of the birds.

 In mammals, the accessory (appendages) of the skin are:

a. Hair – that grows from the skin of animals give protection from
abrasions to the skin and help keep animal warm.

Hair color of the horses

The standard color of horses includes the following:
1. Black – consist of uniformly black hairs , including the mane and tail.
2. Brown – is a modification of black with reddish hair on the muzzle, on
the flanks and under the eyes.
3. Bay – is a reddish coat with black mane and tail.
4. Chestnut – varies from somewhat golden to red, with mane and
tail of about the same color but never black.
5. Ysabella – which includes palomino , varies from a golden to it red
coat, but the mane and tail are flaxen or silver.
6. Dun – resemble a diluted bay or chestnut with black mane and tail
and a dark stripe on the dorsal midline.
7. Gray – consist of an approximately equal mixture of white and black
hairs
8. Roan – is a mixture of white hairs with some other color.
 blue roan consists mostly of white and black hairs with possibly
a small amount of some other colors.
 strawberry roan is a mixture of white hairs and chestnut hairs.
9. Pinto (Paint) – has irregular white areas alternated with color areas. If
the colored areas are black , the coat is called piebald,
but if they are any color except black , the coat is called
skewbald.

10. Albino – lack pigment both in the skin and in the hair.
 the white hair of the pinto, roan and gray indicates a partial
albino.

b. Hoof or claw  it is horny covering the distal end of the digit.

c. Ergot  a horny mass found on all four legs, embedded in the hair on the
posterior aspect of the fetlock joint.

d. Horns  these are epidermal derivatives bound together into a solid mass
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by keratin. It is supported for a variable distance by the

horn core oprocess cornus, which is a bony outgrowth of
the frontal bones of the skull.

e. Chestnut – a horny mass found on the medical aspect of the forearm

about halfway between the carpus and the elbow, and on
the medial aspect of the hindleg just below the hock of
horse.

f. Glands of the skin  sweat glands and sebaceous glands are the two
glands of the skin.

4. Body temperature regulation

The most common environmental factor that alters both performance and
nutrient requirements is temperature; thus livestock producers should be aware
of critical temperature that affect the performance of their animals and should
consider making changes in their feeding and management programs if
economics so dictate.
The temperature of the air is the primary factor that affects the efficiency of
energy use by farm animals; secondary influences include humidity,
precipitation, wind, and heat radiation. The combined effect of these factors is
referred to as effective ambient temperature (EAT). Within limits, animals attempt
to compensate for changes in the EAT by altering feed intake, metabolism, and
heat dissipation.
The comfort zone, or thermoneutral zone, is the range of effective ambient
temperature within which an animal does not have to increase normal metabolic
heat production to offset heat loss to the environment Hence, the comfort zone,
or thermoneutral zone (TNZ), identifies a range of temperatures where heat
production and heat loss from the body are equalized. Hence, the animal does
not have to adjust to the environment.
The lower critical temperature (LCT)is the temperature at which animals
will show symptoms of cold stress; feed intake increases, as does metabolic heat
production. The upper critical temperature (ULT) is the temperature at which
animals will show symptoms of heat stress; feed intake is generally lower as
animals attempt to reduce the rate of metabolic heat production when the upper
critical temperature is reached.

Classification of animals according to body temperature regulation:

1. Poikilotherm (cold blood animals) – these animals does not maintain a
relatively constant body temperature; internal body temperature changes
in respond to the environment.
This includes snakes and fishes.

2. Homeotherm(warm-blood animals) ▪includes all farm animals, maintain

constant body temperature.

Direct effects of high temperature in animals

☺Rise in rectal temperature
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☺ Decline in feed intake

☺ Increase in water intake
☺ Decrease in milk production
☺ Changes in growth and loss in bodyweight
☺ Occurrence of reproductive abnormalities (spermatogenesis; fertility)

Direct effects of high humidity

 Depresses evaporative heat loss (air temperature; air humidity; area of

evaporating surface; available water in the body; air movement)
• Reduces feed intake
• Decline in production

Direct effects of solar radiation

• Causes skin problems and irritation (sunburns; skin cancer;

photosensitive)
• Increases heat load(has significant effect on growth,
production, and reproduction)

• Other effects:
1. Light color coat – less affected
2. Standing animals – less solar effect
3. Buffaloes – more affected due to more heat absorption
4. Cattle – less affected due to loose skin.

Homeothermic mechanism of farm animals

Farm animals try to reduce heat loss in cold weather by:

a. reduce vaporization ( no sweating)
b. lowered respiration rate
c. shunting of blood from surface to deep body
 a means of heat conservation is constriction(narrowing)of
superficial blood vessels (vasoconstriction)reducing blood flow
to skin from which heat is lost via conduction, convection,
evaporation and radiation.
d. increasing in activity
 both voluntary (exercises)and involuntary (shivering)
e. production of warm coat of feather , hair or wool
f. deposition of subcutaneous fat
g. seeking protective shelter and warming solar radiation
h. increasing food intake
 consumption of great quantities of food, which, because of its
heat increment(H.I),warm animals.
j. increased thyroid activity
 when the environment is cool, the inhale air cool the thyroid
gland which cause the increase of thyroxine production by
thyroid gland. In return the increases of thyroxine stimulates
metabolic activity thus heat production in the animal body.
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The cooling mechanisms of farm animals as hot weather approaches

are listed below:
1. moisture vaporization (increasing sweating)
 moisture vaporization from the skin and respiratory passages is
the important cooling mechanism and is the only one when
environmental temperature equals or exceeds body surface
temperature.
2. avoidance of solar radiation
3. depression (decline)of thyroid activity
4. refraining from work and reducing production function (laying, lactating,
and meat production because these processes increase heat
production.

Heat Production

Heat is produced in the metabolic or chemical processes taking place in

the protoplasm of the animal body. Most of the heat is produced in the skeletal
muscles and in the glands:
1. Muscles produce 70% of the body heat
2. Liver is a gland where most heat is generated.
3. Highest temperature found in the hepatic vein.
4. Rectal temperature is the fair index of internal temperature of animals.

Sudden lowering of temperature causes the body to shiver, thereby

producing heat. The influx of hormones adrenaline and thyroxin in the body system
causes heat production.

Also, the body gains heat:

1. When hot food or hot water is swallowed;

2. By conduction , when the animal lies on the ground ; and
3. By radiation, when heat is gained from the sun rays.

Process of heat dissipation

The animal has four basic avenues of heat loss or gain:

1. Radiation, conduction , and convection – 70 % of heat is lost by these means

Radiation is the exchange of heat avenues of heat between two objects
that are not touching.
 an animal standing under the sun gain heat.
 the transfer of heat by radiation depends on:
■ the effective surface area – example posture
■ absolute temperature of the animal’s surface and of
the surrounding surfaces

 more heat is lost if the surrounding temperature is lower than

of the body.
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 if the temperature and humidity are high , less loss can be

expected.

Conduction  is the flow of heat from warm to cold objects that are touching.
 involves direct contact of the animal with a part of its
environment. Thermal energy is transferred from one
molecule to a neighboring molecule. The amount of heat
transferred its direction depends on the following:
 contacting surface are of the animals
 The difference in temperature between the anima body
and its environment; and
 Conductiveness of the contacting surfaces

 when the pig lying on cold concrete floor loses heat, however,
on warm concrete floor gain heat.

Convection  is the flow of heat from a warm area to a cooler area through
air or water.

2. Vaporization of water on the skin (sweating)in insensible perspiration

a. Water is vaporized as fast as it comes out of the skin.
b. Insensible perspiration is important in cattle, sheep, and rabbit.
c. Horse likewise sweat
d. Swine sweat at the snout
e. External temperature which causes blood distribution and
dilution of blood which favors heat loss.
f. Erection of hairs or ruffling of feathers favors conservation of
heat as still moist is trapped.

3. Vaporization of water in the lungs and respiratory passages

a. Smoke emitted by animals in cooler temperature of mountain
region
b. Loss due to heating of inspired air is small
c. Carabao pants when it is hot
d. Dog vaporizes large amount of water from the respiratory
passages
e. Sheep developed heat polypnea (shallow breathing)
f. 25% of the heat of the body of mammals is lost in this way and
from the skin
g. Chicken – 17 % heat loss

4. by the feces and urine

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Learning Activity No. 3

Conducting the identification of external parts
of the animals

Directions: Select the live animal that you are going to identify the external parts. Make
a video clips on the conduct of identification of each part of an animal
being selected by pointing the parts being identified using a stick. Upload
your video at google class code: __________.

Bases of Computing Grades for this Activity:

The bases of rating your activity can be viewed in the Rubric for the Identification of
External Parts of the Animals is found in the appendix.
You may access the rubric in the classwork using this code: _______

CRITERIA VERY GOOD FAIR UNACCEPTABLE

(10 pts.) GOOD (5 pts.)
(7 pts)

1. Organization The The The The presentation was

presentation presentation presentation difficult to follow due
was very easy to was easy to was not easy to to disorganization of
follow. follow. follow. the utterances.
2. Accuracy of Very high High accuracy Moderate Low accuracy in
the external accuracy in in identifying accuracy in identifying the
parts of the identifying the the external identifying the external parts.
animal external parts parts external parts
3. Mastery of Presenting the Presenting the Presenting the Presenting the
presentation external parts external parts external parts external parts
without looking with slightly with moderately through reading the
the prepared glance of the looking the prepared notes
notes prepared notes prepared notes
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Learning Activity No. 4

Tabulating the Organs and Their Functions of the
Different System

Directions: Tabulate the organs and their functions of the different systems of the animal
as many as you can using the table below.

System Organ Functions

Ex. Cardiovascular system Heart to pump the blood around the body

Bases of Computing Grades for this Activity:

The bases of rating your activity can be viewed in the Rubric for the Identification of
Different Systems, Organs and their Functions is found in the appendix.
You may access the rubric in the classwork using this code: ________

CRITERIA Excellent Very Satisfactory Fair Poor

(15 pts.) Satisfactory (9 pts) (6 pts) (3 pts)
(12 pts.)
91 -100 % 71 – 90% 51 – 70 % 31 – 50 % Less than 30%
1. Systems system system system system system
included included included included included
91 -100 % 71 – 90% 51 – 70 % 31 – 50 % Less than 30%
2. Organs organ organ organ organ organ included
included included included included
91 -100 % 71 – 90% 51 – 70 % 31 – 50 % Less than 30%
3.Functions function function function function function
included included included included included

Submit your work in a designated place provided by your professor, before the date as
reflected in your study schedule.
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Thank you for completing the task. If you have not

completed the task, or you have difficulty in accomplishing
the activity, please send me a message to our google class
or you may ask clarifications through a text message or
phone calls on the contact number included in your course
guide.
And now, you are ready for the assessment.

Assessment/Post test

Let’s See What You Have Learned From This Unit

Before you proceed to the next unit, take this test to find out how much you learned
about this unit. You may also view this quiz on google class using this code: _________

Name : ________________________ Score: ________

Year and Section: _______________ Date: __________

Multiple Choice.

Directions: Choose the best answer of each item below and write the letter on the space
provided before each number.

_____ 1. Reflex centers are located throughout the central nervous system and are
involved with the integration of more complex reflexes. When the animal
sneeze and cough, the reflex center involved in these reactions is the
a. Hypothalamus b. Cerebellum c. Medulla oblongata d. Cerebrum
_____ 2. Which of the following is not true about pain reception?
a. Pain receptors are bare nerve endings of sensory neurons
b. Pain could arise from visceral organs
c. Referred pain could be felt on the surface of the body
d. Diversion of attention from a painful part increases pain perception
_____ 3. Which of the following statements does not describe the similarities and
differences of muscle cells of the body?
a. Both skeletal and visceral muscles are striated
b. All muscle cells are capable of contraction or shortening of cell
c. Cardiac and visceral muscles are involuntary in action
d. All muscles are capable of undergoing hypertrophy
_____ 4. If an animal had an allergic response, what kind of white blood cells will increase
in number in response to the allergens?
a. Neutrophils b. Lymphocytes c. Eosinophils d. Basophils
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_____ 5. What will happen to a red blood cell when its bathing fluid has lower osmotic
pressure than the cell?
a. The cell will move b. The cell will shrink
c. The cell will burst d. The cell will grow
_____ 6. What part of the bone is responsible for the increase in the length of a growing
bone?
a. The epiphysis b. The epiphyseal cartilage
c. The marrow cavity d. The diaphysis
_____ 7. The cardiovascular system is composed of the blood vessels together with the
heart, the following are the functions of this system except
a. Carries oxygen to the lungs from the different tissues
b. Transports hormone
c. Assists in overcoming diseases
d. Helps maintain water equilibrium in the body
_____ 8. This type of blood circulation functions to transport nutrients from the digestive
tract to the liver
a. Pulmonary b. Systemic c. Portal d. Cardiac
_____ 9. The respiratory system is a complementary system of the cardiovascular system
which is involved in the following functions except
a. Supply oxygen to the blood and remove carbon dioxide from the blood
b. Temperature regulation
c. Elimination of water
d. Overcoming diseases
_____ 10. This hormone is responsible for the rupture of fully grown follicles in the ovary
a. Follicle Stimulating Hormone b. Luteinizing Hormone
c. Estrogen d. Progesterone
_____ 11. Which statement is not true about animals whose testis/testes failed to descend
into the scrotum?
a. A cryptorchid is liely to be sterile
b. A monorchid is fertile
c. Both cryptorchid and monorchid produce testosterone
d. Both cryptorchid and monorchid could be used as breeders
_____ 12. 6. Water is the most important constituent of the body fluids comprising 60% of
the total body weight. The following statements best described the functions
of water except
a. It functions as a lubricant
b. Helps regulate body temperature
c. Transport glandular products
d. None of the above
_____ 13. Gall bladder is absent in this animal
a. cattle b. dog c. horse d. cat
_____ 14. This is the site of fertilization in chicken
a. fimbriae b. infundibulum c. uterus d. isthmus
_____ 15. This is an animal where both testicles failed to descend to the scrotal sac
a. cryptorchid b. monorchid c. duorchid d. anestrus
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You did a great job! If you have not completed the task, or you have
difficulty in accomplishing the activity, please send me a message to our
google class, or you may ask clarifications through a text message or phone
calls on the contact number included in your course guide. You may write
your insights or thoughts about the activity on the space provided.
You had just completed this unit. You are now ready to take Unit 3.
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UNIT 3
References
ANIMAL NUTRITION

Nutrition is a relatively new science. It is an applied science that

encompasses the principles of other sciences, such as chemistry,
biochemistry, and physiology.
Animal nutrition deals with the nutritional needs of food-producing,
companion, or service animals. It is the science of preparation or formulation
of feed for animals that produce food (e.g., meat, milk) or nonfood materials
(e.g., wool). Animal nutrition also is an integrative science, as it deals with the
different steps by which the animal assimilates feed, or food, and uses it for its
growth, health, and performance (e.g., meat, milk, and egg production and
service).

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

 tracing the nutrient movement of monogastric and nonmonogastric animals

 formulating ration of the farm animals.

Pretest

Let’s See What You Already Know

Before you begin this module, take this test to find out how much you already know
about our topic. You may also view this quiz on google class using this code: ________
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PRINCIPLES AND GUIDES IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Name: _________________________ Score: __________

Year & Section: _________________ Date: ___________

Matching Type

Direction: Match the statement of column A to the correct answer in column B. Write
only the letter of the answer provided before the statement in column A.

Column A Column B

_____ 1. The food given to the animals with balance of all a. Absorption
nutrients needed by the animals with 24 b. Crude fat
hours requirement/food allowance. c. Crude fiber
_____ 2. It is the kind of food given to animals regardless d. Diet
whether balance or unbalance nutrient e. Digestion
requirements needed by the animals. f. Fructose
_____ 3. The reduction in particle size of feed so that the g. Minerals
feed becomes soluble and can pass cross the h. Proteins
gut wall into the vascular or lymph. i. Rations
_____ 4. When nutrients pass through the nucleus membrane j. Sucrose
of the digestive cavity into the blood circulation. k. True Proteins
_____ 5. A measure of the total fat in the forage. l. Vitamins
_____ 6. The protein which is composed of only amino acids.
_____ 7. It is found in fruits and honey and is the sweetest
of all sugars.
_____ 8. Otherwise known as “ table sugar”
_____ 9. These are organic compounds made up of amino
acids
_____ 10. These are organic materials needed in small amount
by animals

Thank you for answering the test.

Don’t feel bad if you got a low score. This topic helps
you understand the basic principles of animal nutrition. If you
study this module carefully, you will learn the answers to all
the items in the test and much more.
You may now start Unit 3.
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Content

A. Definition of Terms

Nutrition  is the science that deals with food or feed and the nutrients it contains.

Nutrient  a specific chemical element or compound supplied by or derived from the

diet and absorbed into the blood from the digestive tract to be used by the
body tissue to support animal life.

Feed/Feed  edible materials which are consumed by animals and contribute energy
and/or nutrients to the animal diet. Usually refers to animals rather than
man.

Feedstuff  Term given to any materials that both natural in origin and synthetically
prepared that when properly used have nutritional value in diet. Ex.
Corn, DL – Methionine, Feed supplements, and some vitamins
premixes, etc.

Ration  the food given to the animals with balance of all nutrients needed by the
animals with 24 hours requirement/food allowance.

Diet  it is the kind of food given to animals regardless whether balance or unbalance
nutrient requirements needed by the animals.

Digestion  the reduction in particle size of feed so that the feed becomes soluble and
can pass cross the gut wall into the vascular or lymph.

Absorption  when nutrients pass through the nucleus membrane of the digestive
cavity into the blood circulation.

Metabolism  the sum total of chemical changes in the body, including the “building-
up” and “breaking – down “process and the transformation by which energy
is made available for body uses.

Metabolic water  is the water produced from the nutrients (carbohydrates, fats and
protein) when metabolized in the cells.

Enzymes  A complex protein produced in living cells that causes changes in other
substances within the body without being changed itself (organic catalyst).

Acid Detergent Fiber  This value represents the fiber portion of the forage that is left
after treatment with detergent in acid conditions. Its value essentially is the
ingestible and poorly digestible portions of the plant and can thus be used
to estimate digestibility of the forage when fed.

Neutral Detergent Fiber  This value represents the fiber portion of the forage that is
left when treated with a neutral detergent. Its value is essentially the
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digestible and indigestible portions of the cell wall. Neutral detergent fiber
is inversely related to dry matter intake. This means that as the NDF in
forages increases, animals will be able to Consume less of the forage.

Crude fat  a measure of the total fat in the forage.

Lignin  is an indigestible non-carbohydrate component in forage. It increases in

forages they mature.

Non-Fiber Carbohydrate  This value approximates the carbohydrates that can be

rapidly fermented in the rumen and usually represents pectins, starches,
and sugars.

Crude Protein  The total protein in a feed ingredient estimated from the total nitrogen
measured. CP= % N x 6.25.

True Protein  That protein which is composed of only amino acids.

Non-Protein Nitrogen  Compounds which are not true protein in nature but contain
N and can be converted to protein by bacterial action (i.e. urea)

Digestible Protein  That portion of the crude protein which is the animal can digest
represented by the difference what is present in the feed and what is
appear in the feces.

Available Protein  Protein that is not damaged or bound and is available for use by
the animal.
Unavailable Protein  Protein that is unavailable to the animal. Heat damaged
protein is found in this fraction.

Neutral Detergent Crude Protein  This is protein that is contained within the neutral
detergent fiber of the forage. Typically this fraction contains the slowly
digested protein and the bound or unavailable protein.

Soluble Protein  This protein is completely soluble (dissolves) in the rumen and is
rapidly converted ammonia.

Degradable Protein  The portion of the protein that is degraded in the rumen.

Total Digestible Nutrients  This is a measure of the total digestible energy in the
forage.
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B. Composition of Plants and Animals

Plant and animal tissues are composed of water, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids
(including fats and related substances), vitamins, and mineral matter. Plants contain
the same substances as animals but in different amounts. The main difference
between plants and animals is that plants usually contain only traces. The cell walls of
plants are controlled largely of fibrous carbohydrates; cell membranes of animals
consist mostly of proteins. Plants generally store their reserve food as starch, animals
store theirs as fats. Animals depends on plants for energy; plant derive energy from
the sun and manufacture certain nutrients that cannot be manufactured by animals.

C. Nutrients

c.1. Classes of nutrients

Nutrient are divided into six classes:
(1) carbohydrates
(2) fats and oil )
(3) proteins
(4) vitamins
(5) minerals and
(6) water.

1. Carbohydrates

 the main energy nutrient found in animal ration.

 made up of sugars, starches, cellulose and lignin.
 chemically composed of carbon , hydrogen and oxygen, the latter two in the
proportion of water.
 provide energy for the cells. This energy powers muscular movement such as
the heartbeat, walking, breathing and digestive contractions.

Carbohydrates are classified into two:

a. Monosaccharides – are water soluble and they are simple sugars containing
five (pentose)or six(hexose) carbon in the molecules.
However, the hexose are more common and more important
in animal nutrition than other monosaccharide.

Hexoses includes the following:

i. Glucose – is the simplest of all sugars and is found in a low concentration

in plant materials. It is also the major energy source found in
animal’s blood.
 it is sometimes referred to as dextrose. It is about ¾ as sweet
as cane sugar.
ii. Fructose is found in fruits and honey and is the sweetest of all sugars.
iii. Galactose  is obtained from the breakdown of the disaccharides lactose.
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b. Disaccharides  are formed by the chemical combination of two molecules of

monosaccharide with the elimination of one molecules of water.

The most common disaccharides are:

i. Sucrose – otherwise known as “ table sugar”

▪ combination of glucose and fructose
▪ found in cane sugar, beet sugar and maple sugar.
▪ is very sweet and is commonly used to sweeten foods.

ii. Lactose – otherwise known as “ milk sugar”

▪ is only found in the milk or milk products.
▪ it contain one molecule of glucose and one of galactose.

iii. Maltose – Otherwise known “ malt sugar”

▪ is found in germinating seeds and contain two molecules of
glucose.

c. Polysaccharides – are made up of numerous of simple sugars.

Polysaccharides usually regarded as important in animal nutrition and

classified into:

i. Starch – stored energy of the plants. Starch is a major component of most

livestock (especially ration for fattening) and is highly digestible.
Hence, it is a primary energy source for livestock.

Starch hydrolyzes as follows:

Starch + H2 O  Dextrin + H2O  Maltose + H2O  1 glucose + 1 glucose

ii. Glycogen  is sometimes referred to as animal starch.

 is found in small amounts in liver, muscle and other tissues
of an animal’s body.
 The primary carbohydrates reserve in the animal. It is
hydrolyzes entirely in glucose.

iii. Cellulose – is build by the plant to provide structure to the stems and
leaves. Therefore, it is found largely in the cell walls of the plant.
Cellulose is a principal constituents of the cell wall of the plants.
It is most abundant in the more fibrous feeds.
However, cellulose provides an excellent sources of
energy when the enzyme, cellulose, is present, as found in the
digestive system of all ruminants. It is slightly digested by hogs
Cellulose can be hydrolyzed by special processes to glucose.

iv. Hemicellulose – it is used to denote a group of substances, which

chemically lie between sugars and starch on the one
hand and cellulose on the other. Most of such
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substances are more digestible than cellulose but less
digestible than sugars and starch. Hemicelluloses are
widely distributed in forages crops and certain other
materials frequently used for feeding purposes.

v. Lignin – it is largely found in over mature hays, straws and hulls. It is

essentially indigestible by all livestock. It may also reduce the
digestibility of other nutrient. Lignin is no known nutritive value
except as a bulk factors.

Lipids

Lipids are group of compounds which are insoluble in water but soluble in certain
organic solvents such as ether, benzene and chloroform. They are made up of fatty
acids and glycerol or some other alcohol which are chemically bound together by
esters.
Fats and oils are lipids. They are chemically composed of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen. They contain more carbon and hydrogen atoms than do carbohydrates. For
this reason, energy value of fats is higher than that of carbohydrates. In fact, fats have
2.25 times the energy value of carbohydrates. Fats are solid at room temperature, and
oils are liquid at body temperature. In animal nutrition, both fats and oils are commonly
referred to as fats. Fats and oils are the two most important lipids in animal nutrition
and are part of a group of organic compounds known as lipids. These compounds will
not dissolve in water but will dissolve in certain organic solvents such as ether,
chloroform and xylene. Besides fats and oils, lipids also include cholesterol. Fats are
found in both plants and animals. They serve as concentrated storage places for
energy. Oil within seeds such as peanuts and soybeans is an example of plant fats.
Fats serve the purpose of providing energy for the animal and of storing excess
energy. When an animal consumes more energy (especially in the form of fats) than
it needs to provide for all the needed bodily functions, the excess is stored in the form
of fat. When the body does not take in enough energy to perform the normal bodily
functions, these reserves of fat are used. Fats aid in the absorption of vitamin A,
carotene and calcium.

Proteins

Proteins are organic compounds made up of amino acids. Amino acids contain
carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen. Some amino acids also contain sulfur, phosphorus,
and iron. Protein is the only organic nutrient that contain nitrogen, a reason why feeds
are analyzed for the percent nitrogen in the feeds, with the percent multiplied by 6.25
to convert it to percent protein. If for example, a feed is 3 % nitrogen, 100 grams of
the feed contain 3 grams nitrogen. Multiplying 6.25 x 3 grams gives 18.75 %, meaning
that 100 grams of this feed contain 18.75 % grams of protein. Protein’s supply
material to build body tissues. The ligaments, hair, hooves, horns, skin, internal
organs, and muscles of the animal body are partially formed from protein. Protein is
essential for fetal development in pregnant animals. If an animal takes in more protein
than it needs, the nitrogen is separated and given off in the urine. The material that is
left is converted into energy or body fat by the animal.
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Based on the chemical nature, structure, shape and solubility, proteins are
classified as:

1. Simple proteins: They are composed of only amino acid residue. On hydrolysis
these proteins yield only constituent amino acids. It is further divided into:
o Fibrous protein: Keratin, Elastin, Collagen
o Globular protein: Albumin, Globulin, Glutelin, Histones
2. Conjugated proteins: They are combined with non-protein moiety.
Example: Nucleoprotein, Phosphoprotein, Lipoprotein, Metalloprotein etc.
3. Derived proteins: They are derivatives or degraded products of simple and
conjugated proteins. They may be:
o Primary derived protein: Proteans, Metaproteins, Coagulated proteins
o Secondary derived proteins: Proteosesn or albunoses, peptones,
peptides.

Amino acids are organic compounds that combine to form proteins. Amino acids
and proteins are the building blocks of life.

When proteins are digested or broken down, amino acids are left. The animals
uses amino acids to make proteins to help the body:

 Break down food

 Grow
 Repair body tissue
 Perform many other body functions

Amino acids can also be used as a source of energy by the body.

Amino acids are classified into three groups:

 Essential amino acids

 Nonessential amino acids
 Conditional amino acids

Essential amino acids

 Essential amino acids cannot be made by the body. As a result, they must come
from food.
 The 9 essential amino acids are: histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine,
phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine.

Nonessential amino acids

Nonessential amino acids are needed by the animals, but are synthesized in the
body from the other amino acids and therefore do not have to be provided in the ration
for either ruminant or non-ruminant animals. Non ruminant animals cannot synthesize
the essential amino acids fast enough to meet their needs; therefore, those amino acids
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must be provided in their rations. Ruminants can generally synthesize the essential
amino acids by rumen bacterial action at a rate sufficient to meet their needs.

Nonessential amino acids include: alanine, arginine, asparagine, aspartic acid,

cysteine, glutamic acid, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine, and tyrosine.

Conditional Amino Acids

 Conditional amino acids are usually not essential, except in times of illness and
stress.
 Conditional amino acids include: arginine, cysteine, glutamine, tyrosine, glycine,

Vitamins

Vitamins are considered to be micronutrients. This means that the body needs
them in very amounts. Even though only small amounts are required, vitamins are
essential for life. They are essential for the development of normal body processes of
growth, production, and reproduction. They are also vitally important in providing the
animal with the ability to fight stress, disease, and to maintain good health.
Some animals are able to synthesize certain vitamins in their body tissues. Other
vitamins cannot be created by the animal from other nutrients and must be obtained from
the diet or by microbial synthesis in the digestive system.

Vitamins are divided into two groups:

1. Fat soluble vitamins – are vitamins that can be dissolved in fat.

a. Vitamin A – otherwise known as “ Antixerophthalmic vitamin

 is essential for the formation of retinal pigments needed for
vision. This vitamin is necessary for the maintenance of
healthy epithelial tissue throughout body.

deficiency of vitamin A results in nights blindness (nyctalopia),

degeneration of epithelia, excessive cornification of stratified
squamous epithelium, and increased susceptibility to infections
because of abnormal functions of adrenal cortex.

 vitamin A is not found in feeds , but it is converted by the animal’s

from the provitamin carotene , which is found in green, leafy
forages from pastures, hay, silage, and dehydrated legumes.
Other sources are yellow corn, fish liver oils, and whole milk.
Vitamin A can be stored in fats and the liver for several months,
to be used forage quality is low or stress conditions increase the
body’s demand for vitamin A.
supplementation is usual for ruminants and swine.

b. Vitamin D  is sometimes referred to as the “ Sunshine Vitamin “ since both

animal and plant sources depend on ultraviolet light to make a
form of Vitamin D.
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 Also called as “ Anti rachitic vitamin “

 there are two forms of vitamin D mainly :
1. Vitamin D 2 (Ergocalciferol)

 is plant product formed by ultraviolet irradiation of plant

ergosterol.

2. Vitamin D 3 (Cholecalciferol )  is synthesis in the skin from

irradiation of 7- dehydrocholesterol by ultraviolet.

 Vitamin D has three primary effects:

i. It regulates the absorption of calcium and phosphorus
from the intestine.
ii. It can cause the resorption of calcium from the bones.
iii. It increases the excretion of phosphate from the
kidneys.

Deficiency of the vitamin causes rickets in all species.

c. Vitamin E  otherwise known as “Anti sterility vitamin”

 also known chemically as “ Tocopherols “

 Vitamin E is necessary for normal reproduction of both the male
and female. Deficiency of vitamin E can result in degeneration of
germinal epithelium in the male and resorption of embryo in the
female of those mammalian species that are dependent of vitamin
E.

 vitamin E also acts as an antioxidant which prevent auto-oxidation

of unsaturated fatty acids that will results to rancidity.

this vitamin occurs naturally in animal and plant fats and oils,
especially wheat germ.

d. Vitamin K Otherwise known as “Anti-hemorrhagic vitamin “.

 this vitamin is essential for prothrombin formation and blood

clotting . Deficiency of vitamin K results in hemorrhages because
of the failure of the blood to clot.

2. Water-soluble vitamins are vitamins that can be dissolved in water.

Water–soluble vitamins includes the following:

The vitamin that are soluble in water includes the ascorbic acid (vitamin
C), which is apparently required only in the diets of primates and guinea pigs,
and the B –complex , which required only in the diets of monogastric animals.
The ability of the ruminant to use microbiologically synthesized B- complex
vitamins.
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a. Vitamin B- complex includes the following :

1. Vitamin B 1 (Thiamine )

Functions:
 coenzymes in energy metabolism.
 promote normal appetite and digestion.
 helps keep the nervous and prevent irritability.

Deficiency symptoms:
Beriberi in human
Chastek paralysis in foxes
 Reproductive failure in horses.

2. Vitamin B 2 ( Riboflavin )

Functions:
 Forms a part of two flavoprotein coenzymes (Flavin
Mononucleotide and Flavin Adenosine Dinucleotide)
 Role in energy transfer (helps cells use oxygen)
 Protein metabolism of xanthine oxidase.
 Helps keep skin healthy.

Deficiency symptoms:
 Curled-toe paralysis in the chick
 Retarded growth
Dermatitis
 Diarrhea and legs troubles in pigs

3. Pantothenic acid

Functions:
this vitamin forms part of coenzyme –A , which is essential for
nutrients to enter the tricarboxilic acid cycle in metabolism.

Deficiency symptoms:
 “Goose-stepping” in pigs – also digestive disorders and
unhealthy appearance.

4. Niacin (Nicotinic acid or nicotinamide)

Functions:
 plays a role in carbohydrates absorption and metabolism.
 tryptophan is used in the synthesis of niacin by both mammals
and microorganisms.

Deficiency symptoms:
” black tongue” in dogs and pellagra in man.
 Swollen tongue and dermatitis are the early symptoms in swine.
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5. Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine, pyridoxamine and pyridoxal)

Functions:
 important for protein metabolism. Tryptophan will not completely
metabolized in the absence of Vitamin B 6

Deficiency symptoms:
 Retarded growth, dermatitis and hypochromic anemia in pigs.

6. Vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin)

Functions:
 Involved in propionic acid metabolism
 Involved in red blood cell maturation.

Deficiency symptoms;
causes anemia because of failure of red blood cells to mature.

7. Folic acid
Functions:
 Nucleoprotein metabolism through the synthesis of purines and
thymine

Deficiency symptoms:
 Retarded growth and anemia

8. Biotin
Functions:
 fat synthesis , Functions in enzyme system.
 involved in the formation of urea, fatty acids and purines.

Deficiency symptoms:
perosis in chicks, dermatitis, loss of hair , disturbances of nervous
systems

9. Choline
Functions:
 component of phospholipids
 Essential in building and maintenance of cell structure
 Transmissions of nerve impulse
 Fat metabolism in the liver

10. Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)

Functions:
Collagen formation, Hydrogen transport (activation of folic acid)
Acts as a tissue catalyst (aids in healing)
 Antioxidant
Deficiency symptoms;
 Scurvy – slow wound healing
Spongy gums
 Hemorrhaging , Anemia , loss of teeth.
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Mineral

Minerals are organic materials needed in small amount by animals. Minerals

contain no carbon. Thus, if a feed were completely burned, the ash that was left would
be the mineral content of the feed. Minerals are divided into two major group. The
macromineral and micromineral are required by animal in larger amounts and
micromineral or trace mineral required in smaller amount. The functions and deficiency
symptoms of macromineral and micromineral are presented in Table 10a and Table 10b
respectively.

Table 10a. The Macrominerals: their functions and deficiency symptoms

Minerals Functions Deficiency symptoms
Bone and Teeth Rickets - a disease of
formation, blood clotting, disturbed ossification of the bones
enzyme activation, muscle caused by lack of vitamin D or
contraction unbalanced calcium/phosphorus
Calcium
ratio (common to young animals)
Phosphorus
Osteomalacia – A condition
marked by softening of the bones,
pain, tenderness, muscular
weakness, and loss of weight.
Enzymes activator, Anorexia (lowered appetite),
constituent of skeletal tissue muscular twisting, Tetany
Magnesium
(convulsions), Opisthotonos
(muscle spasms)
Maintenance of Loss of weight, craving for
osmotic pressure of body salt, eating of soil, reduce appetite.
Sodium
fluids; component of bile,
which aids in fat digestion.
Maintenance of Heart lesions, loss of weight,
Potassium electrolyte balance, enzyme reduced appetite, muscle
activator weakness, poor wool growth
Acid – Base relations, Craving for salt , reduced
maintenance of osmotic appetite , decrease blood chloride
pressure of body fluids, used level
Chlorine
to make Hydrochloric acid
(HCl), necessary for
digestion.
Synthesis of amino Slow growth, low feed
acids in ruminant efficiency, slow wool growth in
(component of sulfur – sheep
Sulfur
containing amino acids:
cysteine and methionine and
vitamins Biotin and Thiamine
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Table 10b. Microminerals: their functions and deficiency symptoms

Micromineral Function Deficiency Symptoms
Component of Nutritional anemia, thumps in
Iron hemoglobin, component of pigs, loss of appetite
many enzyme systems
Erythropoiesis Diarrhea, osteomalacia (in
(formation red blood cell), mature cattle), bleached hair and
Copper coenzymes, reproduction, wool, ataxic gait, anemia aortic
collagen and elastin rapture in swine and poultry
synthesis, iron synthesis
Synthesis of thyroxine Enlarge neck in calves and
lambs, goiter, hairless pigs and
Iodine
woolless newborn lambs, dead or
nonviable calves
Component of Loss of appetite, weakness,
Vitamin B12, Red Blood Cell emaciation, rough hair coat, anemia,
Cobalt
Formation, proper function of reproductive failure
rumen microorganisms
Prevent Retarted growth, anorexia,
parakeratosis, promotes parakeratosis in swine, hypekeratosis
Zinc
wound healing in chicks, poor feathering, poor
hatchability
Enzyme activator Perosis (slipped tendons) in
influencing estrus, ovulation, poultry, lowered hatchability and
Manganese
fetal development, growth eggshell strength, lameness, stiffness
and skeletal development
Destroys peroxides; Necrosis of liver, white muscle
related to vitamin E, which disease in sheep ; “Alkali Disease” or
prevents peroxide formation. “blind staggers” (excess, above 5
In vitamin E absorption and ppm)
Selenium
utilization, Work together with
Vitamin E in the maintenance
of normal cell functions and
membrane health
Enzyme systems. Excess; diarrhea loss of
Molybdenum Affects copper absorption weight, emaciation
and availability to tissues
1 to 2 ppm in water Excess: chalky and mottle
Fluorine added to aid in preventing teeth (fluorine)
tooth decay

Water

Water makes up the largest part of most living things. The amount of water in
animal’s body varies with the kind of animal, its age, and its condition. In general, the
amount of water in animal bodies ranges from 40 to 80 percent. Younger animals have a
higher percent or water in their bodies than older animals. The important functions of the
water are as follows:
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a. I t helps to dissolve the nutrients (digestion) the animal eats.

b. It also helps to control the temperature of the animal’s body.
c. Water in the blood acts as a carrier of the nutrients to different parts of the
animal’s body.
d. Necessary for many of the chemical reaction that take place in the body.
A flesh, clean supply of water is necessary for animals to grow and produce
profitability. A continuous supply is best for rapid growth and efficient production. If
animals do not have a good water supply, they will not make good use of other nutrients
supplied in the ration. Animals can live longer without food than they can without water.

Classification of Feedstuff

a. Concentrate Feeds – are feed materials usually having low moisture and fiber
content (less than 18%) with relatively high digestibility

Concentrates are classified into:

i Basal (carbonaceous) concentrates- those feed materials rich in energy (less
than 20 % CP)
Example: Cereal grains- yellow com, rice bran D1, sorghum, barley, oats
wheat, pollard
Root cropss - cassava, gabi, camote
OilFats - coconut oil, fish oil, tallow
Molasses- sugarcane molasses
ii. Protein concentrates - those feed materials ether pure or mixed rich in protein
either plant and animal origin (more than 20% CP)
Example: Plant protein – soybean meal, peanut meal, cotton seed meal,
Copra
meal, ipil-ipil leaf meal, suntlower seed meal, rubber
seed meal, etc.
Animal protein – meat and bone meal, blood meal, feather meal
tankage, skim mik, animal waste.
Marine protein – fish meal, shrimp meal
Single cells protein – produced by yeast or bacteria
Non-protein nitrogen – urea may be fed to ruminants but not for
swine and poultry
 Biuret is a mixture of the nitrogen compounds resulting from
controlled pyrolysis (chemical change due to heat) of urea.

iii. Minerals and Vitamins Supplements

Minerals (Macro) - Limestone, Oyster Shell, Bone meal, Dicalcium
Phosphate, Tricalcium phosphate, Mono Dicalcium phosphate,
calcium bicarbonate, salt;
Minerals (Micro) are either pure or synthetic preparation which are
commercially available in premixes.
Vitamins – are either pure or synthetic preparations which are available
commercially in premixes.
Feed additives (non-nutritive feed) – feed ingredients with no nutrient value
added usually in small quantity to the basic feed mix for the
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purpose of fortifying to improve its digestion and utilization.

Examples: antibiotics, prebiotics, probiotics, anti-oxidants,
hormones, enzymes, mold inhibitors, flavoring, coloring, toxic
binder, pellet binder and acidifier.

b. Roughage – are feed materials with higher proportion of fiber or non-digestible

material (more than 18% ) with relatively poor digestibility.

Roughages are classified into:

1. Degree of water
(a) Succulent roughages-high in water content and more digestible
Soilage – green fodder that are cut by human and feed to the animal
fresh.
Pasture – green fodder/grass that are grazed by the animal in the
field.
 Establishment: cleaning or clearing, land preparation (plowing,
harowing, furrowing), planting, care and management (weeding,
fertlizer application), harvesting (cut and carry or grazing or
tethering).
Some pasture species (grass or legumes)
Source: www.tropicalforages.info
Napier grass - Pennisetum purpureum
Guinea grass - Panicum maximum
Para grass - Brachiaria mutica
Signal grass - Brachiaria decumbens
Star grass - Cynodon plectostachyus
Bagocboc - Themeda triandra
Cogon - Imperata cyclindrica
Alabang x - Andropogon nodosus
Centrosema -Centrosema pubescens
Kudzu - Pueraria phaseoloides
Calopogonium - Calopogonium muconoides
Stylo - Stylosanthes guyanensis
Siratro - Macroptilium atropurpureum
Pintoi peanut - Arachis pintoi
pil-ipil - Leucaena leucocephala
Kakawate - Glyricidia sepium
Madre de agua - Tricanthera gigantea
Indigofera - Indigofera spicata or l. schimperi
Sesbania - Sesbania seban, S. grandiflora, S. rostrata
Calliandra - Calliandra calothyrsus
Rensonii - Desmodium cinereum
Flemengia - Flemingia macrophylla

 Silage – grass or crop residues that are being process (compressed

and stored under anaerobic condition in a container called a silo)
thru fermentation before being fed to animals.

b. Dry roughages – contain less water content

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Hay – are either grasses or legumes consisting of the leaves, flowers
and stems being cut and cured either by sun or air drying; by
dehydrating green forage to a moisture content of 15% or less.
Straw – are mostly from cereal crop residues which contain high
percentage of ingestible fiber and are low in digestible
carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins and minerals.

2. Level of contents
a. Proteinaceous roughages – contain more than 10% CP (dry matter
basis); made up primarily of legumes and some immature grass.
b. Carbonaceous roughages – contain less than 10% CP (dry matter
basis); made up primarily of non legumes and low-quality
roughages.

Digestive System

Functions of digestive system

Animals obtain substances needed for all body functions from the feeds they
eat and liquids they drink. Before the body can absorb and use them, feeds must
undergo a process called digestion which occurs in the digestive system. Thus the
functions of the digestive system are ingestion, grinding, digestion and absorption of
feed, and elimination of solid waste.

Digestive tract of the farm animals (Livestock)

The digestive tract, sometimes referred to as alimentary tract, is the passage

from the mouth to the anus through which feed passes following consumption as it is
subjected to various digestive processes. The digestive tract of the pig, horse and
cattle are presented in Figure 16, 17 and 18. The digestive system is made of a number
of parts or organs namely: mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine and large
intestine, and the accessory digestive organs such as salivary gland, liver, and
pancreas. The capacities of digestive systems vary greatly among different species of
animals.

Figure 16. Digestive system of pig

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Figure 17. Digestive system of horse

Figure 18. Digestive systems of cattle

1. Mouth – where the digestive systems begins and where the food enters the
animal’s body. Associate structure of the mouth include tongue, teeth,
lips and salivary glands.
Functions of the oral cavity (mouth) and associated structures includes:
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a. Serve as the organ of prehension.

Prehension is defined as the act of bringing foods into the mouth.
 Cattle/ carabao used tongue in obtaining the food.
 Sheep used their parted upper lips to graze close the ground.
 Horse, sheep and goat used their lips in obtaining the food.
 Chicken used their pair of beak in picking their feed.

b. Site of mastication
Mastication is the mechanical grinding of the feed in the mouth.
 Mastication is usually follows prehension. The teeth are used
for grinding the feed into smaller sizes

c. Site of insalivation
Saliva acts as a lubricant and enzymatic digestion of carbohydrates
which is produce from salivary gland of the mouth.

d. Organ of defense and offensive mechanism

Teeth and horn have been used by the animals to protect
themselves and their offspring (young).

Teeth may be classified according to permanence, according to

manner of growth and according to diet and function.

i. According to permanence:
a. temporary or milk teeth – present at birth or shortly afterwards
and persist from a few weeks to several years.
b. adult or permanent teeth – replace the milk teeth and usually
persist throughout the life of the animal.

ii. According the manner of growth:

a. true teeth – occurs in carnivores , omnivores and in the
incisors of ruminant.
b. constantly growth teeth – these teeth continue to grow
throughout the life of the animal not possess a definite
root or neck
Ex. : tusks of swine and incisors of rodents
c. constantly erupting teeth – a these teeth possess extremely
long roots and no definite neck
Ex.: entire dentition of equines and the cheek teeth of
ruminants.

iii According to function and diet:

 cutting teeth (incisors)
 tearing or seizing teeth (canines)
 grinding or shearing (premolars and molars)

2. Pharynx – is a funnel-shaped musculo-membranous organ which is common

passageway for food and air.
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3. Esophagus – the esophagus or gullet is a tubelike passage from the mouth to

the stomach.
 is a muscular tube extending from the pharynx to the cordia of the
stomach.
 passage of food.

4. Stomach – receives the feed and adds, chemical that help in the digestive process.
 main site of digestion. The summary of digestion are present in
Table 11a and Table 1b
 digestion is the process of breaking feed down into simple
substances that can be absorbed by the body.

Based on the stomach, farm animals are classified as:

a. Monogastric (simple stomach) animals
Examples: pig, dog, monkey, human
b. Polygastric (compound stomach) animals
Examples: cattle, carabao, sheep and goat
c. Avian (poultry stomach)animals
Examples: chicken, turkey, duck, etc.
d. Pseudo-ruminant animals (with functional cecum)
 Examples: horse, rabbit, guinea pig.

5. Small intestine – is a long folded tube attached to the lower end of the stomach.
 is the main site for nutrient absorption .
Absorption refers to taking the digested parts of the feed into bloodstream.
 the small intestine is divided into three parts: duodenum,
jejunum and ileum.
 duodenum is the first part of the small intestine and closely
attached to the stomach and contains the pancreas.
 jejunum is the second part of the small intestine
 ileum is the last part of the small intestine

6. Large intestine – is larger in diameter but much shorter in length than small
intestine.
 site of the excretion of solid materials.
 it is consist of the cecum , colon , and descending parts. The
descending colon terminates as the rectum and anus.
 solid materials(feces/manure)is voided through the anus.
 anus has a sphincter, which is under voluntary control so that
defecation can be prevented by the animal until it actively
engages in the process.
 the horse has the largest and most complex large intestine of
any domestic animals in which much fermentation occurs.
 horse, cattle, carabao ,swine, goat and sheep has one cecum
while the poultry species have two cecum.
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Table 11a. Summary of digestion

Location/Source Digestive Juice Enzyme/Secretion Action/Function
Mouth
Saliva Salivary Amylase Acts on starch/ change to maltose
(Salivary Glands)
Microorganism act on protein/
nonprotein nitrogen to form
essential amino acids.
Starch/ sucrose/cellulose to form
volatile fatty acids (mainly
Rumen &
acetic, propionic, butyric,
Reticulum
methane, carbon dioxide, and
heat.
Fat to form fatty acids and
glycerol.
Glycerol to propionic acid.
Grinds and squeezes
Omasum
feed/removes some liquid.
Stomach/ Hydrochloric acid Stops action of salivary amylase.
Abomasum in Pepsin Acts on protein/change to
Ruminants/ proteases, polypeptides and
Proventriculus in peptides.
Gastric juice
Avian(Wall of Acts on milk/curdles the casein
Rennin
stomach)
Acts on fats/forms fatty acids and
Gastric lipase
glycerol.
Gizzard in avian Grinds and mixes feed
Acts on proteins, proteases,
polypeptides, and peptides/
Pancreatic Trypsin and
produces, proteases,
juice chymotrypsin
peptones, peptides, and
Small intestine
amino acids.
(Pancreas)
Pancreatic Acts on starch/change to maltose
Amylase Acts on fat/forms glycerol, fatty
Pancreatic lipase acids, and monoglycerides
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Table 11b. Summary of digestion

Digestive Enzyme/
Location/Source Action/Function
Juice Secretion
Acts on peptides/ forms peptides and
amino acids.
Bile Carboxypeptidase Acts on peptides/ forms peptides and
amino acids
Intestinal Acts on remaining proteins,
Peptidase proteases, peptones, and
(formerly called peptides/ produces amino acids.
Small Intestine erepsin)
(Pancreas)
(Liver) Acts on maltose /changes to
Maltase
glucose.
(Intestinal wall) Intestinal Acts on sucrose/changes to
Sucrase
juice glucose and fructose.
Acts on lactose/changes to glucose
Lactase and galactose
Acts on nucleoproteins/forms
nucleotides, nucleosides,
Nucleotidase
purines, pyrimidines,
phosphoric acids
Bacterial action digests
Cecum in horse roughage
Acts on cellulose/forms
Volatile fatty acids.
Large intestine Cellulase Some digestion continues as material
moves from the small intestine
to the large intestine

Digestive tract of the chicken (Poultry)

The digestive tract of chicken is presented in Figure 19. The different digestive
organs of the chicken and other poultry species are:
1. Beak and tongue – the beak is consists of the upper and lower mandible.
 tongue is pointed and has a barblike projections at its rear to
enable feed particles to be forced back toward the entrance
of the gullet.
 Beak and tongue are the organ of prehension for chicken ,
turkey, quail, guinea fowl and ostrich.

 Bill and tongue are the organ of prehension for duck, goose,
and swan.
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 Beak and bill are considered as the mouth of the chicken

and duck respectively.
 picks up the feed , and to a certain extent helps in cutting it
into small pieces.

2. Gullet and crop – gullet or esophagus . is an elastic tube leading from the
pharynx at the floor of the mouth to the crop and from the
crop to the proventriculus.
 gullet is lubricated internally by mucous glands.
 crop is the enlargement of the gullet and serves as a storage
pouch in which the food is stored and softened as long as
the proventriculus is in action and ventriculus is full.
 stores and softens the feed.

3. Proventriculus – otherwise known as glandular stomach.

 it is the extension of the gizzard for additional stomach .
 secretes gastric juice (hydrochloric acid) and an enzyme
(pepsin) which acts on the protein feeds for easy digestion
and because of this secretions proventriculus is considered
as the true stomach of the chicken and other poultry species.

Figure 18. Digestive tract of chicken

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4. Gizzard – important organ serving to grind the feed and in the presence of grit
the gizzard grinds or crushes coarse feed particles grit remain in the
gizzard until reduced to a fine ash.
 with the acid of the gravel, the gizzard grinds the feed.

5. Small intestine – the main site of nutrient absorption.

 it is divided into three parts: duodenum, jejunum and ileum.

6. Large intestine – it is consist of the cecum , colon , and descending parts. The
descending colon terminates as the rectum, cloaca and anus.
 ceca is a two blind pouches, the ceca is located at the juncture
of the small intestine and the rectum.
 rectum serves as a receptacle for fecal matter until it is ready to
be excreted into cloaca.
 cloaca is divided into three parts: coprodaeum, urodaeum and
the proctodaeum.
 from cloaca the fecal matter passes to the anus.
 anus where the feces are voided out.


Accessory digestive organs

The accessory digestive organs include the following:

1. Salivary gland – the chief salivary glands are parotid, mandibular and
sublingual .
 responsible for the production of saliva which serves as a lubricant.
 partial digestion of carbohydrates occurs due to the salivary
amylase. In the saliva.

2. Liver – this is the largest gland of the body.

The liver has the following functions:
a. to secrete bile
b. to deaminize amino acids
c. to render toxic compound non-poisonous.
d. to vitamin A
e. to utilize fat and convert it into energy.
f. To form blood protein.

3. Gall bladder – this organ which is attached to the liver stores the bile
synthesized by the liver. The horse does not have gall bladder.
 The bile is a thick fluid of greenish or brown –yellow color with
a bitter taste. The bile has the following functions:
 to aid the emulsification of fat.
 to help in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins.
 to render the fatty acids more soluble and more easily
absorbed.
4. Pancreas – this gland attached within the duodenal loop that secretes the
pancreatic juice. It also function as endocrine gland secreting
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insulin and glucagon. Insulin removes glucose from the blood

whereas glucagon has an anti-insulin activity.

Stomach of the farm animals

Non ruminant stomach

In the non ruminant stomach is subdivided into cardia (entrance), fundus,

Body and pylorus (termination). The cardia and pylorus are sphincters which
control the passage of food through the stomach.
When feed enters either the stomach of the nonruminant or the abomasum
of the ruminant gastric juice begins to flow. This fluid comes from glands in the wall
of the stomach. The gastric juice contain 0.2 to 0.5 percent hydrochloric acid. It
stops all action of amylase when it mixes with the feed. The gastric juice contains
0.2 to 0.5 percent hydrocholoric acid. It stop all action of amylase when it mixes
with the feed. The gastric juice contains additional enzymes called pepsin, rennin,
and gastric lipase. These enzymes act on the feed in the following ways. Pepsin
breaks the proteins in the feed into proteoses and peptones. The casein of the
milk is curdled by the rennin. Emulsified fats splits by the gastric lipase into glycerol
and fatty acids. However, most of the fat entering the stomach is not emulsified.
Thus, gastric lipase has little to do in the digestion process.
The muscular walls of the stomach churn and squeeze the feed. Liquid are
pushed on into the small intestine. Gastric juice then acts on the solids that remain
in the stomach.

Ruminant stomach

The four parts of the ruminant stomach are rumen, reticulum, omasum, and
abomasum is shown in Figure 20. Because of this four- part stomach, digestion in
ruminants differs from that in non ruminants. The rumen, reticulum, and omasum
of the ruminants are collectively known as the forestomach. The ruminant stomach
compartments and their descriptions are as follows:

1. Rumen – otherwise known as the paunch.

 a large fermentation vat which provides an appropriate environment
for the continuous culture of microbial population consisting of large
numbers of bacteria and protozoa. There is a symbiotic existence
between the ruminant and the microorganisms are benefited.

The micro-organisms are benefited as follows:

a. Ingestion of feed by the animal ensures a sure and steady supply of

nutrients to the micro-organisms.
b. The temperature of rumen is maintained by the homeothermic
mechanisms of animal between 38 o C – 40 o C. This is ideal for the
growth of microorganisms and they flourish as if grown in an incubator.
c. The end-products of microbial degradation are removed from the site of
fermentation and passage to lower intestines. The end-products,
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PRINCIPLES AND GUIDES IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

therefore, do not accumulate and inhibit further digestion and microbial

growth.
d. The pH and ionic composition of the rumen is maintained within narrow
limits favorable for microbial growth by the secretion of large volumes
of saliva by the ruminants which is rich in bicarbonate and other ionic.

The microorganisms on the other hand help and modify the digestive
process in the ruminants to the benefit of those animals as under:

a. Convert large amount of starch and cellulose to volatile fatty

acids (VFA) such as acetic acid (65%- 75%), propionic
acid(20%) and butyric acid(9%).
b. Convert non protein nitrogen to microbial or protozoal protein,
which serves as a source of protein containing all the essential
amino acids for the host.
c. Synthesis vitamin K and all of the B vitamins. Later, these
microorganism are digested in small intestine to provide these
nutrient for the ruminant animals.

2. Reticulum – also known as honeycomb

 any foreign object such as wire or nails that may be swallowed
tends to lodge in the reticulum and are in position to penetrate
into the heart.
 rumen and reticulum contain millions of microorganisms called
bacteria and protozoa.
 muscles in the rumen and reticulum help break the food into
smaller particles. This makes it easier for the bacteria to act in
the digestive process.
 It function is to interact with the rumen in initiating the mixing
activity of the rumen and providing an additional area for
fermentation.

3. Omasum – also known as manyplies

 The omasum may not have a major digestive function, although,
some individuals believe the folds produce a grinding action on
the feed.

4. Abomasum  also known as a true stomach.

 which corresponds to the stomach of nonruminant
(monogastric) animals, thus sometimes it is referred to as the
true stomach.
 Site of final digestion
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Figure 20. Stomach compartment of ruminant animals

Classification of farm animals

Farm animals are classified as follows:

a. According to the type of the feeds they normally eat as:

1. Carnivores – normally consume animal tissues a their source of
nutrient. Ex. dog, lion, cat .
2. Herbivores – primary consume plant tissue for their subsistence.
Ex .: Cattle, sheep, goat, carabao and horse.
3. Omnivores – eats both plant and animals substances for their
subsistence. Ex.:Humans and pigs

b. According to the nature of their digestive tracts into two general categories :

1. Non ruminants – otherwise known as monogastric animals. Carnivores

and omnivores are monogastric animals, meaning that the
stomach is simple and has only one compartment. Hog and
horse are nonruminant animals. Most nonruminant make a
very poor use of high fiber feeds except horse because they have
functional cecum where fermentation occurs.
2. Ruminant animals – otherwise known as polygastric animals. Hervivores
such as cattle ,sheep, goat and carabao are ruminant animals
meaning that the stomach is complex and contains four
compartment.

Rumination

Ruminant eat rapidly. They do not chew much of their feed before they swallow it.
The solid part of the feed goes into the rumen. The liquid part goes into the reticulum,
then to the omasum, and on into the abomasum. In the rumen, the feed is mixed and
partially broken down by bacteria. A slow churning and mixing action takes place.
When the rumen is full, the animal lies down. The feed is then forced back into the
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mouth and rumination occurs. Thus, rumination defined as a process that permits an
animal to forage and ingest food rapidly, then complete the chewing at a later time.
Rumination involves the following processes:
i. Regurgitation – refer to the flowing back of the bolus of feeds from the
rumen to the mouth.
 returning the food into the mouth was due to the
contraction of reticulum which bring the heavier ingesta
into the cardia and eventually to the mouth.

ii. Remastication – also called rechewing.

 occurs in a more leisurely manner than the initial
chewing which results to the thorough mastication and
maceration of the feed in the mouth.

iii. Reinsalivation – this is the thorough mixing of saliva with the feed for
fermentation.
iv. Reswallowing – the thorough masticated feed is reswallowed for thorough
fermentation in the rumen.

Cattle chew their cud about six to eight times per day. A total of five to
seven hours each day is spent in rumination.

Formulating Ration

A good husbandman must provide his animals with feed containing all required
nutrients in their proper proportion and amount at a minimum cost to effect a more
economical production. The amount of nutrients required depends on species, age, weight
and the purpose for which the animals are raised. A set of feeding standard is being
utilized as a guide to approximate the nutrient requirements of the various species and
weight of animals.

Factors to consider in balancing ration:

a. Dry matter intake (DMI) – the dry matter intake is dependent upon several
factors: species, body size and physiological state of the animal, palatability,
texture, energy density, bulkiness of the diet. Each animal has physical and
physiological limitation which limits their DMI.
 Feed intake of animals can often be closely related to their liveweight. If
the animal is producing something, e.g. milk, work, eggs, the energy
needed for this additional function to that needed for the basic processes
added. Thus, dry matter intake which animals may eat can be predicted
or estimated.

Animal type Daily DM Intake (DDMI) (kg)

Dairy cow DMI = 0.025* liveweight(kg) + 0.1*milk yield (kg/d)
Growing sheep, cattle DMI = 0.027* liveweight(kg)
Goats DMI = 0.04 to 0.07* liveweight(kg)
Horses (light work) DMI = 0.02 * liveweight(kg)
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(intense work) DMI = 0.03 * liveweight(kg)
Growing pigs (33-55 kg) DMI = 0.03 * liveweight(kg)
(79-95 kg) DMI = 0.035* liveweight(kg)
Lactating sows DMI = 0.033 * liveweight(kg)
DMI = 3kg + 0.3kg/piglet

Application: Calculate the probable intake of dry matter of 500 kg dairy cow producing
15 liters milk daily.

DDMI = (500*2.5%) + (15*10%) = (500 * 0.025) + (15 * 0.1) = 14 kg

b. Protein – the protein requirement must be known for the particular species of
animal and the function or performance.
c. Energy – energy is required to maintain the animal metabolism and to provide
for physical activity, growth, production and/or reproduction.
d. Minerals – particularly the Ca : P ratio of 1 to 1.5 : 1
e. Vitamins – either water or fat soluble

Requirements for balancing a ration:

a. Feeding standard or Nutrient Requirement of the animals (Tables 12 and 13).
Nutrient requirements of the animals are dependent upon a number of factors:
body size, levels of reproduction or growth, stress conditions, temperature and
sex.

Table 12. Minimum nutrient requirements of chicken under Philippine condition

Meat type (broiler) Egg-type (Layer)
Weeks
20-42 42 &
Nutrient 0-2 2-5 5-8 0-2 2-6 6-12 12-20
Laying up
Chick Broiler Broiler Chick Chick Chick Pullet
mash Laying
booster starter finisher booster starter grower develop
1 mash2
(CB) (BS) (BF) (CB) (CS) (CG) er (PD)
(LM1) (LM2)
Crude 21.00 20.00 18.00 21.00 18.00 16.00 16.50 16.50 16.00
protein, %
Metabolizable 2900 2800 2750 2900 2750 2700 2700 2800 2700
energy,
Kcal/kg
Lysine, % 1.20 1.00 0.90 1.20 1.00 0.80 0.70 0.70 0.60
Methionine, 0.45 0.40 0.35 0.45 0.40 0.30 0.30 0.32 0.30
%
Meth + Cyst, 0.80 0.75 0.72 0.80 0.70 0.70 0.60 0.55 0.50
%
Calcium, % 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 3.50 3.50
P total, % 0.70 0.70 0.65 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.65 0.70 0.55
P avail, % 0.50 0.45 0.45 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.45
Crude fiber, % <4 <4 <5 <4 <5 <5 <5 <4 <5
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Table 13. Nutrients requirements of swine (% or amount per kg of diet)

Grower
Booster Pre-
Nutrient Starter 20-35 35-60 Finisher Gestating Lactating
1-5 kg starter
kg kg
Crude
24.00 21.00 18.00 16.00 15.00 14.00 14.50 15.00
protein, %
Metabolizable
energy, 3200 3000 2900 2850 2800 28500 2800 2850
Kcal/kg
Lysine, % 1.20 1.00 0.85 0.80 0.80 0.65 0.45 0.65
Meth + Cyst,
0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.50 0.45 0.50
%
Calcium, % 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.90
P total, % 0.70 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65
Crude fiber, % <3 <3 <4 <6 <6 <8 <8 <8

b. Nutrient composition of the feeds

c. Economical – price per unit basis
d. Availability and quality of the feedstuff
e. Palatability (acceptability of the animal) measured by the amount consumed or
enough to facilitate intake
f. Digestibility – nutrients in the feed to be digested and released into the GIT to
be utilized by animal; rations with high fiber content cannot be tolerated by
poultry and swine
g. Toxic substance in the feed

Methods in Formulating Ration

Example: Formulate 100 kg of a swine diet containing 16%, crude protein (CP).
The feeds to be used are corn (8.5% CP) and a soybean oil meal containing 43%
CP.

a. Pearson Square – this method is not efficient because it can only use two (energy
and protein) sources of feedstuffs at a time. Mixing several feedstuffs
available cannot be applied anymore in this method except with the use
of the principle of ration and proportion among feedstuff of energy and
protein sources. However, this is very useful because aside from being
easy to formulate, there is no problem in looking for the ingredients to use.
In addition, the ration formulated is also complete with nutrients that are
needed by the animals.

Step. The desired nutrient level (desired crude protein or DCP) for the combination
of two ingredients will be placed at the center of a square and the percent
protein content of each ingredient at the left corner (upper or lower
portion).
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Corn 8.5% 43 – 16 = 27 ( 27/34.5) x 100

16 % = 78.3% corn
Soybean oil DCP
16 – 8.5 = 7.5 (7.5/34.5) x 100
Meal 43% ____
34.5 =21.7% SBOM

Rule of the Thumb: Whatsoever sources in the upper or lower left corner, it is the
same source of the opposite
The parts by weight of the ingredients corresponds to the placement
in the square, i.e. corn (upper left for CP, its parts by weight
will be the value at the upper right hand corner).

Check if the formulation is satisfied the desired requirement:

Actual amount * %CP = computed CP (CCP)
78.3 kg of corn * 8.5% or 0.085 = 6.66 kg CP
21.7 kg of SBOM * 43% or 0.43 = 9.33 kg CP
100.00 kg diet 16.00 kg CP

If the ration to be prepared is intended for 150 pigs consuming 2 kilos per day for
15 days feeding, compute how many kilos of each feed you need.

Total feed needed = 150 x 2 = 300 kg/day x 15 days = 4500 kg

Corn 4500 x 78.3% = 4500 x 0.783 = 3523.5 kg

SBOM 4500 x 21.7% = 4500 x 0.217 = 976.5 kg
4500.0 kg

What would be the price per kilogram of the mix feed if the prices of the
following are:

Corn = Php 8.00/kg x 78.3 = Php 626.40

SBOM = Php 14.00/kg x 21.7 = Php 303.80
Php 930.20

Price per kg mixed feed = Php 930.20/100 = Php 9.30

b. Trial and Error Method – this method is used when there are several feedstuffs
available for mixing. It is quite tedious and difficult to compute but the
resulting ration will supply a complete nutrients needed by the animal
because the deficiency of one feedstuff is supplied by the other to
complete its requirement.

Steps: a. Refer to feeding standards and list down the nutrient requirements
b. Select suitable combination that could supply the nutrient requirements.
Set down arbitrary values for each feed ingredient to use considering
acceptable levels of the various feed ingredients to be used and making
sure that the total is either 100 or 1000 for easy computation. Compute for
the total nutrients contributed by each ingredient using the feed
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composition table. This is done by multiplying the amount of feed ingredient
b the amount of nutrient present in one kilo of the same feed.

Example: Broiler finisher ration (DCP = 18%) using ground yellow corn, SBOM,
fish meal, rice bran D1, Ipil-ipil leaf meal, Mollases, vegetable/coconut
oil, limestone and vitamin premixes.

Steps:
1. List down the nutrient requirement of animal in a particular stage (age)
Or weight. (broiler chicken: finisher)
2. List down the nutrient composition of the ingredients to be used

Ingredients %CP ME (kcal/kg) % Ca %P

Ground yellow corn 8.5 3400 0.02 0.029
Rice bran D1 12.5 2400 0.06 1.43
Soybean meal 44.0 2340 0.53 0.64
Fish meal 60.0 2800 4.37 2.53
Ipil-ipil leaf meal 22.0 1000 1.98 0.27
Molasses 3.0 1960 0.75 0.08
Vegetable/coconut oil 8800
Limestone 38.00
Dicalcium phosphate 22.00 18.00
Vitamin-Mineral Premix

3. Make your own proportion on the different ingredients and calculate first
for the CP and ME contents of each of the feed ingredients.

Ingredients Amount kg %CP Computed CP ME (kcal/kg)

Ground yellow corn 48.0 8.5 4.08 1632

Rice bran D1 16.0 12.5 2.16 389
Soybean meal 17.0 44.0 7.31 398
Fish meal 6.0 60.0 3.60 168
Ipil-ipil leaf meal 4.8 22.0 1.04 48
Molasses 4.0 3.0 0.12 78
Vegetable/coconut oil 2.0 176
Limestone 1.5
Salt 0.5
Vitamin-Mineral Premix 0.2
Total 100.00 18.31 2889 ok

4. Adjustments: Look (a) for the difference between the desired crude
proteins and computed crude protein results should be absolute value
18.00 – 18.31 = 0.31;
(b) The difference for ingredients of energy source with low crude protein
and protein source with high crude protein
Ground yellow corn 8.5 %CP
Fish meal - 60.0
Difference 51.5
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(c) The differences (i) is use for dividing the difference (ii) of the computed
ration above.
(0.31 / 51.5 x 100 = 0.6 Add 0.6 to corn to become 48.6 and
Subtract 0.6 to fish meal to become 5.4

(Add the adjustment factor to the PBW of the feed with the lowest CP
and subtract the same factor from the PBW of the feed with highest CP,
otherwise, do the opposite)

Note: When CCP > DCP add to energy and minus to protein source
When CCP <DCP add to protein and minus to energy source

Ingredients Amount kg %CP Computed CP ME(kcal/kg)

Ground yellow corn 48.6 8.5 4.13 1634
Rice bran D1 16.0 12.5 2.16 389
Soybean meal 17.0 44.0 7.31 398
Fish meal 5.4 60.0 3.24 167
Ipil-ipil leaf meal 4.8 22.0 1.04 48
Molasses 4.0 3.0 0.12 78
Vegetable/coconut oil 2.0 176
Limestone 1.5
Salt 0.5
Vitamin-Mineral Premix 0.2
Total 100.00 18.00 ok 2889 ok

5. Calculate the Ca and P levels. If Ca is deficient and P is sufficient, add

limestone or oyster shell to meet the requirement. If P is deficient add
tricalcium phosphate, dicalcium phosphate or bone meal.

Ingredients Amount kg Ca % P%
Ground yellow corn 48.6 0.009 0.139
Rice bran D1 16.0 0.009 0.229
Soybean meal 17.0 0.090 0.109
Fish meal 5.4 0.262 0.152
Ipil-ipil leaf meal 4.8 0.094 0.013
Molasses 4.0 0.030 0.003
Vegetable/coconut oil 2.0
Limestone 1.5 0.570
Salt 0.5
Vitamin-Mineral Premix 0.2
Total 100.00 1.064 ok 0.545 ok

c. Modified Pearson Square Method – is use because of the

limitation of the Pearson square (i.e. use of two sources: energy
and protein of ingredients only and absence of vitamins and
minerals or non CP containing ingredients), this method is
proposed and used to be able to use many ingredients.
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d. Exact method – The method ideal for ruminant feed ration

The nutrients being considered in formulating rations for ruminants are total
digestible nutrient (TDN, kg/day) crude protein (CP, g/day), calcium (Ca, g/day) and
phosphorus (P, g/day). It should be remembered that rations for ruminants are
formulated on a dry matter basis due to wide variation in moisture content of the feeds
especially roughage. Some things to remember in formulating rations for ruminants
are:
 List of the requirements for the nutrients to be considered;
 Nutrient analyses of the feed ingredients, including each limitation or
availability and price;
 Check ration for each nutrient content.

Beef – Example: Ration for 250 kg steer gaining 0.75 kg/day

1. Write down the nutrient requirements

DM (kg) TDN (kg) CP (g) Ca (g) P (g)

Needed 6.4 3.8 693 21.00 17.00
Percent of DM 59.4 10.8 0.33 0.23

2. List of the available feeds

Feeds DM TDN CP Ca P
--------------% DM basis----------------
Napier grass 22.0 55.0 9.5 0.42 0.39
Rice bran 91.9 84.5 13.5 0.08 1.64
Ipil-ipil leaf meal 90.0 60.3 20.0 0.35 0.27

3. Calculate if napier grass alone satisfies the TDN requirement

6.4 kg DM x (55% TDN/100) 3.52 kg TDN

Since the amount TDN from napier is less than the requirements, a
concentrate is used to replace part of the napier as an energy source. Assuming rice
bran is available and cheap, the proportion of the napier and rice bran are calculated
as follows:

Napier, 55% TDN 43 – 1 (25.1/29.5 x 100 = 85.1% napier

59.4 %
DCP
Rice bran, 84.5% TDN (4.4/29.5) x 100 = 14.9% rice bran

85.1% napier x 6.4 kg DM = 5.45 kg DM from napier

14.9% rice bran x 6.4 kg DM = 0.95 kg (or 950 g) DM from rice bran
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Determine if combination of napier and rice bran satisfies the requirement for crude
protein.

Feeds DM TDN CP Ca P
(kg) (kg) (g) (g) (g)
Napier grass 5.45 3.00 518.00 22.89 21.26
Rice bran, D1 0.95 0.80 128.00 0.76 15.20
Total 6.40 3.80 646.00 23.65 36.46
Requirement (Step 1) 6.40 3.80 693.00 21.00 17.00
Balance -47.00 +2.65 +19.46

The balance in CP of 47 g can be satisfied by replacing part of rice bran with

ipil-ipil leaf meal. The combination of rice bran and ipil-ipil leaf meal should
supply 18.4% CP calculated as follows:
693 g CP required
– 518 g CP from napier grass
175 g CP from rice bran and ipil-ipil leaf meal

175 g CP/950 DM x 100 = 18.4 % CP

Rice bran, 13.5% CP (3.8/8.7) x 100 = 46.68% rice bran

18.4 %
CP
Ipil-ipil leaf meal, 22.2% CP (4.9/8.7) x 100 = 56.32 ipil-ipil leaf meal

46.68% rice bran x 0.95 kg DM = 0.41 kg rice bran

56.32% ipil-ipil leaf meal x 0.95 kg DM = 0.54 kg ipil-ipil leaf meal

Feeds Amount TDN CP Ca P

(kg) (kg) (g) (g) (g)
Napier grass 5.45 3.00 518.00 22.89 21.26
Rice bran, D1 0.41 0.35 55.40 0.33 6.56
Ipil-ipil leaf meal 0.54 0.36 120.00 2.11 1.62
Total 6.40 3.71 693.40 25.33 29.75
Requirement (Step 1) 6.40 3.80 693.00 21.00 17.00
If Ca is deficient and P is sufficient, add limestone or oyster shell to meet the
requirement. If P is deficient add tricalcium phosphate, dicalcium phosphate or
bone meal

On as fed basis, the animal should receive the following feed per day
Napier grass 5.45 kg DM (22% DM/100) = 24.80 kg
Rice bran 0.41 kg DM (91.9% DM/100) = 0.45 kg
Ipil-ipil leaf meal 0.54 kg DM (90.0% DM/100) = 0.60 kg
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Learning Activity No. 5

Tracing the nutrient movement of different animals

Directions: Trace the movement of feed/food for chicken, cattle and swine from
prehension to absorptions and removal of waste products from the animals.
Identify the site or location and their secretions of gastric juices and enzymes
as well as the corresponding action /function.

Submit your work in a designated place provided by your professor, before the date as
reflected in your study schedule.

Bases of Computing Grades for this Activity:

The bases of rating your activity can be viewed in the Rubric for the Identification of
External Parts of the Animals is found in the appendix.
You may access the rubric in the classwork using this code: _______

GOOD UNACCEPTABL
CRITERIA VERY GOOD FAIR
(7 pts) E
(10 pts.) (5 pts.)
(3 points)

The The presentation The The

presentation of of events or presentation of presentation of
events or movement of events or events or
1.Organization movement of nutrients are movement of movement of
nutrients are moderately nutrients are nutrients are
highly sequenced slightly not sequenced.
sequenced. sequenced.
2. Accuracy of Highly accurate Moderately Slightly Not accurate of
tracing the of tracing the accurate of accurate of tracing the
events (digestion movement of tracing the tracing the movement of
and absorption nutrients in movement of movement of nutrients in
of nutrients) in chicken, cattle nutrients in nutrients in chicken, cattle
chicken, cattle and swine. chicken, cattle chicken, cattle and swine.
and swine. and swine. and swine.
The outputs are The outputs are The outputs are The outputs
summarized and not summarized summarized but are not
3. Presentation presented in but presented in presented in summarized
tabular form tabular form textual form and presented
in textual form
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Learning Activity No. 6

Formulating ration for livestock and poultry animals

Directions: Formulate a swine ration based on the situation that follows: A farmer wishes
to mix a ration containing 14% Crude Protein (CP). He decided to use yellow corn
with 8.5% CP and fish meal with 65% CP.
1. How much of each of the feed ingredients should be used?
2. If the ration to be prepared is intended for 250 pigs consuming 2 kilos per day
for 15 days feeding, compute how many kilos of each feed you need.
3. Calculate the unit price per kilogram of the ration if the price of yellow corn at
Php 9.00/kg and the price of fish meal at Php 28.00/kg.

Submit your work in a designated place provided by your professor, before the date as
reflected in your study schedule.

Bases of Computing Grades for this Activity:

The bases of rating your activity can be viewed in the Rubric for the Identification of
External Parts of the Animals is found in the appendix.
You may access the rubric in the classwork using this code: _______

GOOD
CRITERIA VERY GOOD FAIR UNACCEPTABLE
(7 pts)
(10 pts.) (5 pts.) (3 points)

Computed the Computed the Computed the Computed the

1. Accuracy of feed ingredients feed ingredients feed ingredients feed ingredients
feed ingredients used correctly used correctly used almost used almost
used with solution without solution correct and correct and
with solution without solution
2. Accuracy of Computed the Computed the Computed the Computed the
the amount of amount of feed amount of feed amount of feed amount of feed
feed consumed consumed consumed consumed consumed
correctly with correctly almost correct almost correct
solution without solution and with and without
solution solution
Computed the Computed the Computed the Computed the
3. Accuracy of unit price of unit price of feed ingredients feed ingredients
the unit price of feed correctly feed correctly used almost used almost
feed with solution without correct and with correct and
solution solution without solution
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Thank you for completing the task. If you have not

completed the task, or you have difficulty in accomplishing
the activity, please send me a message to our google class
or you may ask clarifications through a text message or
phone calls on the contact number included in your course
guide.
And now, you are ready for the assessment.

Assessment/Post test

Let’s See What You Have Learned From This Unit

Before you proceed to the next unit, take this test to find out how much you learned
about this unit. You may also view this quiz on google class using this code: _________

Name : ________________________ Score: ________

Year and Section: _______________ Date: __________

Multiple Choice.

Directions: Choose the best answer of each item below and write the letter on the space
provided before each number.

1. After palay milling, the level of rice bran in the palay is about
a. 3% b. 10% c. 20% d. 17%

2. The site of bacterial fermentation of undigested food in poultry

a. small intestine b. large intestine c. cloaca d. ceca

3. This organ has thick glandular mucous membrane that secretes hydrochloric acid and
pepsinogen
a. gizzard b. proventiculus c. crop d. cloaca

4. The CP content of grower mash

a. 14% b. 16% c. 18% d. 21%

5. Nutrients are used for

a. Structural material for building and maintaining the body structure
b. Source of energy for heat production, work and or fat deposition
c. Regulating body processes or in the formation of body regulators
d. All of the above
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6. Which of the following is not correct?

a. Roughage is needed to promote bulk in ruminants’ diet
b. In most cases, roughage constitutes 70 percent of ruminants’ diet
c. Readily available source of energy is needed for efficient degradation of roughage
in the rumen
d. All of the above

7. This toxic factor in ipil-ipil leaf meal causes alopecia

a. Hydrocyanic acid b. Mimosine c. Anti-trypsin factor d. Gossypol

8. The ideal ratio of calcium and phosphorus in the diet for monogastric animals
a. 1:1-2:1 b. 2:1-3:1 c. 1:2-2:3 d. None of the above

9. The process of digestion is accomplished through

a. Mastication and muscular contraction of the gastro-intestinal tract
b. Chemical processes such as action of HCL produced in the gastro-intestinal tract
c. Enzymatic action produced by bacteria located in the cecum
d. All of the above

10. Diet is a preparation which is

a. Composed of individual feed selected to make balance ration
b. Also known as mixed feed
c. Also known as formula feed
d. All of the above

11. Enzymes produced by microorganisms in the rumen during digestion

a. Pepsin b. Trypsin c. Cellulase d. Urease

12. A feed was analyzed to contain 3% nitrogen. How much crude protein does the feed
contain?
a. 18.75% b. 19.50% c. 20.0% d. None of the above

13. The breakdown of feed nutrients to their basic units is

a. Mastication b. Absorption c. Anabolism d. Digestion

14. Fats and oil have this as the basic unit of their molecule
a. Amino acid b. Fatty acid c. Hydrochloric acid d. Sulfuric acid

15. Stored carbohydrates in the animals’ body

a. Glycogen b. Animal starch c. Glucose d. All of the above

You did a great job! If you have not completed the task, or you have
difficulty in accomplishing the activity, please send me a message to our
google class, or you may ask clarifications through a text message or phone
calls on the contact number included in your course guide. You may write
your insights or thoughts about the activity on the space provided.
You had just completed this unit. You are now ready to take Unit 4.
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References

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