1 Introduction

1.1 Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering

Need of Geotechnical Engineering Knowledge

• Soil is a highly unpredictable material as compared to other structural material like Concrete, Structural
Steel etc.
• Many factors like heterogeneous, different layers, limited shear and Tensile strength, influence of water,
influence of stress history, uncertainty in test methods etc. causes such unpredictability in determining
behavior of soils to structural loads.
• Basic knowledge of geotechnical engineering will help us to identify and propose correct Structural systems
and furthermore help us to mitigate any risks involving effects of soil movement inside and outside of our
Site boundary.

Scope of Geotechnical Engineering Knowledge

• In most construction projects, important aspects related to geotechnical engineering revolve around ERSS
design and Foundation design.
• Since all temporary works and construction methods falls under responsibility of Main Contractor, such
knowledge of Geotechnical engineering will help engineers to better understand the soil behavior and
develop engineer’s intuition to approach these problems in a correct way.

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 1 Introduction

1.1 Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering

Why Soil behavior is so different? Unconfined Soil : Soil’s
from which neighboring soil
has been removed. For
• Generally, Soil has high compressive strength but limited tensile and shear strength. e.g., during Excavation

• For unconfined soil, such low tensile and shear strength causes significant settlement even in pure compression.
• Any removal of confinement (from excavation), will result in soil movement until it reaches it stable (default) equilibrium
position.

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 1 Introduction

1.1 Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering

Why Soil behavior is so different? Unconfined Soil : Soil’s
from which neighboring soil
has been removed. For
• Generally, Soil has high compressive strength but limited tensile and shear strength. e.g., during Excavation

• For unconfined soil, such low tensile and shear strength causes significant settlement even in pure compression.
• Any removal of confinement (from excavation), will result in soil movement until it reaches it stable (default) equilibrium
position.
• Default equilibrium profile depends on type for soil, for which broader classification of soil consists of 2 types of soil :
(a) Sandy Soil, (b) Clayey Soil.
Pure Sands Pure Clays

Larger--------------------------------Smaller

Particle- Particle Molecular

Friction cohesion
Sandy soils depends on inter particle friction to resist shearing loads
Clayey soils depend on inter molecular forces to resist shearing of soil.

• For construction projects, we might require to retain soil at high angles which are generally non-stable equilibrium positions
for soil.
• To achieve such formations, we require Soil retaining structures, which are of many different types and selection of suitable
ERSS depends on factors like type of soil, Site conditions (space available, Neighboring Structures), excavation level, natural
Water level, Construction sequence, Safety requirements, Costs etc.

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 1 Introduction

1.2 Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering (Soil Tests)

Soil Investigation (Field Tests)
• Borehole tests
1. Boring
2. Standard Penetration Test
3. Sampling

Type of Soil

Thumb Rules based on experience

Sand Clay

NSPT Values

Consistency and soil characteristics based on N SPT value (Terzaghi dan Peck)
Soil
Samples for • Generally, Sandy soils are less stiff for similar value of SPT blows
Lab tests compared to Clayey soil.
• In other words, Check SPT value → Check Sand or Clay →
Conclude Soil is Stiff or Soft

Bore log Sheet

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 1 Introduction

1.2 Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering (Soil Tests)

Undisturbed soil sample
Strength Tests
1. Triaxial Tests -Clays
2. Direct Shear Tests- Sands
3. Unconfined Compression
Cohesion (c) = Y-
Test-Clays intercept of
Triaxial test result Angle of Internal Young’s Modulus (E)= Slope of
Friction (φ) = Slope of Stress/ Strain Curve from Triaxial test
Failure envelop of
triaxial test E=1700Nspt to 3000Nspt

Output Obtained:
Stiffness Parameter Strength Parameter
(a)Young’s Modulus (E) (a)Angle of Internal Friction (φ)
(b)Cohesion (c)

Regulates how Regulates how much

much soil will Vertical Load
move/settle translates to shear
Loads.

Triaxial tests apparatus

* Since these are extrinsic properties, other governing state properties of soil like water content, void ratio, OCR etc. are also determined in
conjunction with these test.

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 1 Introduction

1.2 Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering (Soil

Parameters)
Pure Sands Pure Clays

Particle- Particle Friction Molecular cohesion

For Dry Sands β= φ

Angle of Internal Friction (φ>0) Angle of Internal Friction (φ=0)

Cohesion (c=0) Cohesion (c>0)

τ Sand Jacks
τ
Failure Envelope

σx σy σ σx σy σ
Confinement Stress Compressive Stress Confinement Stress Compressive Stress

Confined Sand bags

How to use these Soil

• Since Failure envelope has a certain slope, • Since Failure envelope is a straight line,
Parameters?
increasing confinement will increase the confinement stress increment will increase the
compressive strength of soil by a higher amount. compressive strength of soil by similar amount
What is confinement in terms
of Geotechnical Engineering?
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 1 Introduction

1.2 Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering (Soil

Parameters)
Use Soil Parameters:

•To access simple excavation systems

Free Standing box drain / guide wall
excavation

•To access open cut slopes

Open Cut Excavation

•To access bearing capacity of soil

Temporary Bearing Pad Footing for TC

•To access basic retaining wall Performances

Temporary Sheet pile wall for Tank

construction

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 1 Introduction

1.2 Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering (Soil

Parameters)
Quick Calculations
τ

10kPa
Failure Envelope

C=30kPa

1m σx σy σ
18kPa Confinement Compressive Stress
Stress = 0 Limit = 60kPa

Factor of Safety achieved= 60/28=2.14

Shallow Excavations in Clayey Soil

(c=30kPa, γ=18kN/m3)

• Effective Compressive stresses in soil will depend on water content in soil and need further adjustments and fine tuning.
• To further increase resistance of these types of soil cuts against environment damage, provisions like canvas sheeting, wire meshing,
shotcreting, soil nails etc. is done.

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 1 Introduction

1.3 Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering (Open Cut

Slope Analysis)
Traditional Method- Method of Slices

Step 1: Assume a failure surface (Circular/ Elliptical)

Step 2: Cut equal width (1m) Slices on the failed soil surface
20kPa
Center of Failure Surface Step 3: Find Weight of each slice of soil along with center of Mass

1 2

3
5m 4
5
6
θ=45°
10
7 8 9

5m
γ=18kN/m3
C=20kPa
φ=30°

5m 5m 5m

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 1 Introduction

1.3 Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering (Open Cut

Slope Analysis)
Traditional Method- Method of Slices

Step 1: Assume a failure surface (Circular/ Elliptical)

Step 2: Cut equal width (1m) Slices on the failed soil surface
20kPa 2m 6.25m
(C) Center of Failure Surface Step 3: Find Weight of each slice of soil along with center of Mass

Step 4: Shear Resistance τn = c + Wntan(φ),

Moment from Shear resistance= Mτ,n =(20+73.5xtan(30))x6.25=390kNm

Step 5: Moment due to Surcharge Mc,Sur=20x2x1x5.25=210kNm

5m 4
Step 6: Moment due to Slice Weight MW4= 73.5x2.76=203kNm

Step 7: Do for all Slices

Dx
Distance X from W x Dx [C+W x tanφ]xDx
τ=c+W4tan(φ) W=A x γ x 1 Center of Failure Moment Due Soil Resisting
Slice No Area (mm2) Weight (kN) Curve (mm) to W (kNm) Moments (kNm)
1 1695582.5 30.5 5583.3 170.4 -235.1
5m W4 2
γ=18kN/m3 3986870.3 71.8 4725.1 339.1 -384.0
3 4460557.4 80.3 3754.6 301.5 -414.7
C=20kPa 4 4084745.5 73.5 2760.4 203.0 -390.3
φ=30° 5 3477338.1 62.6 1766.9 110.6 -350.9
6 2684361.2 48.3 777.3 37.6 -299.4
7 1724917.4 31.0 -199.7 -6.2 -237.0
5m 5m 5m 8 1098146.9 19.8 -1236.6 -24.4 -196.3
9 806243.0 14.5 -2209.9 -32.1 -177.4
10 306243.0 5.5 -3083.3 -17.0 -144.9

Step 8: Calculate Sliding Moments = 1372kNm

Calculate Resisting moments= 2909kNm
Calculate FOS= 2909/1372=2.12

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 1 Introduction

1.3 Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering (Open Cut

Slope Analysis)
Traditional Method- Method of Slices
Tips and Tricks Limitations

1. Use AutoCAD (Massprop command) for easy weight and 1. Manual calculations become difficult with different soil layers and slope
Center of mass Calculations. profile

2. Accuracy of results is greater for smaller sizes of slices. 2. Different engineers may select different initial failure planes and may get
different factor of safety. With experience, critical safety planes are
understood better.

3. However, different failure planes will have a continuous variations in Factor

of Safety.

Computer Aided Method of Slices

Checks many possible failure Surfaces simultaneously and give min. FOS

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 1 Introduction

1.3 Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering (Open Cut

Slope Analysis)
Thumb Rules

Generally, for low depths (<4m) we limit the open cut angle less than 45° for medium to hard soils

As depth increases to 6m, we can still follow angles limiting to 30° for medium to hard soils

<4m 4-6m

θ<45°

θ<30°

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 1 Introduction

1.4 Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering (Retaining

Wall)
Confinement in Soil

∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞

All soil is fully confined and in equilibrium position On excavation, the confinement of soil is removed, The soil will move until an equilibrium position is
which may cause soil to collapse due to shear failure and reached and nearby structures will get damaged
loss of compressive strength

∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞

To achieve enough confinement in neighboring soils, The confinement achieved depends on the stiffness Retaining soil may still fail if Retaining wall is not
ERSS in form of Retaining walls are used. of the retaining wall designed for strength and stiffness.

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 1 Introduction

1.4 Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering (Retaining

Wall)
Failure Examples
Serviceability Failures

∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞

Example 1: Retaining wall not stiff enough, Example 2: The Toe restraint is not sufficient to Example3: Low Toe restraint + Low Retaining
(Overturning) May cause excessive settlement & (Rotational) provide rotational stability (Sliding) wall Stiffness
tension failures. May cause excessive settlement in May cause excessive settlement in
retained side. retained side.

Tension cracks appearing in Soil in retained side Differential Settlement causing Cracks on Differential Settlement causing
Neighboring buildings Neighboring buildings to rotate

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 1 Introduction

1.4 Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering (Retaining

Wall)
Failure Examples
Retaining wall Strength

∞ ∞

Example 1: Retaining wall not Strong enough to ,

(Structural Collapse) resist moments.
Complete Failure of ERSS.

• Geotechnical Engineers often assume structural

components as rigids bodies.
• This results in allowance of much high loads in these
structural components.
• Engineers must understand limitations of the structural
system in term of the stiffness it can provide.

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 1 Introduction

1.5 Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering (Retaining

Wall Design and Analysis)
Traditional Design and Analysis Method- Coulomb and Rankine Earth Pressure Theory
Assumption: Retaining wall rotates rigidly with O as center.

σv

If wall is moving away from soil mass, that soil

1 mass will give Active Earth Pressure to wall
3m Ka x σv 1
-2C√ Ka Ka = tan2 (45-φ/2)

σv
2 O
C=0
Φ=30°
If wall is moving towards the soil mass, that soil
2 Kp x σv mass will experience Passive Earth Pressure
+2C√ Ka Kp = tan2 (45+ φ /2)

In other words, Passive Ka=tan2(45-φ/2)=0.33

pressure coefficient is higher Kp=tan2(45+φ/2)=3
than active pressure coefficient

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 1 Introduction

1.5 Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering (Retaining

Wall Design and Analysis)
Traditional Design and Analysis Method- Coulomb and Rankine Earth Pressure Theory
Theory: The retained side will behave in active state and the excavated side will have passive pressures. Since passive
pressure is higher than active pressure. At depth z from base, the active and passive side interchanges resulting in a
pressure diagram as shown.

Active Pressure Total Forces

Passive
A Pressure

H=3m

Ka x γ x HAD=
D
0.33x18x3=17.82kN
m
O Ka x γ x HAO= Kp x γ x m
D=3m 0.33x18x(3+m)=17.82+5.94m
γ=18kN/m3
C=0
Φ=30°
Ka x γ x D= Ka x γ x HAB= Kp x γ x HAB
B
0.33x18x3=17.82kN 0.33x18x6=35.64kN 3x18x6=324kN

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 1 Introduction

1.5 Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering (Retaining

Wall Design and Analysis)
Traditional Design and Analysis Method- Coulomb and Rankine Earth Pressure Theory
C1 is point where positive and negative pressure is equal
Ka x γ x (H+a)=Kp x γ x a
a= Ka x H / (Kp-Ka)
a= 0.33 x 3 / (3-0.33)=0.37m

P1 is sum of forces at bottom of Retaining wall

P1 =Kp x γ x HAB -Ka x γ x D
A
P1 = 3 x 18 x 6 - 0.33 x 18 x 3=306kN

P2 is projected forces at bottom of Retaining wall

P2 =(Kp -Ka ) γ x Y
H=3m P2 =(3-0.33 ) 18 x Y= 48Y
Pa
(30kN) For Equillibrium ΣFH=0 For Equillibrium ΣMB=0
D
a Z= (P2 x Y-2xPa)/ (P2 + P1) Pa x (Y+H+2D)/3 + (P1+P2) x Z x Z/6- P2x Y x Y/6=0
c1
Z= (48Y2 – 60)/(48Y+306) 30 x (Y+8.4)/3 + (306+48Y)x Z2/6 – 48Y3/6 =0
Y-z
O
D=3m
γ=18kN/m3 Y Use computer aided equation solving or use HIT & TRIAL METHOD
z
C=0
Φ=30°
Assume Y = 2.59m
B P2 P1
P2 =48x2.59=124.32kN
P1 =306kN
Z= (124.32x2.59-2x30)/(306+124.32)=0.61m

Now check if moments are close to zero (balanced)

=30x(2.59+9)/3+ (306+124.32)x0.61x0.61/6-124.32x2.59x2.59/6
=115.9+26.7-138.99=3.6kNm (near to zero → Balanced)

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 1 Introduction

1.5 Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering (Retaining

Wall Design and Analysis)
Traditional Design and Analysis Method- vs FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
Limitations of Traditional Method:
1. Assumption of Rigid Movement of Retaining wall is not realistic.
Elastic bending of Retaining wall will cause different values of earth
pressures.
2. Easier for Limited layers, surcharges, water levels, etc.
3. Soil is treated as causes of loads only i.e.; the elastic property of soil is
A
not used fully.
4. Excavation is a gradual process i.e.; equilibrium is maintained, and load
paths are altered in each excavation stage.
H=3m
5. To get more accurate analysis, Finite Element Model is used.

D 17.82kN
0.37
c1
1.98
O 95kN
D=3m
γ=18kN/m3 2.59
0.61
C=0
Φ=30°
B P2 P1=306kN

Further Use these load distributions to obtain maximum

moments in the cantilever Retaining Wall

Effective Earth Net Soil Movement

Pressures
CN-Toyota: Analysis of Cantilever Sheet Pile

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 1 Introduction

1.5 Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering (Retaining

Wall Design and Analysis)
Traditional Design and Analysis Method

H Distance/ Depth of excavation

Soil settlement/Wall deflection

Δs,V/δw,H

Journal of Geotechnical and Geo Environmental Engineering · June 2007

Moments Shear Deformations

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 1 Introduction

1.5 Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering (Retaining

Wall Design and Analysis)
Traditional Design and Analysis Method-

Soil Pressures Hydraulic Pressures Surcharge Pressures

S
A

Ka x S

H=3m H=2m

O Ka x S
D=3m Kp x S
γ=18kN/m3
C=0
Φ=30°
γ x HDO γ x HAB Kp x S
B

For additional loads like surcharge and Water pressure, more

loads are applied

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 1 Introduction

1.6 Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering (Bearing

Capacity)
Traditional Method- Terzaghi Model of Soil Failure

Assumptions:
1. The soil is semi-infinite, homogeneous and isotropic,
2. the problem is two-dimensional,
3. the base of the footing is rough,
4. the failure is by general shear,
5. the load is vertical and symmetrical,
6. the ground surface is horizontal,

Such upheaving is also seen in driven pile, after driving

a pile, nearby pile gets displaced up.

The values of Nc, Nq, and Meyerhof (M), Hansen (H) and Vesic (V) Nγ
Factors

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 1 Introduction

1.6 Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering (Bearing

Capacity)
Traditional Method- Terzaghi Model of Soil Failure Rectangular Foundation
TW- Fenglong Resi Project
Width of Footing B = 15.7m
Length of footing L= 21.2m
Submerged depth of footing Df=11.95m
Depth from lower layer H=4.75m
Submerged weight of soil γ1=0.95kN/m3 (γs- γw)
Submerged weight of soil γ2=11.5kN/m3 (γs- γw)
Internal Friction Angle φ1= 31°
Internal Friction Angle φ2= 0°
Cohesion Coefficient C1 =0 kPa
Cohesion Coefficient C2 =56 kPa
Penetrating Shear resistance Ks= 5.9

Nc1=32.67
Nq1=20.63
Nγ1=25.99
Use standard Tables or Curves
Nc2=5.14
Nq2=1
Nγ2=0

𝐵 𝐵 2𝐷𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑
𝑄𝑢 = 1 + 0.2 𝐶2 𝑁𝑐2 + 1 + 𝛾1 𝐻 2 1 + 𝐾𝑠 + 𝛾1 𝐷𝑓
𝐿 𝐿 𝐻 𝐵

Qu=452 kPa

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 1 Introduction

1.7 Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering (Soil

Parameters Estimation)
Thumb Rules

SPT values and visual consistency tells a lot about Soil Parameters. In general many researchers have
studied the correlation of SPT values with Strength Parameters for different types of soil

For Sands For Clays

Relationship the N-SPT value and cohesion (Kumar et al., 2016) Relationship the N-SPT value and cohesion (Kumar et al., 2016)

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 1 Introduction

1.8 Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering (Soil

Parameters- Soil Permeability)
Thumb Rules

Permeability of Soil is directly dependent on size of particles. Finer particles will have lower permeability as
compared to coarse particle.

• A good idea of overall soil permeability is essential for

engineers to estimate what type of problems might arise
due to hydraulic flows in the soil.

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 1 Introduction

1.8 Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering (Soil

Parameters- Soil Permeability)
Water Flow/ Seepage

The amount of water flow depends on factors:

(a) Soil Permeability (b) Retaining wall Water tightness (c) Excavation Height/ (d) Soil Layer arrangement
Water table height

• If overall soil permeability is high, a large volume of

water is expected to seep below the retaining wall.
O
• To prevent submerging of excavated zone, we require to
K=0.001m/s
(Sandy soil) use sufficient water pumps

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 1 Introduction

1.8 Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering (Soil

Parameters- Soil Permeability)
Water Flow/ Seepage

The amount of water flow depends on factors:

(a) Soil Permeability (b) Retaining wall Water tightness (c) Excavation Height/ (d) Soil Layer arrangement
Water table height

• If the retaining wall is not watertight, water will flow

through the easiest path to release the unbalanced
O
pressure.
K=0.001m/s
(Sandy soil) • In this case for same soil, the volume of water seepage
would be even higher than the previous case.

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 1 Introduction

1.8 Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering (Soil

Parameters- Soil Permeability)
Water Flow/ Seepage

The amount of water flow depends on factors:

(a) Soil Permeability (b) Retaining wall Water tightness (c) Excavation Height/ (d) Soil Layer arrangement
Water table height

H=3m
• The term hydraulic gradient (i) refers to difference in water
head at retained and excavated side over the flow length.
O
• nf=Number of flow channels
K=0.001m/s
(Sandy soil) • nd= Number of potential drops
• Q=K x H x nf / nd = 0.001x3x4/7=0.001714(m3/s) per m
width (1.7 Liters/sec per unit width)

K=0 (Impermeable strata)

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 1 Introduction

1.8 Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering (Soil

Parameters- Soil Permeability)
Water Flow/ Seepage

The amount of water flow depends on factors:

(a) Soil Permeability (b) Retaining wall Water tightness (c) Excavation Height/ (d) Soil Layer arrangement
Water table height

• If an impermeable or low permeable layer is sandwiched

K=0.0000001m/s near excavation, developed water pressure can cause this
(Clayey soil)
layer to swell up.
K=0.001m/s
(Sandy soil)
• Proper consideration for the swelling up to be taken (for
e.g.: Using separate water pumps to release pressure)

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 3 Types of ERSS Systems

3.1 Earth Retaining or Stabilizing Structures (ERSS)

地下工法

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 3 Types of ERSS Systems

What shall be considered when selecting earth retaining

system and substructure construction method?
地下工法選択の際に考慮すべきこと

1. Soil condition and ground water level 土質・地下水位

2. Size and depth of basement 地下の大きさと深さ
3. Site constraints 敷地の制約
4. Construction Schedule 建設工程
5. Cost 工費
6. Safety and workability 安全性と作業性

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 3 Construction Method and Planning

➢ Earth Retaining Structure

• Contiguous Bored Piles (CBP) 連続杭

• Soldier Piles 親杭
• Sheet Piles シートパイル
• Secant Piles 接合連続杭
• Diaphragm Wall 連続壁
• Soil Mix Wall 土混合杭

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 3 Types of ERSS Systems

• Contiguous Bored Piles

✓ Not water tight
✓ Possible to be designed as
part of permanent structure.

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 3 Types of ERSS Systems

• Secant Piles
✓ Water tight
✓ Possible to be designed as
part of permanent structure.

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 3 Types of ERSS Systems

• Diaphragm Wall
✓ Water tight
✓ Possible to be designed as part
of permanent structure.

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 3 Types of ERSS Systems

• Soldier Pile with Lagging

✓ Not water tight
✓ Temporary retaining structure
✓ Need to be removed
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 3 Types of ERSS Systems

• Sheet Piles
✓ Water tight
✓ Temporary retaining structure
✓ Need to be removed

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 3 Types of ERSS Systems

• Soil Mix Wall

✓ Water tight
✓ Temporary structure

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 3 Types of ERSS Systems

➢ Construction Method for Substructure

地下工法
• Open cut 開削
• Open cut with free stand retaining structure 開削+自立
山止
• Open cut with ground anchor 開削+アースアンカー
• Open cut with lateral strut 開削+切梁
• Island method with inclined strut アイランド＋斜切梁
• Top down トップダウン
• Combined Method 複合方法

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 3 Types of ERSS Systems

• Open Cut
✓ Surrounding space
✓ Soil condition
✓ Water level
✓ Excavation depth
✓ Impact of possible settlement

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 3 Types of ERSS Systems

• Free Stand
✓ Soil condition
✓ Excavation depth
✓ Site constraints

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 3 Types of ERSS Systems

N N
N=pxD/2

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 3 Types of ERSS Systems

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 3 Types of ERSS Systems

• Island Method with Incline

Strut
✓Soil condition
✓Excavation depth
✓Basement and substructure plan
✓Construction schedule

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 3 Types of ERSS Systems

• Ground Anchor
✓ Surrounding space and
constraints
✓ Soil condition
✓ Excavation area

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 3 Types of ERSS Systems

Ground Anchor Study

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 3 Types of ERSS Systems

Ground Anchor Study

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 3 Types of ERSS Systems

• Lateral Strut
✓ Excavation schedule

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 Summary

• Basics of Geotechnical Engineering- Soil Parameters

• Basics of Temporary Works design – ERSS, Bearing capacity & Water

seepages.

• Types of ERSS Systems

• Types of construction methods

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 The END

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