DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF SMALL SCALE TRAINER AIRCRAFT

ARUNAN S/O SIWARAJU

Report submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of
Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PAHANG

DECEMBER, 2010
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SUPERVISOR DECLARATION

I hereby declare that I have checked this project and in my opinion, this project is
adequate in terms of the scope and quality of this thesis is qualified for the award of the
Bachelor Degree of Mechanical Engineering.

Signature :
Name of Supervisor : EN. AHMAD BASIRUL SUBHA BIN ALIAS
Position : LECTURER
Date : 6 DECEMBER 2010
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STUDENT’S DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the work in this project is my own except for quotations and
summaries which have been duly acknowledged. The project has not been accepted for
any degree and is not concurrently submitted for award of other degree.

Signature :
Name : ARUNAN S/O SIWARAJU
ID Number : MA07015
Date : 6 DECEMBER 2010
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

All the way through the development of this project I have learnt new skills and
knowledge about the aeronautical engineering especially designing and fabricating the
trainer aircraft in small scale. I wish to express my sincere appreciation and gratitude to
my supervisor, Mr. Ahmad Basirul Subha for his continuous guidance, concern,
encouragement and advices which gave inspiration in accomplishing my final year
project.

Special thanks to NTC Hobbies Sdn Bhd and University Malaysia Pahang for
supporting and providing equipment and information sources that assisted my studies
and projects.

My sincere gratitude to the lecturers of Faculty of Mechanical Engineering who

have put in effort to the lectures and always nurture and guide us with precious advices.
Thank you for sharing those experiences.

Last but not least, my dearly loved family members and friends who always are
helping in my life.
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ABSTRACT

This is a study on the designing of small scale trainer aircraft by using balsa wood and
plywood. The objective of this paper is to design and fabricate small scale trainer
aircraft that will avoid crash landing by using an aerial drop modules technology such
as parachute, anti-crash servo and night mode kits for night flying. Based on the design,
we can measure it weight and it is to be 2.83 kg and wing span of 1.5 m. The existing
small scale trainer aircraft available in market is subject to crash landing due to pilot at
ground unable to control the aircraft. Besides that, flying the radio controlled at evening
is common and preferred by most of the instructor. For more challenging and fun fly,
night mode will give more added challenge and experience. Hence, to avoid crash
landing, parachute will be used and night mode kits will be installed. In terms of design,
I preferred to choose glow engine powered trainer aircraft compared to aircraft powered
by motor due to high power. This aircraft is designed based on Federal Aviation
Regulations (FAR). Little early assumption with project scope to be followed will help
to design complete structure of the trainer aircraft over the two semesters. This report
consists of full details on designing the aircraft to get the parameters that involved in the
entire project.
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ABSTRAK

Projek ini adalah mengenai proses yang terlibat dalam menganggarkan reka bentuk
konseptual dan pensaizan pesawat kecil yang baru. Pesawat ini digunakan bagi tujuan
pembelajaran bagi para penerbang sebelum didedahkan dengan pesawat sebenar yang
lebih besar dan kompleks. Pesawat kecil ini dikemudikan dengan alat kawal jauh.
Pesawat ini menggunakan payung terjun sebagai alat untuk mengelakkan pesawat
daripada jatuh menjunam dan turut dilengkapi dengan lampu untuk diterbangkan pada
waktu malam. Berdasarkan reka bentuknya, kita dapat menganggarkan berat pesawat
adalah 2.83 kg dan panjang sayap berukuran 1.5 m. Kebanyakkan model yang terdapat
di pasaran boleh jatuh terbabas ketika pendaratan kerana juruterbang tidak dapat
mengawal pesawat dengan baik. Bagi mengelakkan situasi ini, pesawat kawalan jauh ini
dilengkapi dengan payung terjun. Bagi tujuan menambahkan dayatujahan yang tinggi,
pesawat ini dilengkapi dengan enjin menggunakan bahan api nitromethane. Pesawat ini
direka bentuk berdasarkan syarat-syarat pensaizan yang ditetapkan oleh Persekutan
Peraturan Penerbangan (FAR). Berdasarkan beberapa andaian awal, pesawat ini di reka
bentuk dalam masa 2 semester. Laporan ini menyediakan nilai-nilai penting yang telah
dianalisis bagi merekabentuk sesebuah pesawat terbang.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
TITLE PAGE i
EXAMINERS APPROVAL DOCUMENT ii
SUPERVISOR’S DECLARATION iii
STUDENT’S DECLARATION iv
DEDICATION v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT vi
ABSTACT vii
ABSTRAK viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ix
LIST OF TABLES xiv
LIST OF FIGURES xv
LIST OF SYMBOLS xvii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xx
LIST OF APPENDICES xxi

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Project Background 1

1.2 Problem Statement 2

1.3 Project Objectives 2

1.4 Project Scopes 2

1.5 Project Assumptions 3

1.6 Technical Task 3

1.6.1 Introduction 3

1.6.2 Standard Requirements 4

1.6.3 Performance Parameters 4

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1.6.3.1 Range – 50 meter radius 4

1.6.3.2 Endurance – 20 minutes 5

1.6.3.3 Takeoff Distance – 25 meter 5

1.6.3.4 Landing Distance -10 meter 5

1.6.3.5 Altitude – 1000ft 5

1.6.4 Technical Level of Trainer Aircraft 6

1.6.4.1 Economical Parameters 6

1.6.4.2 Power Plant Requirements 7

1.6.4.3 Special Systems 7

1.6.4.4 Reliability and Maintainability 7

1.6.4.5 Unification Level 8

1.7 Mission Profile 8

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction 9

2.2 History of Aircraft Modeling 10

2.2.1 Model of an Aircraft 10

2.2.2 Radio Control 10

2.2.3 Industrial Control 11

2.2.4 Military Applications in the Second World War 11

2.2.5 Modern Applications and Aerospace Industries 12

2.3 Basic Forces Acting on an Aircraft in a Steady Flight 12

2.3.1 Lift 13

2.3.2 Thrust 14
2.3.3 Drag 14
2.3.4 Weight 14
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2.4 Model Aircraft Anatomy 15

2.4.1 Ailerons 15
2.4.2 Elevator 16
2.4.3 Rudder 17
2.4.4 Throttle 17
2.4.5 Gasoline Fuel Engine 18
2.4.6 Fuselage 18
2.4.7 Landing Gear 19
2.4.8 Pushrods 19
2.5 Radio Control LED Trainer Aircraft 20
2.5.1 Radio Control 20
2.5.2 Mechanism of Radio control 20
2.5.2.1 Transmitter 21
2.5.2.2 Receiver 23
2.5.2.3 Servo 23
2.5.2.4 Radio Frequency 23
2.6 Aircraft Configuration 24
2.6.1 Glow Engine 24
2.6.1.1 Fuel System 25
2.6.1.2 Ignition and Radio Interference 26
2.6.2 Propeller 26
2.6.3 Wing Configuration 27
2.6.3.1 High Wing 28
2.6.4 Types of Wing 28
2.6.4.1 Straight Wing 29
2.6.5 Tail Configuration 29
2.6.5.1 Conventional Tail 30
2.7 Airfoil Shape 30
2.8 Aerial Drop Modules 34

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLODY

3.1 Introduction 36
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3.2 Flow Chart

3.2.1 Flow Chart for Final Year Project Semester 1 37
3.2.2 Flow Chart for Final Year Project Semester 2 38

3.2.2.1 Project introduction 39

3.2.2.2 Literature Review 39

3.2.2.3 Design Configuration 39

3.2.2.4 Concept Selection 40

3.2.2.5 Design Analysis 41

3.2.2.6 Performance Analysis 41

3.2.2.7 Report Documentation 42

3.3 Design Configuration 42

3.3.1 Requirements Parameter 43

3.3.2 Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC) Positioning 43
3.3.3 Control Surface Sizing 43

3.4.4 Airfoil Selection 44

3.4.5 Design 45

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Introduction 46

4.2 Takeoff Weight (Wto) And Empty Weight (We) 46

Calculation
4.2.1 Statistical Analysis 46
4.2.2 Mission Fuel Weight (WF) Calculation 47
4.3 Aircraft Sizing 51

4.3.1 Takeoff Sizing 51

4.3.2 Landing Sizing 53
4.3.3 Stall Speed Sizing 54
4.3.4 Climb Sizing 55
4.3.4.1 Drag Polar 56
4.3.4.2 FAR 23.65 RCP (Rate of Climb) 56
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4.3.4.3 FAR 23.65 CGR (Climb Gradient) 57

4.3.4.4 FAR 23.77 CGR (Climb Gradient) 59
4.3.5 Cruise Speed Sizing 60
4.3.6 Matching Diagram 60
4.4 Sensitivity Analysis 63
4.5 Empennage Sizing 65
4.5.1 Conventional Tail Design 66
4.5.1.1 Volume Coefficients 66
4.5.1.2 Tail Area, SH and SV 66
4.5.1.3 MAC for Horizontal Tail 67
4.5.1.4 MAC Positioning for Vertical Tail 68
4.5.1.5 Elevator sizing for Horizontal Stabilizer 70
4.5.1.6 Rudder sizing for Vertical Stabilizer 70
4.6 CENTRE OF GRAVITY 70
4.6.1 Static Margin 72
4.6.2 Neutral Point 72
4.6.3 CG Envelope Calculations 73
4.7 Design Configuration 74
4.8 DISCUSSIONS 75

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION & RECCOMNENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion 80

5.2 Recommendations 81

5.3 Costing and Commercialization 81

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LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Title Page

4.1 Takeoff Weight (WTO) and Empty Weight (WE) for current RC 47
Trainer Aircraft

4.2 Sfc for different type of flight 48

4.3 Takeoff Size Data Tabulation 53

4.4 Important Coefficients Value for Climb Sizing 55

4.5 Climb Sizing Values 60

4.6 Summarizing to FAR 23 requirements 61

4.7 Parameters to find the values of C and D 64

4.8 Parameters required for sensitivity analysis 64

4.9 Sensitivity equations 65

4.10 Sensitivities of range and endurance values 65

4.11 Properties of the main wing 67

4.12 Main parameters for the horizontal stabilizer sizing 67

4.13 Main parameters for the vertical stabilizer sizing 69

4.14 Weight Fraction to determine Centre of gravity of an aircraft 71

4.15 Parameters to calculate the CG Envelope 74

4.16 Finalized Aircraft Sizing Values 78

4.17 Finalized Empennage Sizing Values 78

4.18 Summaries of Performance Analysis 79

5.1 Table of project costing 82
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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Title Page

1.1 Finalized Mission Profile for the project 8

2.1 Basic forces acting on an aircraft in steady flight 13

2.2 Effect of an aileron on a roll motion 16

2.3 Effect of an elevator on a pitch motion 16

2.4 Effect of the rudder on a yaw motion 17

2.5 Axis of rotation of an aircraft 18

2.6 Components of the fuselage in the aircraft 19

2.7 Types of the transmitter control 20

2.8 Radio controller mechanism mode 1,mode 2,mode 3,mode 4 21

2.9 Basic idea of a servo functions 23

2.10 Principle of a pulse position modulation in a radio controller 24

2.11 Model of a 2 stroke glow engine 25

2.12 Placement of a fuel tank in an aircraft 26

2.13 Propeller Configuration 27

2.14 Effect of a propeller diameter to the pitch speed 27

2.15 Different types of wing placement on the aircraft 28

2.16 Types of wing design 29

2.17 Types of an airfoil shape 30

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2.18 Effect of an angle of attack to the centre of pressure movement 31

2.19 Airfoil shape geometry 32

2.20 Parameters and thickness distribution of Clark Y airfoil 33

2.21 Percentage of Laminar Flow on an Airfoil Shape 34

2.22 Sketch of a recovery ballistic parachute 35

3.1 Sketch of a small scale trainer aircraft 40

3.2 Location of MAC in a straight wing 43

3.3 MAC positioning on a tail structure of an aircraft 44

3.4 Pressure distribution for the Clark Y airfoil 44

4.1 WTO,guessed versus WE,allowable and WE,tent 52

4.2 Matching Diagram for a Small Scale Trainer Aircraft 63

4.3 Effect of a neutral point on the stability of an aircraft 73

4.4 CG Envelope 74

4.5 Aircraft shaded view 75

4.6 Aircraft top view 75

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LIST OF SYMBOLS

R Range

E Endurance

STO Takeoff Distance

SL Landing Distance

h Altitude

Vltr Loiter Speed

Vcr Cruise Speed

m Meter

kg Kilogram

km/h Kilometer per hour

% Percentage

ft feet

CL Lift Coefficient

lbs Pound

We Empty Weight

Wto Takeoff Weight

L/D Lift to Drag Ratio

cp Specific Fuel Consumption

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ηp Propeller efficiency

Vcruise Speed sensitivity

λ Taper Ratio

AR Aspect Ratio

bH Span of horizontal stabilizer

CO Chord length

Cmean Mean aerodynamic centre of the wing

Ymean Aerodynamic centre of the wing

CDO Zero angle of attack drag coefficient

CL Lift coefficient

CL,max Maximum lift coefficient

Cm Airfoil section moment coefficient

b Wing span

Croot Root chord length

Ctip Tip chord length

e Oswald span efficiency factor

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kts Knots

P Power

S Main wing planform area

SH Horizontal stabilizer planform area

SV Vertical stabilizer planform area

vcr Cruise velocity

VHT Volume coefficient of horizontal stabilizer

VVT Volume coefficeint of vertical stabilizer

Vs Stall velocity

W Weight

Wpayload Payload weight

Wfuel Fuel weight

λH Taper ratio of horizontal stabilizer

α Angle of attack

λv Taper ratio of vertical stabilizer

ηP Propeller efficiency
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ηS Horizontal stabilizer efficiency

Celevator Chord length of elevator

brudder Span of rudder

D Neutral point

A Area

xo Neutral point

xl Centre of gravity
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

RC Radio Controlled

RTF Ready to Fly

GHz Gigahertz

LED Light Emitting Diode

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

CP Centre of Pressure

RPM Revolution per Minutes

STOL Short takeoff and landing

MAC Mean Aerodynamic Centre

FAR Federal Aviation Regulations

AC Aerodynamic Centre

SFC Specific Fuel Consumption

CGR Climb Gradient

MAC Mean Aerodynamic Centre

AEO All Engine Operating

CG Centre of gravity
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LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix No. Title Page

A1 Gantt Chart for Final Year Project 1 85

A2 Gantt Chart for Final Year Project 2 86

A3 Technical Data of Evolution 0.46 NX Glow Engine 87

B1 Effect of an Angle of Attack on a Lift Coefficient, CL 88

C1 Takeoff Weight (WTO) versus Empty Weight (WE) 89

C2 Technology Diagram 90

C3 WE (tent) and WE (all) vs WTO 91

C4 Takeoff Sizing 92

C5 Matching Diagram 93

C6 CG Envelope 94

D1 Specification Detail of RC Trainer Aircraft 95

E1 Aircraft Shaded View 96

E2 Aircraft Side View 97

E3 Aircraft Front View 98

E4 Aircraft Full View 99

E5 Wing Design 100

E6 H-Tail Design 101

E7 V-Tail Design 102

E8 Fuselage Design 103

 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 PROJECT BACKGROUND

Over a century, trainer aircraft is widely used in training to develop piloting,

navigational or war fighting skills in flight crew. New pilots are normally trained in a
light aircraft, with two or more seats for students and instructors. Trainer aircraft is
commonly used for training in flying as well in military bases. The study combines both
theoretical and practical knowledge which at the end of the project, a small scale radio
controlled aircraft will be manufactured (Cho, 2004).

A radio control small scale aircraft is an aircraft that is controlled remotely with
a hand held controller consisting of transmitter and receiver. The receiver controls the
corresponding servos that move the control surfaces based on the position of the
joysticks on the transmitter which in turn affect the orientation of the aircraft.

From the studies on design of an aircraft, the theoretical aspect drawn from the
topics of aircraft aerodynamic, aircraft structures, aircraft stability and control with the
propulsion can be applied to produce a new concept of aircraft design. From the
beginning, complete design followed by analysis and fabrication will be done. This will
be accomplished over two semesters. The study deals with the steps involved in the
conceptual design and preliminary design in the first phase. In the second phase, detail
design, analysis and fabrication will be given an importance.

In this project, two parameters were given importance that is critical

performance parameters and requirements parameters. Critical parameters consist of
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determination of weight of the aircraft, maximum lift coefficient, and lift to drag ratio,
thrust to weight ratio and sizing of the aircraft. Requirement parameters consist of
range, endurance, takeoff distance, landing distance, altitude, cruise speed and loiter
speed.

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

For trainer aircraft available nowadays is subject to crash landing. This is due to
the human factors as the new pilot does not possess good skills in handling and
controlling the aircraft. Military statistic shows that there is an accident involving in
each training session conducted by the new pilot and the trainer aircraft subject to crash
landing. Hence, the cost of training increases. In small scale radio controlled trainer
aircraft, instructor from the ground unable to control the small scale trainer aircraft and
is subjected to crash landing. Implementations of new technologies are essential in order
to overcome these limitations.

1.3 PROJECT OBJECTIVE

The objective of the project is to design and fabricate a small scale trainer
aircraft with capability of avoiding crash landing by introducing an aerial drop modules
technology.

1.4 PROJECT SCOPES

To complete the model of small scale trainer aircraft, it requires precise studies
and project scope to be followed. Unique scopes of work determined to achieve the
goals of the project are:

• By using the knowledge of conceptual design, preliminary design and detail

design to design a small scale trainer aircraft.
• Fabrication of small scale trainer aircraft based on the design specification.
• Improve the safety of flight by using an aerial drop modules technology.
• To improve the quality of night flying by having a night mode kits.
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• Flight test of the manufactured model.

1.5 PROJECT ASSUMPTIONS

For this project, the requirement parameters are subjected to early assumptions
for designing a small scale trainer aircraft.
Range, R : 50 meter radius
Endurance, E : 20 minutes
Take off Distance, STO : <30 m
Landing Distance, SL : 10 m
Altitude, h : 1000 ft
Cruise Speed, Vcr : >40 km/h
Loiter speed, Vltr : <25 km/h

1.6 TECHNICAL TASK

1.6.1 Introduction

Radio controlled aircrafts are built to meet the requirement parameters.

Basically radio controlled aircraft are designed to make learning as easy as possible and
have the basic characteristics. Radio controlled aircraft need to be stable, able to fly
straight on level and has high lift. There are two types of radio controlled aircraft that is
electric RC using motor and gas RC using gasoline fuel. Before a designer starts to
design an aircraft, requirement parameters or performance parameters need to be
decided. For this project, the weight of the aircraft is light in average of 3 kg and
compatible to weather conditions. For this project, the range is 50 meter radius,
endurance of 20 minutes, take off distance less than 25 m, landing distance of 20 m,
altitude of 150 m, cruise speed in between 50 km/h to 60 km/h and loiter speed of 40
km/h. Once the designer had set the technical task, the small scale trainer aircraft is
build based on the assumption that has been justified. There are few types of radio
controlled aircraft such as trainer aircraft, sport aircraft, aerobatic aircraft, war birds,
vintage aircraft and float aircraft. In this project, the type of the small scale aircraft will
be a trainer aircraft.
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1.6.2 Standard Requirements

In designing the small scale trainer aircraft, understanding of basic knowledge in

science of aeronautical engineering is important to design a small scale trainer aircraft
that meets the requirements parameter. Basically, the major concern of this project is to
design and to fabricate a small scale trainer aircraft. Technically, stages of the design
include conceptual design, preliminary design and detail design to be followed.

As to target the productivity, capability, cost, power, speed and distance of the
small scale trainer aircraft need to be studied. In terms of design, user’s safety and also
stability especially for the wing and weight distribution of the aircraft need to be
justified. To achieve this, certain standard requirements stages need to be followed.
Hence, to calculate certain parameters, detail analyses through the computer simulation
or manual iterations need to be carried out.

1.6.3 Performance Parameters

Performance parameter is set by the designer. The designer has determined the
performance of RC aircraft. The design of a small scale trainer aircraft should meet the
specified parameters:

1.6.3.1 Range – 50 meter radius

For a small scale trainer aircraft, the selection of range depends on type of a
radio controller transmitter we are using. Basically, 2.4GHz frequency radio controlled
will be used. The range needs to be covered in sense of fuel consumption of an engine
and also the safety of the aircraft. If the aircraft is out of the range then the aircraft will
subjected to crash landing. Range of 2.4GHz is 3000feet. Therefore, range of football
size field is targeted.