CH-2 Earth Dams
CH-2 Earth Dams
Table of Content
2 EMBANKMENT DAM ............................................................................................................... 2
2.1 Introduction ............................................... 2
2.2 Classification of Earth Dams ..................................... 2
2.3 Cause of Failures of Embankment Dams ............................. 3
2.4 Earth Dam Design features ...................................... 4
2.5 Seepage analysis ............................................ 7
2.5.1 Determination of Phreatic Lines ...................................... 8
2.5.2 Construction of flow net .......................................... 10
2.6 Slope Stability Analysis ....................................... 11
2.6.1 Location of the Most Critical Circle ................................... 13
2.7 Seepage control Measures ..................................... 16
2.7.1 Measures to control seepage through the dam ........................... 16
2.7.2 Measures to control seepage through foundation ......................... 16
2.8 Internal drainage system ...................................... 16
2.8.1 Design of Filters................................................ 17
2.9 Dam Surface Protection ....................................... 17
2.9.1 U/S face protection ............................................. 17
2.9.2 D/S face protection ............................................. 17
2.10 Rockfill Dams .............................................. 17
2.10.1 Design consideration of Rockfill dam ................................ 18
List of Figures
Figure 2‐1: ‐ Earth Dams (a) homogenous section (b) with horizontal drainage blanket and (C)
with rock toe ................................................................................................................................... 2
Figure 2‐2: ‐ Zoned earth dam (a) vertical core and (b) inclined core............................................ 3
Figure 2‐3: ‐Definition Sketch for wind Setup ................................................................................ 5
Figure 2‐4:‐ Cut‐offs and control of under seepage ....................................................................... 6
Figure 2‐5:‐ phreatic line for homogenous dam section with horizontal filter .............................. 8
Figure 2‐6:‐ phreatic line for homogeneous dam section without filter...................................... 10
Figure 2‐7:‐ phreatic line for Zoned earth dam ............................................................................ 10
Figure 2‐8:‐ Flow net for homogenous earth dam having horizontal drain ................................. 11
Figure 2‐9:‐ Possible slip surface in Earth fill dam ........................................................................ 12
Figure 2‐10:‐ Locus of critical circle (a) for d/s slope, (b) for u/s slope ........................................ 14
Figure 2‐11:‐ stability of Downstream slope during steady seepage ........................................... 14
BDU, EF, School of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
2 EMBANKMENT DAM
2.1 Introduction
Embankment dams are built of soil or rock‐fill or both. As soil and rock‐fill are non‐rigid materials, the
embankment dams are called non‐rigid dams. The embankment dams are broadly classified as:
1. Earth dams (mainly constructed from earth or soil)
2. Rockfill dams (mainly constructed from rockfill or pieces of rocks)
3. Composite dams (these are constructed from both soil and rockfill )
Earth dams can be constructed on almost all type of foundations, provided suitable measures are taken. They
are more suitable than gravity dams if strong foundation at a reasonable depth is not available at the site for
the construction of gravity dams. It is cheaper than gravity dams if the soil in abundant quantity is available
near the site. Rockfill dams require somewhat stronger foundation as compared to earth dams, but need not
to be strong as gravity dams.
2.2 Classification of Earth Dams
Earth dams can be divided into the three types:
a. Homogenous Earth dams: ‐ usually composed only one material which is either semi‐ impervious or
impervious to limit seepage.
Modified Homogenous section: as pure homogenous section has the problem of sliding and piping,
the base is quite wide. Hence, it is usual to an internal drainage system in the form of horizontal
drainage blanket, rock toe or a combination. The internal drainage system keeps the phreatic line
(saturation line) with in the body of the dam and reduces the pore water pressure.
Phreatic line Phreatic line
Phreatic line
Horizontal
Rip rap Rip rap Rip rap
drainage
Rock toe
blanket
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 2‐1: ‐ Earth Dams (a) homogenous section (b) with horizontal drainage blanket and (C) with rock toe
b. Zoned earth dam: ‐ it composes more than one type of soil. It has a central impervious core flanked by
shells of pervious material u/s and d/s side. A transition filter is usually required b/n core and shell to
prevent piping.
The central core is used to check seepage and is constructed from clay, silty clay or clayey silt. The
pervious shell is used for stability and is constructed from sand, gravel, or mixture of these. The
transition filter is used to prevent the migration of materials from the core to the shell. The d/s
transition filter is useful during steady seepage conditions and the u/s filter is useful during sudden
drawdown conditions.
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Lecture notes, Hydraulic Structures‐I, 2010
BDU, EF, School of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
u/s shell vertical core d/s shell u/s shell Inclined d/s shell
core
(a) (b)
Figure 2‐2: ‐ Zoned earth dam (a) vertical core and (b) inclined core
c. Diaphragm‐type earth dam: ‐ it consist thin impervious core, called diaphragm surrounded by
pervious shell. The difference b/n zoned and diaphragm dam is the thickness of the core. If the
thickness of the core at any elevation is less than the height of the embankment above that elevation,
the dam is generally considered to be diaphragm type.
Selection of the optimum type of embankments for a specific location is determined largely by the nature and
availability of different fill materials in sufficient quantity.
2.3 Cause of Failures of Embankment Dams
Embankment dams, like any other engineering structure, may fail due to improper design, faulty
constructions, lack of maintenance, etc. Generally, causes of failure are grouped into three classes: Hydraulic
failure, Seepage failure, and Structural failure.
A. Hydraulic failures: About 40% of earth dam failures have been attributed to these causes due to;
1. Overtopping: ‐ It is the most common cause of failure of an embankment dam. This kind of dams
doesn’t withstand overtopping. Overtopping of earth dam occurs if:
a. The design flood is undermined;
b. The spillway capacity is not adequate;
c. The spillway gates are not properly operated;
d. The free board is not sufficient; and
e. Excessive settlement of the foundation and dam occur.
2. Erosion of upstream faces: ‐ Wind waves of water developed due to wind near the top water try to
notch‐out the soil from u/s face and may even sometimes cause the slip of the u/s slope. (To
prevent this, upstream slope pitching or rip rap should be applied.)
3. Erosion of downstream face: ‐ Heavy rains falling directly over d/s face and the erosive action of the
moving water may lead to the formation of gullies on the d/s face, ultimately leading to the dam
failure. To avoid this, suitable berms with collection drains should be provided to check the
velocity of flowing water.
4. Erosion of d/s toe due to tail water: ‐ It may occur due to the following:
a. Cross currents that originate from the spillway bucket, if a spillway is provided along the dam
b. Waves developed in the tail water.
To prevent this, pitching is provided up to the height slightly above normal tail water depth.
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Lecture notes, Hydraulic Structures‐I, 2010
BDU, EF, School of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
5. Cracking due to frost action: ‐ If the dam is located at a place where the temperature falls below zero,
frost may form in the pores of the soil in the earth dam. Where there is heaving, the cracks may
form in the soil and it may lead seepage and then failure.
To avoid failure by this action, the soil susceptible to frost formation should not be used.
B. Seepage failure: ‐ it may occur due to the following causes
a. Piping through the dam: ‐ If the seepage is uncontrolled and concentrated, it may lead to piping and
subsequent failure of earth dams. It is the progressive backward erosion starting from the exit point
and subsequent removal of the soil from the body of the dam and the formation of pipe‐like conduit
inside the dam. Piping occurs when the seepage force is very large and concentrated. It starts at the
point where the water emerges from the body of the dam (d/s face of the dam). It occurs due to:
i. Poor construction: ‐ if the soil of the dam is not properly compacted (b/n foundation and
embankment material, successive layers)
ii. Differential settlement
iii. Burrowing animals
iv. Surface cracks
v. Presence of roots
b. Piping through the foundation: ‐ it occurs when the rate pressure drop resulting from seepage
through the foundation exceeds the resistance of the soil particles. The particle tends to move and
piping occurs due to removal of the finer particles from the region just downstream of the toe of the
embankment. It occurs when there are pockets of loose soil in the foundation.
c. Conduit Leakage: ‐ cracks may develop in conduits provided for outlet due to foundation
settlement. Hence leakage may occur through this crack.
d. Sloughing of d/s toe: ‐ sloughing is the process in which the soil mass fails down after saturation. It
occurs under reservoir full condition when the d/s portion of the dam becomes saturated and
continuously remains in the same state, causing softening and weakening of the soil mass. It usually
occurs when the phreatic line cuts the d/s dam face.
C. Structural failure: ‐ about 25% of the dam failures have been attributed to structural failures. Structural
failures are generally caused by shear failures, causing slides. It includes the following:
i. Slides in embankment ii. Foundation slides
iii. Liquefaction slides iv. Failures by spreading
v. Failures due to earthquakes vi. Holes caused by animals
2.4 Earth Dam Design features
The preliminary section of an earth dam should be selected to prevent failures that can be caused by
Hydraulic, Seepage and Structural. If it fails by one of them, the section should be revised.
In the preliminary section, the following parameters should be decided:
1. Embankments crest width: the top width of larger earthen dam should be sufficient to keep the
seepage line well within the dam, when reservoir is full. The crest should have a width of not less than
4m, and should carry a surfaced and well‐drained access road. The top width (W) of the earth dam can
be selected as per the following recommendation:
W = 0.2 * H + 3 , For very low dams (H<10m)
W = 0.55 H + 0.2 H , For (10<H<30m)
W = 1.65(H + 1.5)
1/ 2
, For high dams (H> 30m)
Where: H is the height of the dam.
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Lecture notes, Hydraulic Structures‐I, 2010
BDU, EF, School of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
2. Freeboard: is the difference between maximum reservoir level and top of crest level. Free board
should be adequate so that there is no possibility of dam being overtopped. When wind blows over
water, a horizontal force develops on the water surface in the direction of the wind. This results in the
water piling up at the downwind boundary of the reservoir. This phenomenon is referred to as wind
tide or setup, S, where S represents the rise in water level above the normal horizontal reservoir
surface at the downwind boundary. Hence, the free board should be adequate against the wave
action and wind set‐up.
The free board is calculated based on Steven Son formula, which is modified by Monitor:
Fb = hw + R + S; Where: Fb = Free board (cm)
The wave height can be estimated from:
hw = 0.032 V .F + 0.76 − 0.24(F )
1/ 4
The Zuider Zee formula is commonly used to calculate wind setup.
S = (V 2 F cos α ) /(63,000 D ) ;
Where F (fetch length, the maximum distance b/n reservoir remote to the dam face) [km], V (wind velocity of
the area) [km/hr], D (average reservoir depth) [m], α (angle of the wind to the fetch) [degree], and S (wind
setup) [m]
R = Wave run‐up: it can be taken as 50% of wave height
The provision necessary for long‐term settlement within the overall minimum freeboard is determined by the
height of dam and the depth of compressible foundation at any section. Hence, the freeboard should include
the probable settlement allowance.
Figure 2‐3: ‐Definition Sketch for wind Setup
3. U/S and D/S slopes of the dam: ‐ The slopes depend on the type of the material, foundation
condition, height of the dam, and others. There is general rule for slopes but stability determines its
value.
Table 2‐1: ‐Tentative value of slopes recommended by Terzaghi for preliminary section
U/S
Type of Section Type of Material slope D/S slope
well‐graded material 2.5:1 2:1
Coarse silt 3:1 2.5:1
Homogenous Silty clay or Clay: H<15m 2.5:1 2:1
section Silty clay or Clay: H≥ 15m 3:1 2.5:1
Sand or gravel shells with clay core 3:1 2.5:1
Zoned Section Sand or gravel shells with RCC core 2.5:1 2:1
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Lecture notes, Hydraulic Structures‐I, 2010
BDU, EF, School of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
4. Core thickness: ‐ It may be vertical or inclined. The thickness of the core should be enough to keep the
phreatic line within it. It may have a top width of not less than 4m for easy of construction. The side
slopes of the core in any case should not be greater than (x‐0.5:1) on the upstream and (y‐0.5:1) on
the downstream, where x: 1 is the upstream slope of the shell and y: 1 is the d/s slope of the shell. The
minimum u/s and d/s slopes of the core are usually 1.5:1 and 1:1 respectively.
5. Foundation seepage control: ‐ seepage flows and pressure within the foundation are controlled by
cut‐offs and by drainage. Cut‐offs is impervious barriers which function as extensions of the
embankments core into foundation. The cut‐offs are generally two types:
a) Fully penetrating cut‐off: penetrate to impervious strata
b) Partially penetrating cut‐off: terminate where the head loss across the cut‐off is sufficient to
effect the required degree of control
Figure 2‐4:‐ Cut‐offs and control of under seepage
6. Downstream Drainage: ‐ it is required for all types of earth dams. The drainage system consists of
materials more pervious than the embankment material so that the water seeping through the
embankment is easily drained out. The type of drainage systems includes the following:
a) Drainage of the dam
i. Horizontal drainage blanket
ii. Rock toe
iii. Chimney drain
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Lecture notes, Hydraulic Structures‐I, 2010
BDU, EF, School of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
b) Drainage of the foundation
i. Toe drain
ii. Drainage trench
iii. Relief walls
iv. Vertical sand drains
7. Upstream face protection: several options are available for protection of the upstream face against
wave erosion, ranging from traditional stone pitching with grouted joints through concrete facing
slabs to the use of concrete block work, rock armoring and riprap.
2.5 Seepage analysis
Seepage occurs through the body of all earthen dams and also through their pervious foundation. The phreatic
surface of the seepage regime, i.e. line within the dam section below which there is positive hydrostatic
pressures in the dam, must be kept well clear of the downstream face to avoid high pore water pressures
which may promote slope instability.
Limitations of the theory (assumptions):
Water is incompressible,
The rolled embankment and natural soil foundations are incompressible and porous. The size of
the pore space through which the water seeps remains the same, regardless of the water
pressure.
The seepage water flows under a hydraulic gradient which is due only gravity head loss.
The quantity of flow (water) entering the soil in a given time is the same as the quantity flowing
out of soil.
The hydraulic boundary conditions are known (exit and entry).
Let us consider an element of soil of the size Δx by Δy and unity thickness.
∂v y
vy + Δy
∂y
Δy
∂v x
Vx Δx vx + Δx
∂x
Vy
As the flow is steady, the quantity of water entering the element per unit time is equal to that leaving the
⎛ ∂v x ⎞ ⎛ ∂v ⎞
element. Thus, v x (Δy + 1) + v y (Δx + 1) = ⎜⎜ v x + ⎟⎟(Δy + 1) + ⎜ v y + y ⎟(Δx + 1) or
∂x ⎜ ∂ y ⎟⎠
⎝ ⎠ ⎝
∂v x ∂v ∂v
(Δy + Δx ) + y (Δx + Δy ) = 0 → ∂v x + y = 0 . This is two dimensional flow continuity flows.
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
Let h be the hydraulic head under which water flows through the element. Then, according to Darcy’s lay,
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Lecture notes, Hydraulic Structures‐I, 2010
BDU, EF, School of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
(
v x = k x * i x = k x ∂h
∂x
) and v y = k y * i y = k y ⎛⎜ ∂h ⎞⎟ where Kx and Ky are the coefficient of permeability in x
⎝ ∂y ⎠
and y directions.
The amount of seepage can be easily computed from the flow net, which consists of two sets of curves, known
as ‘Equipotential line’ and ‘stream lines’, mutually perpendicular to each other. For homogeneous
embankments dam, discharge per unit width (q) of the dam passing through a flow net is described as:
q = k * H * N f / Nd
Where: H is the head differential.
Nf is number of stream lines.
Nd id number of equipotential lines
2.5.1 Determination of Phreatic Lines
It is absolutely essential to determine the position of the phreatic line, as its position will enable to determine
the following:
i. The divide line between the dry (or moist) and submerged soil.
ii. The top stream line and hence, helps us in drawing the flow net.
iii. To ensure that the phreatic line doesn’t cut the downstream face of the dam, which is extremely
necessary for preventing softening of the dam.
A. Homogeneous dam section with horizontal filter
It has been found that the seepage line is pushed down by the filter and it is very nearly parabolic except near
its junction with u/s face. Since the u/s face of the dam (i.e. GB in Figure 2‐5) becomes an equipotential line
when fully covered with water, the seepage line shall be perpendicular to the face near its junction point B.
Figure 2‐5:‐ phreatic line for homogenous dam section with horizontal filter
Equation of the base parabola
Let a base parabola with focus at F is drawn and produced so as to intersect the water surface at a point A as
shown in Figure 2‐5. X is positive in the direction of u/s and y is positive for upward. From the basic property
of the parabola, the distance of the point P from the focus is equal to that from the directrix:
Distance PF= Distance PR
Taking the focus (F) as the origin, equation of the parabola p(x, y) can be written as:
x 2 + y 2 = x + FD
Where; FD is the distance of the focus from the directrix, called focal distance and is represented by S.
Hence the equation of the parabola of the seepage line becomes:
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Lecture notes, Hydraulic Structures‐I, 2010
BDU, EF, School of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
x 2 + y 2 = x + S (a)
Location of A is approximately 0.3HB horizontal distance upstream from point B according to Cassagrande.
Where, H is the projection of the point G on the water surface.
If the horizontal distance between the already determined point A and the focus (F) is taken as say b, then (b,
H) represents the coordinates of the point A on the parabola. And hence the distance of the focus from the
directrix, s can be easily computed as below:
b 2 + H 2 = b + S , hence: S = b 2 + H 2 − b
Substituting the above value of S in equation (a), the complete equation of the parabola is obtained:
x 2 + y 2 = x 2 + S 2 + 2 xS ⇒ y 2 = S 2 + 2 xS
⇒ y = S 2 + 2 xS (b)
Using different values of X from equation (b), it is possible to determine the value of y for the parabola.
The center point (C) of FD will then be the vertex of the parabola. From equation (a): when x = 0, y= S. Hence
the vertical ordinate FJ at F will be equal to S. Knowing the points A, C, and J and working out a few more
points from the equation, the parabola can be easily drawn and corrected for the curve BI, so as to get the
seepage line BIJC. The surface FC at which the seepage flow emerges is known as the discharge face and it
always remains wet.
The amount of seepage can also be calculated easily from the equation of the seepage line as derived below.
Darcy’s law is defined as, q = KiA. When steady conditions have reached, the discharge crossing any vertical
plane across the dam section (unit width) will be the same. Hence, the value i and A can be taken for any point
on the seepage line
i = dy / dx and A = y * 1
q = K * ( dy / dx ) * y
But from the equation of the parabola, y = S 2 + 2 xS
q = K
d
dx
( )[
2 xS + S 2 . S 2 + 2 xS ]
⎛
q = K ⎜
⎜
S ⎞
[
⎟. S 2 + 2 xS
2 ⎟
]
⎝ 2 xS + S ⎠
q = KS . This equation is used to determine the unit discharge per unit length.
B. Homogeneous dam section without horizontal filter
In this case, the phreatic line cuts the d/s faces at point J above the toe. Cassagrande has shown that the
phreatic line concides with the base parabola provided the slope of the d/s face is flat. The focus (F) of the
parabola is located at the toe of the dam. The base parabola BIJC will cut the downstream slope at J and
extend beyond the dam toe up to the point C i.e. the vertex of the parabola.
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Lecture notes, Hydraulic Structures‐I, 2010
BDU, EF, School of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
Figure 2‐6:‐ phreatic line for homogeneous dam section without filter
The seepage line will, however, emerge out at K, meeting the downstream face tangentially. The portion KF is
known as discharge face and always saturated. Because the phreatic line can not go out side the limit of the
dam, the base parabola needs an exit correction. The correction JK (say ∆a) by which the parabola is to be
shifted downward can be determined as follows from the table below. Casagrande has shown that the exit
correction ∆a depends up on the slope α of the discharge face:
Δa Δa
α 1 in degrees α in degrees
a + Δa a + Δa
30o 0.36 135o 0.14
60o 0.32 150o 0.10
90o 0.26 180o 0.0
120o 0.18
S
The value of a + Δa can be obtained from the following equation: a + Δa =
1 − cos α
C. Zoned earth dam with central core
As the ratio of the permeabilities of the materials of the shell and core is very large, the effect of the outer
shells on the phreatic line in the core is negligible. Hence, the u/s face of shell has no effect on the position of
the phreatic line and the d/s shell acts as a drain. The phreatic line starts at point B where the water level cuts
the core. The focus F of the base parabola is located at d/s toe of the core. As the permeability of the shell is
very high as compared with the core, the phreatic line will be drawn for the core only by considering as a
homogeneous section as discussed earlier.
L Directrix
0.3L
A B
2.5.2 Construction of flow net
Some important properties of flow nets are discussed as below:
i. Flow lines and equipotential lines meet at right angles to each other
ii. Equipotential lines intersect the phreatic line at right angles
1
α will be equal to 180o for a horizontal filter case and it will be less than 90o when no drainage is provided.
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Lecture notes, Hydraulic Structures‐I, 2010
BDU, EF, School of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
iii. The pressure at the phreatic line is zero, and the successive equipotential lines make equal vertical
intercepts on the phreatic lines
iv. The flow field obtained by the intersections of the equipotential lines and the flow lines are
approximately squares in shape.
v. The discharge b/n any two adjacent flow lines is constant
vi. The smaller the dimensions of the flow field, the greater the hydraulic gradient and the velocity of flow
through it.
vii. In a homogenous soil, every transition in the flow lines and equipotential lines is smooth and gradual.
Figure 2‐8:‐ Flow net for homogenous earth dam having horizontal drain
Exercise: ‐ An earth dam made of a homogeneous material has the coefficient of permeability K= 5*10‐4
cm/sec and the other parameters are as shown in the Figure 2.8. Determine the phreatic line and the seepage
quantity through the body of the dam.
RL = 200.0m
RL = 197.5m
2:1
H = 19.5m 3:1
RL = 178.0m
2.6 Slope Stability Analysis
After selecting the preliminary section, it should be checked against the following to satisfy the safety criteria
a. Checking against seepage and pore water pressure
b. Checking the d/s slope for steady‐seepage condition
c. Checking u/s slope for sudden drawdown condition
d. Checking u/s and d/s slope during construction period.
Three considerations govern the design of an earth embankment:
1. side slopes must be stable;
2. Dimensions must be sufficient to control seepage;
3. Base width must be long enough to distribute weight of dam over sufficient area to prevent overstress
in the foundation.
An earthen embankment usually fails because of the sliding of a large soil mass along a curved surface.
Forms of failure:
Toe failure: ‐ most likely to occur when the slopes are relatively steep or when the soil below the toe of the
slope is strong.
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Lecture notes, Hydraulic Structures‐I, 2010
BDU, EF, School of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
Base failure: ‐ occurs when the slopes are flat or when the soil below the toe is relatively weak.
Face or slope failure: ‐ occurs only when there is a relatively weak zone in the upper part of the slope or when
there is a very strong stratum above the toe level.
The method used for examining the stability of slopes of earthen embankments is called the Swedish Slip
Circle Method or the Slices Method. It assumes the condition of plain strain with failure along a cylindrical arc.
The location of the centre of the possible failure arc is assumed. The earth mass is divided into a number of
vertical segments called slices as shown in Figure 2‐9, O is the center and R is the radius of the possible failure.
Φ
θ
Figure 2‐9:‐ Possible slip surface in Earth fill dam
Let us consider the equilibrium of one slice shown hatched, the following forces act on it;
1. Self weight, W acting downward through its center of gravity
2. Cohesive force, C along the curved surface in the direction opposite to the direction of movement of
the wedge. It is equal to cΔL, where c is the unit cohesion and ΔL is length of base strip.
3. Reaction R at the base of the strip, acting a line inclined at an angle φ to the normal, where φ is the
angle of shearing resistance of the soil.
4. The soil reactions ER and EL acting on the vertical sides of the slice exerted by the adjacent slices on
the right and left. ER and EL are equal and opposite.
5. Force due to pore water pressure UL, UR and UB acting on the left, right and base of the slices. UL and
UR are opposite in direction and balanced. UB acts in the normal direction.
Hence, for analysis using Swedish circle method, there are only four forces remain; W, C, R and UB. UB is due
to pore water pressure and will be zero, if the soil is dry.
Let the weight, W be resolved in to normal, N and tangential, T component. As the normal passes through the
center, the direction of N is first marked in the normal direction. A perpendicular is drawn from the tip of the
vector W to the normal direction to determine N and T. Thus,
N =W cos θ and T= W sin θ, where θ is the angle which the normal makes with the vertical
Resolving all the forces in the normal direction:
N‐UB =R cos φ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ (a) where R is the reaction at the base of the slice
Resolving all the forces in the tangential direction:
T‐C =R sin φ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ (b)
Substituting the value of R from eqn (a) in to (b):
T‐C = [(N‐UB) /cos φ] sin φ
T‐C = (N‐UB) tan φ
T= (N‐UB) tan φ + cΔL
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Lecture notes, Hydraulic Structures‐I, 2010
BDU, EF, School of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
Hence, the tangent component of the force (actuating) is balanced by the frictional resistance and cohesion
resistance (resisting).
Thus the factor of safety is given by:
Fs= (Sum of the resisting moment)/ (sum of the actuating moment)
tan φ ∑ (W cos θ − uΔL ) + ∑ cΔL
Fs = , where u, the pore water pressure at the base of the slice and ΔL is
∑W sin θ
the arc of the slice (b secθ)
tan φ ∑ (W cos θ − ub sec θ ) + ∑ cb sec θ
Fs =
∑W sin θ
Procedure for the determination of the factor of safety of the trial slip surface
1. Take a trial slip surface and divide the wedge above the slip surface in to 8 to 15 vertical slices;
2. Determine the weight of each slice, W=(b*Z)*γ, where: b=width of the slice, Z=middle ordinate of the
slice, and γ= unit weight of the soil;
3. Measure the angle θ which the normal makes with the vertical and compute the normal, N and
tangential, T component. N =W cos θ and T= W sin θ
4. Determine the pore water pressure (u) at the base of the slice from the flow net and compute the
force UB due to pore water pressure. UB= u*ΔL =u*b secθ
5. Determine the cohesive force, C=c* b secθ
6. Determine the factor of safety for the trail slip surface:
tan φ ∑ (W cos θ − ub sec θ ) + ∑ cb sec θ
Fs =
∑W sin θ
7. Repeat the above procedure for a number of trial surfaces. The trial surface which gives the minimum
factor of safety is the most critical circle. The minimum factor of safety should be greater than the
specified safe value of the soil.
2.6.1 Location of the Most Critical Circle
For determining the stability of the proposed side slope of an earth dam it is necessary to find the least factor
of safety which may occur on any of the possible surfaces of slippage or slip circles. Slip circle which yields the
least factor of safety is the most critical and hence it is known as critical surface slippage or critical slip circle.
For locating the critical surface of slippage, it is necessary to try several different surfaces of slippage as one
trial are gives the value of factor of safety for that arc only.
In order to reduce the number of trials, Fellenius has suggested a method of drawing a line, representing the
locus of the critical slip circle. The determination of this line PQ is shown in Figure 2‐11. To draw Fellenius line
PQ, point Q is located at a depth H below the toe of slope and at a distance of 4.5H from it, where H is the
total height of the dam. The point P is obtained with the help of directional angles α1 and α2.
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Lecture notes, Hydraulic Structures‐I, 2010
BDU, EF, School of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
(a) (b)
Figure 2‐10:‐ Locus of critical circle (a) for d/s slope, (b) for u/s slope
Slope of the face Directional angles
α1 in degrees α2 in degrees
1:1 28 37
1.5:1 26 35
2:1 25 35
3:1 25 35
5:1 25 35
1. Stability of downstream slope during steady seepage (reservoir full)
The most critical condition for the d/s slope occurs when the reservoir is full and the seepage is taking place at
full rate. The seepage water below the phreatic line exerts a pore pressure on the soil mass which lies below
the phreatic line, see Figure 2‐12.
b
α4
V41
Phreatic line
h4 V42
N4
W4 τ4
Figure 2‐11:‐ stability of Downstream slope during steady seepage
Consider slice number 4 in the above Figure, the weight of the slice is defined as:
W4 = γ dry * V41 + γ sat * V42
α4 read from the scaled drawing of the earth fill dam. And tangential component of W4 is defined as, whish is
shear stress developed at failure plane:
T4 = W4 sin α 4
The pore pressure for slice 4 is represented by the piezometric head h4. Hence pore water pressure is:
U w 4 = γ w h4
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Lecture notes, Hydraulic Structures‐I, 2010
BDU, EF, School of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
Shear strength developed for the slice is quantified from two soil parameters, apparent cohesion c and angle
of shearing resistance ф. Shear strength at failure plane is defined as:
τ 4 = cL4 + (W4 cos α 4 − γ w h4 L4 ) tan φ
b
Where; L4 is
cos α 4
The factor of safety of slide 4 is :
T4 cL4 + (W cos α 4 − γ w h4 L4 ) tan φ
FS 4 = =
τ4 W4 sin α 4
The factor of safety for the entire circle is then given by the equation:
FS =
∑ c L + ∑ (W cos α − γ
i i i i h Li ) tan φ
w i
∑W sin α i i
2. Stability of Upstream Slope during sudden drawdown
For the u/s slope, the critical condition can occur, when the reservoir is suddenly emptied. In such case, the
water level within the soil will remain as it was when the soil pores were full of water. The weight of this water
within the soil now tends to slide the u/s slope along a circular arc.
The tangential components of the saturated soil lying over the arc will create a disturbing force; while the
normal component minus the pore pressure shall supply the shear strength of the soil.
Table: General format of computation
Slice# W T N U l Ul N’=N‐ul tanΦ N’tanΦ Cl N’tanΦ+cl
1
…
n
Σ T Σ
(N’tanΦ+cl)
The factor of safety is finally obtained from the equation
FS =
∑c L + ∑ N
i i
'
tan φ
∑T '
Where: N’ represents normal components on submerged density
T’ represents tangential components on saturated unit weight of the soil
Table 2‐2: ‐ Loading condition & FoS min. (USACE)
Case Loading Condition Critical Slope FOS min
1 End of construction Upstream 1.3
Downstream 1.3
2 Sudden drawdown Upstream 1.3
3 Steady state Seepage Upstream 1.5
Downstream 1.5
4 Steady state seepage Upstream 1.1
with earthquake Downstream 1.1
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Lecture notes, Hydraulic Structures‐I, 2010
BDU, EF, School of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
2.7 Seepage control Measures
The seepage may occur through the body, foundation, at abutment and junctions with the concrete and
outlets and spillway structures. The measures that should be adopted for control of seepage on the body of
the dam include progressive zoning, horizontal drainage and filter, inclined or vertical chimney drains and toe
drains. For under‐seepage control, it may include positive cutoff and backfill and compaction with impervious
material, concrete cutoff wall, grout curtain, sheet piles, u/s impervious blanketing, vertical drains, and relief
walls and filter trench.
Purpose of drainage:
1. To reduce the pore pressure thereby increasing the stability of the dam, and
2. To prevent piping so that soil particles are not carried away from the embankment. A drainage system
consists of two components:
a. The protective filter
b. The conduit which collects and disposes of the seepage.
The water seeping through the body and foundation of the dam has the following adverse effects:
1. Loss of water
2. Pore water pressure: It develops below the phreatic line and hence, reduces the effective stress and
the shear strength, causing instability of the dam.
3. Sloughing: if the phreatic line cuts the d/s face, local sloughing of the d/s face occurs.
4. Piping: the seeping water has erosive effect on the soil due to which the soil particles are dislodged
and piping occurs.
2.7.1 Measures to control seepage through the dam
For reducing seepage through the dam, a core of impervious material such as silty clay or clay silt is usually
provided. The core may be constructed also from concrete, steel and masonry. The impervious core forms a
barrier within the body of the dam against the seepage water. The type of core selected depending on the
availability of materials, topography of the site, foundation condition, etc.
Thickness of the core: as the soil used in the core has very low permeability, the required thickness is usually
very small. Core material has very low shear strength hence, the smaller the thickness, the better its stability it
forms.
The minimum thickness of the core depends upon the following factors:
a. permissible seepage through the dam
b. type of material available for core
c. design of filter
d. minimum thickness required for construction
2.7.2 Measures to control seepage through foundation
If the foundation of an earth dam consists of pervious stratum, various under‐seepage control measures are
required to reduce the quantity of seepage and to check piping failure. The following measures are usually
adopted:
i. Cutoff trench ii. Concrete diaphragm
iii. Grout curtain iv. Steel sheet pile, v. u/S blanket and relief walls
2.8 Internal drainage system
Some water always seeps through the dam and the foundation even measures are taken. The water which has
seeped through should be suitably drained away from the d/s portion of the dam to minimize it all effects. For
safe drainage of the seepage from the dam and the foundation, the following measures are adopted:
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Lecture notes, Hydraulic Structures‐I, 2010
BDU, EF, School of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
1. Drainage of the dam
a. Horizontal drainage b. Rock toe c. Chimney drain, d. Strip drain
2. Drainage of the foundation
i. toe drain ii. Drainage trench iii. Relief walls iv. Vertical sand drains
2.8.1 Design of Filters
Properly designed graded filters are required between the drain system and the adjoining soil to prevent the
migration of the soil particles into the drains which may cause piping. Filters are graded so that is finer layers
are adjacent to the drains. Filters are also provided b/n the core of fine‐grained soils and the shells of the
coarse‐grained soils to prevent migration of particles from the impervious zone to the pervious zone when the
seepage flow takes place.
The two basic requirements of the filter that should be satisfied are:
1. The filter material should be fine enough to prevent the particles of the protected soil from being
washed into its voids. According to Terzaghi, this requirement will be satisfied, if D15 size of the filter
material is not more than 4 to 5 times D85 of the base (protected) material
2. The filter material should be coarse enough so that it acts as a drain for the protected material. Again,
according to Terzaghi, this requirement will be satisfied, if the D15 size of the filter material is at least
4 to 5 times the D15 size of the protected material.
Both the above criteria can be written as:
D15 of the filter material
< 4 to 5 D15 of the filter material
D85 of the protected material D15 of the protected material
2.9 Dam Surface Protection
2.9.1 U/S face protection
The u/s face should be protected against erosive action due to the waves. The protective layer starts at the
top of the dam and extends some meter from the minimum water level. It may be stone, pre‐cast concrete
blocks, monolithic concrete pavements, and others. For earth dams, stone rip rap is mostly used.
2.9.2 D/S face protection
The d/s face of the dam should be protected against erosion due to wind and rain above the tail water level
and due to waves below that level. The rip rap is provided on the d/s face below the tail water level for
protection against waves. In addition to surface protection, the d/s face of the dam should be provided with
suitable berms to minimize surface erosion due to rains. Generally, one berm is provided for each 10m height
increase. The berms are usually serves for one or more of the following purposes:
a. To break the continuity of the d/s slope and hence to reduce the erosion due to rain water;
b. To provide a level surface for the construction and maintenance operation;
c. To prevent the undermining of the lower edge of the stone pitching provided on the d/s face; and
d. To help in preventing the sloughing of the d/s slope to some extent.
2.10 Rockfill Dams
It is a type of the dam in which rock fragments (rock fill) is the main construction material. The mass stability
of a rockfill dam is mainly developed by the friction and interaction of the particles.
A rock dam usually consists of two basic structural elements:
1. An embankment built of rockfill
2. An impervious element
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Lecture notes, Hydraulic Structures‐I, 2010
BDU, EF, School of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
The embankment provides the support and the stability, while the impervious element checks the seepage
through the dam.
There are basically two types of rockfill dams:
1. Impervious membrane type
2. Earth core type
2.10.1 Design consideration of Rockfill dam
The design and construction of a rockfill dam is governed by more or less the same principles as those used in
an earth dam. Rockfill dams require much strong foundation than earth dams but not strong as concrete
dams. More or less the design and construction of rockfill dams is almost similar to that of earth dams.
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Lecture notes, Hydraulic Structures‐I, 2010