Predicting Impacts of Water Management in Coastal

Zones by Hydraulic and Salinity Modeling

C.T. Hoanha, N.D. Phongb, J.W. Gowingc, T.P. Tuongd, N.X. Hiene and N.D. Date
a
International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Regional Office for Southeast Asia, Penang,
Malaysia.
b
University of Nong Lam, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, and University of Melbourne, Australia.
c
University of Newcastle, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.
d
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Los Baños, Philippines.
e
Institute of Water Resources Planning, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.

Abstract: Tidal effects and salinity intrusion are two defining characteristics of coastal zones. The first
causes complex variations of water level and unsteady flows in the river and canal network. The second is a
constraint to agriculture and freshwater fishery, but provides suitable conditions for brackish water
aquaculture. These phenomena bring about conflicts in the development of agriculture, fishery and
aquaculture due to different requirements of water quality. Hydraulic and salinity modeling have been
developed and applied to simulate tidal propagation and salinity intrusion, and to analyze the effects of water
management on hydrological and salinity conditions that control land use in the coastal zones. This paper
presents experiences in developing and applying a hydraulic and salinity model, the Vietnam River Systems
and Plains (VRSAP), for water resources development in Ca Mau Peninsula, Mekong Delta, Vietnam.
During the planning and feasibility study phase in 1989-1991 that focused on rice production, this model was
used to analyze the impacts of protection from salinity intrusion for different water management units.
During the implementation and operation phase from 1992 to the present, it has been used to find out suitable
sluice operation schedules for improving agricultural production in the region. Recently, because conflicts in
the requirement of fresh water for agriculture and brackish water for shrimp culture occurred, the model is
being refined and applied to upscale the effects of intaking saline water and supplying fresh water from the
field to canal system level, and also to analyze the effect of sluice operation on the hydrological conditions
that would accommodate both agriculture and aquaculture in different parts of the region.
Keywords: Land use conflicts; Land use planning; Water management; Water quality; Tidal effects.

1. INTRODUCTION impacts of water management on land uses and

water quality in a coastal zone, Ca Mau Peninsula
Daily tidal fluctuation and seasonal salinity
of the Mekong Delta, Vietnam.
intrusion are two defining characteristics of
estuarine and deltaic coastal zones. The tidal effect
2. HYRAULIC AND SALINITY
causes complex variations of water level and
MODELING
unsteady flows in the river and canal network,
while saltwater intrusion determines water
Hydraulic and salinity models have been
suitability for irrigation, fishery and aquaculture.
developed and applied previously to simulate tidal
Hence, coastal zone management has focused
propagation and salinity intrusion, and to analyze
strongly on the resolution of conflicting demands
the effects of water management on hydrological
arising from the multiple uses of resources (Klein,
conditions that control land use in coastal zones.
2002). Particular problems follow from the
One-dimensional hydraulic models rely on
introduction of brackish water shrimp aquaculture,
transect-based sampling of depths and velocities,
which has led to adverse social and environmental
and solve standard equations (Manning’s equation,
impacts (WRI, 1996). This paper presents
mass and energy balance) to simulate water
experiences in applying the hydraulic and salinity
surface levels and mean streamwise velocity at
modeling approach for analyzing the likely
each transect over a range of discharges (IPCC,

1
2002). In many development studies in Europe, the
USA and Asia (Mekong, Chao Phraya, 3. CA MAU PENINSULA, MEKONG DELTA
Brahmaputra), the results obtained from one-
dimensional models have been satisfactory (van The Quan Lo Phung Hiep region (hereafter called
der Tuin, 1991). the QLPH region) in Ca Mau Peninsula, with a total
area of approximately 450,000 hectares, is a target
In this study, the Vietnam River Systems and area for expansion of rice production into the saline
Plains (VRSAP) model (KHUE, 1986, NEDECO, water zone (Fig. 1). The QLPH region is a low-lying,
1991) has been used to analyze the hydraulic and flat delta with elevation less than 1.5 m. The two
salinity dynamics of the study region. Water most important soil groups are the acid sulphate soils
interchange between any canal segment and the (ASS, 52% of the total area) mainly located in water
adjoining land area is simulated by indicating the management units (WMUs) 33, 34, 36, 37, 38, 39,
nature of flow between them as either uncontrolled 52 and 54 in the west (Fig. 1), and the saline soils
or controlled by structures. VRSAP aggregates (47%). Sandy and peaty soils cover only about 1% of
water interchanges in a scheme of 372 nodes, 455 the total area. The region has two distinct seasons:
segments and 190 fields to compute water level the rainy (or wet) season from May to November and
and salinity for each node and each field, and the dry season from mid-November to April.
discharge for each segment. A segment can also be Roughly 90% of the annual rainfall (1,800 mm) is
a hydraulic structure, such as a sluice, operated in concentrated in the rainy season. Hence, freshwater
various ways: completely closed, open for one availability for irrigation is a major constraint of
direction flow, or open for two direction flows. agriculture in the dry season.
More details about the algorithms of the model and
its performance are given by Dong (2000),
Halcrow (2001), and Hoanh et al. (2003).

Figure 1: Location of Quan Lo Phung Hiep region, net flow and direction during one tidal cycle of 14.5 days in
February 1990 in the main river and canal system.

Freshwater zone
Main canals from
Bassac River
3
60 m /s

Cai Lon River

3
148 m /s

Saline water zone 28

36 35 29 My Thanh River
3
Boundary 37 16 m /s
52 30a 30b
of Ca Mau 38 31
54 32
Peninsula 39 33 40
34 41
42 LEGEND
44 43
Shallow acid soils
Gulf of
Deep acid soils
Thailand
Non-acid soils
Ganh Hao River 32 Water mana-
3
Ong Doc River 26 m /sec gement unit
3
8 m /s
South China Quan Lo
Phung Hiep

4. PREDICTING IMPACTS OF WATER makes water quality in most parts of the QLPH
CONTROL region unsuitable for irrigation from January to
June. Hence, protection against saltwater intrusion
Saltwater intrusion from the sea, mainly through
was identified as the key intervention for
the My Thanh and Ganh Hao rivers (Fig. 1),

2
agricultural development. The development of a Using VRSAP, Sonntag and McNamee (1989)
water control system for this purpose can be investigated three water management options
separated into 3 phases: the planning and against saltwater intrusion during the planning
feasibility study phase (1989-1991), the phase:
implementation phase (1992-2000) and the (A) Protection for each small unit bordered by
operation and adjustment phase (from 2001 to the lateral canals and irrigation of some units
present). near the main streams.
(B) Protection and irrigation of the central part of
4.1 The planning and feasibility study phase
250,000 ha by construction of 11 large
Three main questions in this planning phase were: sluices along the southern boundary of water
Q1: How to provide fresh water and protect from management units 28, 29, 30a, 31, 32, 33, 34
saltwater intrusion to increase rice and 39 (Fig. 1).
production? (C) Protection and irrigation of the whole QLPH
Q2: Where is the boundary of the agricultural region by construction of a dike along the
intensification area? seashore and very large sluices at the My
Q3: What are the effects of saltwater protection Thanh and Ganh Hao river mouths.
and irrigation on the hydrological conditions The answers to planning questions derived from
in the QLPH region and surrounding area? the model results are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1: Answers to planning questions for three water control options

Planning questions
Option
Question 1 Question 2 Question 3
Irrigation in dry
• Build many small sluices in secondary Fresh water will be supplied only
season is possible
canals. in protected secondary canals.
A only for WMU 28
• Enlarge canals connecting WMUs 28 Changes in hydrological
and a part of WMU
and 29 (Fig. 1) to the Bassac River. conditions are not significant.
29.
• Build 11 large sluices to protect the
Irrigation is possible
central part.
in the central part Brackish water environment will
• Enlarge canals connecting WMUs 28,
B except in WMUs 30b change to freshwater environment
29 and 35 to the Bassac River.
and 40 to 44 (see in the central part of QLPH.
• Dredge and enlarge primary and
Fig. 1).
secondary canals in the central part.
• Build 5 large sluices in the main rivers
Brackish water environment will
to protect the whole QLPH region. Irrigation for the
change to freshwater environment
• Enlarge canals connecting WMUs 28, whole project area is
over the whole QLPH region.
C 29 and 35 to the Bassac River. possible, but requires
Salt water intrudes farther into the
• Dredge and enlarge primary and high investment
Bassac River and the Cai Lon
secondary canals in the whole QLPH costs.
River in the dry season.
region.

The model predicted that the water level in options QLPH region (ESSA et al., 1992). Twenty-eight
B and C would be significantly lower during the development scenarios were formulated by
dry season (0.25 cm lower in the central main combining 7 construction schedules with 4 land
canal) compared with the natural condition. The use strategies. The schedules were either
major effect would be the change from saline to simultaneously started in the whole region or
freshwater environment. The effect on salinity sequentially from east to west, in a short duration
intrusion length in the Bassac River would be of 5 years with external (international) funding
insignificant, since the amount of fresh water sources or in a long duration of 7 years based on
diverted into the protected area would be only 6% government budget, or by a phase of 3 years each
of the dry season flow of this river. with an interruption of 5 years in between to learn
the environmental and social impacts. The land use
As a follow-up action, option B was analyzed in
strategies were maximizing rice production,
detail in a feasibility study to find out a suitable
maximizing income, diversifying cropping systems
investment strategy for water management in the
or minimizing the effects of acid water in the

3
QLPH region by only cultivating acid-tolerant pond shrimp culture became popular (Brennan et
crops on deep and slight ASS, and slow land use al., 2000). The area of shrimp culture in the region
changes on shallow and severe ASS. increased from about 10,000 ha in 1990 to over
30,000 ha in 1996 (SIWRP, 2003).
The scenario analysis (ESSA et al., 1992) showed
that the difference in construction schedules has an As the sluices in the western part became
insignificant effect on economic returns of the operational after 1998, thereby advancing the
investment if investments in land use changes by salinity-protected area westward, the supply of
farmers are not at pace with those for major water brackish water required for shrimp production was
control structures by the government. However, a cut off. Many farmers were forced to abandon
strategy of minimizing acid water combined with a aquaculture and to convert to less profitable rice
long duration schedule showed significantly higher farming. Some shrimp farmers resisted and
economic returns than other scenarios because the attempted to maintain favorable conditions by
latter need investment to enhance acid water blocking secondary canals and pumping brackish
drainage in the western part of the region. water into their fields, but this created conflict
with rice farmers, who depended on fresh water to
4.2 The implementation phase
irrigate their fields. Such conflict was serious in
The construction schedule based on a government Bac Lieu Province, where the interface between
budget started in 1992. In response to the concern fresh and saline water exists, and prompted the
about effects of acid water in the western part, the government to re-examine the original policy
project was split into three phases (Haskoning, emphasizing rice production and to explore
1998): phases I and II cover the areas of non-acid alternative land use plans that would accommodate
and slightly acid soils in the east and the shrimp cultivation in the western part while
southwest; phase III covers the area with severe maintaining the areas of intensive rice production
acid soils in the northwest (WMUs 39, 52 and 54; in the eastern part (Hoanh et al., 2003). Land use
Fig. 1). zoning was carried out by consulting with local
and provincial authorities, and national planners.
The progressive increase in salinity protection
A boundary between the intensive agricultural
afforded by the phased construction of sluices
zone (rice based) and mixed agri-aquacultural
from east to west resulted in a corresponding east-
zone (shrimp-rice based) was outlined and three
west expansion of intensified rice cultivation area.
benchmark sites with specific salinity requirements
In 1996, the double rice area increased to 82,000
were identified along the arterial Phung Hiep canal
ha (28% of target protected area). During this
in the central part of the QLPH region. An urgent
period, under the "reform" policy, rice production
question raised by the authorities of Bac Lieu
shifted from a subsistence economy to a market
Province was how to operate the sluice system to
economy, and farmers' income from rice
simultaneously maintain both brackish water and
cultivation gradually increased. In 1997, when 7
freshwater conditions in different areas that are
sluices were built, social assessment and
suitable for intensive rice, shrimp-rice and shrimp
environmental impacts were reviewed (SIWRP,
cropping patterns.
1997 and Haskoning, 1998), and implementation
of phase III was decided. Results from the VRSAP The VRSAP model was applied with an updated
model showed that water level and salinity had scheme of 1,638 segments, 1,032 nodes and 648
been controlled for the purpose of agricultural fields to find out a suitable sluice operation
development. Hence, in 2000, when 11 sluices had schedule. Examples of model outputs for different
been built and the secondary canals in the acid sluice operation options are given in Figure 2. If
sulphate soil area had been excavated, the total all sluices were closed, the 10 dS/m isohaline
area of double and triple rice and upland crops (border of gray zone on the maps) would be west
increased to 101,000 ha (35% of target protected of the QLPH region and salinity would not be high
area). enough for shrimp in the central part. If the Lang
Tram sluice were opened, the 10 dS/m isohaline
4.3 Operation and adjustment phase
would move progressively eastward and intrude
In the 1980s, farmers practiced extensive shrimp into the intensive agricultural zones. However, at
culture (with Metapenaeus spp. fry naturally the same time as the Lang Tram sluice were
recruited from incoming sea water) in areas with opened, opening the Ho Phong sluice at ebb tide to
acid sulphate soils. From the mid-1990s onward, drain water out would curtail the eastward advance
shrimp farmers, attracted by the high profits (two of the salinity boundary caused by opening the
to ten times those of rice cultivation) of producing Lang Tram sluice.
tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) for export,
Using the knowledge gathered from such
switched to stocking tiger shrimp post-larvae, and
modeling exercises, several scenarios comprising

4
different combinations of sluice operation were Bac Lieu Province to guide actual sluice
formulated: (a) opening all the sluices to the west operations from 2001 onward and salinity has been
of Ho Phong to allow salinity intrusion, (b) managed as predicted by the model. The new
opening the Ho Phong sluice at ebb tide to curtail water management policy has had a profound
excessive salinity intrusion to the intensive effect on land use, in particular aquaculture, with a
agricultural zone, and (c) adjusting the opening significant expansion of shrimp cultivation area to
duration of each sluice to control the movement of 51,000 ha in 2001 and 64,000 ha in 2002 (SIWRP,
the salinity boundary. These scenarios were 2003).
provided to the water management authorities in

Figure 2: An example from analysis of the effects of main sluice operation on salinity intrusion in the
protected area (bordered by dark line in Figure 1).
Open Lang Tram for two direction flows
Close all sluices Open Lang Tram for two direction flows Open Ho Phong for drainage

Benchmark Day 15 Day 15 Day 15

Sluice

Day 30 Day 30 Day 30

Legend
Salinity
10 dS/m
20 dS/m
Day 45
30 dS/m
Day 45 Day 45

Direction
of saltwater
flow

Day 60 Day 60 Day 60

5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS In the feasibility study, a main question is how to

achieve the highest economic returns from an
This case study illustrates the value of hydraulic
investment in salinity control and irrigation
and salinity modeling for water resource
system. Since the economic returns are dictated
development in the coastal zone where tidal flow
by land uses, which in turn depend greatly on
and saltwater intrusion are important phenomena.
hydrological conditions, the ability to predict
In the planning and feasibility study phase, the
future changes in these conditions is the key
model helps answer basic questions on
factor in the investment decision. The model
engineering interventions and likely impacts.
results helped identify the best construction
Alternative empirical methods (van der Tuin,
schedule that would bring the highest return on
1991) reflect only the statistical relationships
the investment. Such analysis is not possible
between model inputs and outputs without
without the model because no statistical methods
physical meaning; therefore, they cannot be used
can provide the effects of sluice operation on
to predict the future effects of the anticipated
water level and salinity in each year in the whole
interventions that we have not yet experienced.
region.
Simple hydraulic scale modeling (van der Tuin,
1991) cannot be applied for a dense network of a In the implementation phase and operation and
few thousand segments under tidal effects as in adjustment phase, the model was a useful tool to
Ca Mau Peninsula. The mathematical model is the determine suitable sluice operation schedules to
only solution for this complex situation. solve the conflict between the need for fresh
water for rice cultivation in the eastern part and
the need for brackish water for shrimp raising in

5
the western part of the region. The model outputs EuroConsult and Delft Hydraulics, the
also helped identify the need and effect of new Netherlands for Ministry of Agriculture and
interventions such as adjusting cropping systems, Rural Development, Vietnam.
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Phong, 2003. Livelihood impacts of water
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certain degree of uncertainty not only because the
of the Mekong River Delta. Journal of Water
future is by definition uncertain but also because
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IPCC, 2002. State-of-the-art in habitat modeling.
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Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
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(as in the operation and adjustment phase of this
Intrusion in the Mekong Main Estuarine
study) rather than building new infrastructure that
System; Technical paper, Mekong Secretariat,
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