Fundamentals in Programming Laboratory Reviewer

Algorithm
✓ Precise step by step process that terminates after a finite of number of
algorithm problem got solved in the end
✓ Recipe for solving problems
✓ Finite set of instruction

Properties of an Algorithm
➢ Finiteness – there’s an exact number of steps that must be taken and it
has an end
➢ Absence of Ambiguity – Clear and precise instruction specification
➢ Sequence of Execution – Top to bottom approach
➢ Input & Output – The intake and the expected outcome
➢ Effectiveness – The solution is guaranteed to give a correct answer
➢ Scope Definition – Applies to a specific problem or class of problem

Steps in Program Development

1. The problem must be stated clearly
2. Plan then write the logical order of instructions because the computer
exactly follows the direction that is written.
3. Code it.
4. Code it, but with variables na.
5. Run and Debug

Methods of Specifying Algorithms

❖ Flowchart
➢ Traditional graphic tool with standardized symbols. Shows the sequence
steps in algorithm.
❖ Pseudocode
➢ Natural Language style and with controlled nature.

The “Must be Followed” Guidelines

Flowchart
• Always starts from top to bottom
• Use the connecting blocks pag di maintindihan yung flowchart
• Avoid intersecting flowlines. I.e.,
• Use meaningful description in the symbol.

Pseudocode
• One statement per line
• Capitalize Initial Keyword
• Indention will show hierarchy and structures
• End multi-line structures
• Keep statements LANGUAGE independent
Fundamentals in Programming Laboratory Reviewer

Flowchart V Pseudocode
Flowchart is the first and well-known design tool that is being widely used
by programmers, the down thing is, it doesn’t reflect some concepts of a
structured programming very well. Pseudocode, on the other hand, is a newer
toll and has the features that makes it more reflective of the structured concepts.
The drawback is that the narrative presentation is not as easy to understand
and/or follow. This just shows the difference of these two. They are both useful
when it comes to programming, but also has some of its drawbacks.

Flowchart Advantages
➢ Standardized
➢ Visual

Flowchart Disadvantages
➢ Hard to modify
➢ Structured design elements not implemented
➢ Special Software Required

Pseudocode Advantages
➢ Easily Modified
➢ Implements structured concepts
➢ Done easily on word processor

Pseudocode Disadvantages
➢ Not visual
➢ No accepted standard, varies from company to company
Fundamentals in Programming Laboratory Reviewer

Before jumping in the actual flowcharting and Algorithm, here are the
FLOWCHART SYMBOLS that may help for an effective flowchart.

SYMBOL NAME DESCRIPTION

Defines the starting and
TERMINAL the ending point of a
flowchart.

The preparation or
INITIALIZATION initialization of memory
space for data processing.

The inputting of data for

INPUT/OUTPUT processing and printing
out of processed data.

Manipulation of data
PROCESS (assignments and
mathematical
computations)

Defines logical sequence

FLOWLINES of the program. It points
to the ext. symbol to be
performed.

Connects to the flowchart

ON-PAGE CONNECTOR to avoid spaghetti
connection on the same
page.

Connects the flowchart on

OFF-PAGE CONNECTOR different page to avoid
spaghetti connection.

Process conditions using

DECISION the relational operators.
Used for trapping and
filtering data.
 Fundamentals in Programming Laboratory Reviewer

FLOWCHART AND PSEUDOCODE REPRESENTATION

Amount <
100 FLOWCHART

interestRate = .06 interestRate = .10

PSEUDOCODE
IF amount < 100
interestRate = 0.6
ELSE
interestRate = .10
ENDIF

LOOPING STRUCTURE

• In flowcharting, one of the more confusing things is to separate

selection from looping. This is because each structure uses the
diamond as their control symbol.
• Pseudocode avoids this by using specific keywords to designate
looping.
➢ WHILE/ENDWHILE – Condition checked before loop
➢ REPEAT/UNTIL – Condition checked after loop
Fundamentals in Programming Laboratory Reviewer

Examples:

Write an algorithm, flowchart, and code, to determine a student’s final

grade and indicate whether it is passing or failing. The final grade is
calculated as the average of four marks.

Pseudocode:

• Input a set of 4 marks

• Calculate their average by summing and dividing by 4
• If average is below 50
Print “What a Failure”
Else
Print “Pass, but still a failure”
Detailed Algorithm:

Step 1: Input M1, M2, M3, M4

Step 2: GRADE = (M1 +M2 + M3 + M4)/4
Step 3: if (GRADE < 50) then
Print “What a Failure”
Else

Print “Pass, but still a failure”

Endif
Fundamentals in Programming Laboratory Reviewer

Source Code:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

int M1, M2, M3, M4, aveGrade;

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {

printf("Input Mark 1: ");

scanf("%d", &M1);
printf("Input Mark 2: ");
scanf("%d", &M2);
printf("Input Mark 3: ");
scanf("%d", &M3);

printf("Input Mark 4: ");

scanf("%d", &M4);

aveGrade = (M1 + M2 + M3 + M4)/4;

//Insert Asian Chinese Accent//

if (aveGrade < 50 ){
printf ("\nWhat a Failure");

}
else

printf ("\nPassed, but still a failure");

return 0;
}
Fundamentals in Programming Lecture
Electronic Data Processing / EDP -
• Process of collecting data and processing them to produce meaningful info’s by
using computer processing software and standard databases tools. It uses the
latest technique for processing large chunks of data. They use software.
• Digitalize transaction records on where it is stored on hardware(?). It is a
reliable, fast, and efficient technique, the Sigma Chad.
• EDP (electronic data processing) is a well-known term on the olden days of
earth. Now, we use the terms IS (Information Services) or MIS (Management
Information Services or Systems).

Advantages of EDP -
• Speed
• Information can be pulled easily for it is stored somewhere you can
access easily.
• Efficiency
• Easy and quick generation of the following documents and
materials.
• Economic
• Less overtime and reduced data managing cost.
• Reduced Labor
• No work and easy going
• Automatic Operation
• Unlike the manual doing stuffs, this automatically works and stores
the things on and by the computer program.
• Decision Making Capability
• Can decide on a certain decision instruction automatically. Here
are the two steps.
▪ Determines whether it is true or false
▪ Chooses a course of action on one of the alternatives that is
in the program.
• Compact Storage
• Just large storage size
• Accuracy
• That’s already in there. Accurate.
Disadvantages of EDP -
• Computer related failures. I.e., Powah failure, viruses, hackers, anything that
will mess your computers from the inside
• Basically, must follow the concept of GIGO (Garbage In, Garbage Out)
• Human Error
• Comp Security

Elemental Components of EDP

1. Hardware
• The body of the computer
2. Software/User Program/ Procedure
• The nervous system of the computer consists of programs and routines.
• The whole operation
3. User Program
• Programs that have the needed instructions for that.
4. Personnel/Peopleware
• Technical People: System Analyst, Programmer, Software Engineers. Only
needs the system documentation.
• Nontechnical People: User, Operator. Only needs to know how to operate
the system. Only needs a user manual.
o User’s Manual contents: Step by step procedure
5. Data ware
• Data - Collection of unorganized details that are needed to be sorted out.
Raw FAQs, unprocessed, INPUT.
• Information - Relevant information that is needed. Processed data good
for decision making, OUTPUT.

Hardware - The physical body parts of the computer.

• Computer came from the Latin word “Computare” that means to calculate or
programmable Machine.
• An AED (Advance Electronic Device) that accepts the raw data input and
processes it then boom.

Functional Units of a Computer System

• Accept the data and the program as an input
• Store data program then retrieve it if needed
• Process data
• Communicate the information as output
 DIAGRAM

Software - The set of instructions or ya can also describe it as the nervous

system of the computer.

Classification of Software
• System Software - The Operating System, Compiler, and Utility Programs.
• Application Software - The apps.
Application Software Categories
• Business Software: Financial Software, Accounting Software, etc.
• Graphic & Multimedia: VLC, AutoCAD, Photoshop
• Home/Personal/Education: MS Teams, Computer Games, Microsoft Office
• Communication: Zoom, Messenger, Skype
Application Types Categories
• Proprietary - software that their source codes can’t be dabbled/accessed by
anyone. It is protected by legal rights law to avoid such acts of nastiness i.e.,
piracy.
• In-House - Being developed by own company resources.
• Off-the-Shelf - can be bought and is being mass produced in the market. That’s
it, no need for you to do anything other than search that certain software that
has what you are looking for. Then buy it. That’s it.
• Customized - Software that the user really wants. Commonly being programmed
by In-House programmers.
Forms of Application Software
• Packaged Software: (You know Microsoft Teams, Words, PowerPoint, Excel,
etc... Yes, that's what it is, they came in a package.)
• Customized Software: (Can be modified by the developers with the request of the
user.)
• Web Application: (Runs on Websites)
• Open Source: (Can be modified by anyone.)
• Shareware: (Distributed for free trial basis)
• Freeware: (Offered at no cost)
• Public Domain Software: (No copyrights, a public one, yeah yeah.)

Types of Programming Languages

• Machine Language - form of binary codes and are much easier for the machine to
understand.
• Assembly Language - This is a low-level type of programming language which is
commonly designed for a specific type of processor. In this programming
language, they use abbreviations such as SUB (substruction) & MUL
(multiplication). All assembly languages differ in processors, and they use
mnemonic codes.
• Examples of Spelling Mnemonic
▪ ARITHMETIC: A rat in the house may eat the ice cream.
▪ BECAUSE: Big elephants can always understand small elephants.
▪ DOES: Daddy only eats sandwiches.
▪ FRIEND: Fred rushed in eating nine doughnuts.
▪ GEOGRAPHY: George's elderly old grandfather rode a pig home
yesterday.

• High Level Languages - These are what you call programming languages, I.e., C,
C++, Pascal, HTML, etc.… These are the things that our lovely prof will discuss
with us. And it is also what every programmer uses.
• Fourth Generation Languages/ 4GL’s - Object Oriented Programming, Visual
Basic, Java, can be considered as 4GL’s. JARVIS from the movie Iron Man is
considered as a 4GL as well.
Program Development Process
• Process of expressing a fully detailed algorithm on a High-Level Programming
language.
• Note: Algorithm = Pseudocode
• Problem Solving Phase
• Problem Definition
• General Solution
• Simulation/Desk Checking
• Implementation Page
• Specific Solution
• Run/Debug
• Maintenance
 C LANGUAGE:
HISTORY - was created by Dennis Ritchie at the Bell Telephone Laboratories in 1972.
Different versions of C started to come out and subtle differences between
implementations started to cause programmers headaches. In response to this problem,
the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) formed a committee in 1983 to
establish a standard definition of C, which became known as ANSI Standard C. With
few exceptions, every modern C compiler has the ability to adhere to this standard. The
C language was named “C language” because its predecessor was called B. the B
language was developed by Ken Thompson of Bell Labs.
WHY USE C?
• C is a powerful and flexible language: C is used for diverse projects (E.g., operating
systems, Word processors, graphics, spreadsheets, and even compilers for other
languages.)
• It’s a popular language preferred by professional programmers: As a result, a
wide variety of C compilers and helpful accessories are available.
• C is a portable language: Portable means that a C program written for one computer
system can be compiled and run on another system with little or no modification.
• C language of few words, containing only a handful of terms, called keywords:
this serves as the base on which the language's functionality is built. As you program
with C, you will find that it can be programmed to do any task.
• C is structured language: the distinguish feature of a structured language is
compartmentalization of code and data. This is the ability of a language to section off
and hide from the rest of the program all information and instructions necessary to
perform a specific task.
• C is modular: C code can (and should) be written in routines called function. By
passing pieces of information to the functions, you can create useful, reusable code.

ALGORITHM
An algorithm is a sequence of instructions that tells how to solve a particular problem.
An algorithm must be specified exactly, so there can be no doubt about what to do next,
and it must have a finite number of steps.
PROPERTIES OF AN ALGORITHM:
• Finiteness: there is an exact number of steps and has an end.
• Absence of ambiguity: every instructions is clearly specified.
• Sequence of execution: instructions are performed from top to bottom.
 • Input and output: unknowns of the problem are specified and with expected
outcome.
• Effectiveness: the prescribed solution is guaranteed to give the correct answers
and the specified process is faithfully carried out.
• Scope definition: only applies to a specific problem.
STEPS IN PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT:
1. State the problem clearly.
2. Plan and write the logical order of instructions.
3. Code the program.
4. Enter the program into the computer.
5. Run and debug the program.
FLOWCHART:
A graphic representation of an algorithm, often used in the design phase of
programming to work out the logical flow of a program.
FLOWCHARTING GUIDELINES:
• The flowchart should flow from top to bottom
• If the chart becomes complex, utilize connecting blocks
• Avoid intersecting flowlines
• Use meaningful description in the symbol
PSEUDOCODE:
An outline of program, written in a form that can easily be converted into real
programming statements. Pseudocode cannot be compiled nor executed, and there are
no real formatting or syntax rules. It is simply one step - an important one - in producing
the final code. The benefit of pseudocode is that it enables the programmer to
concentrate on the algorithms without worrying about all the syntactic details of a
particular programming language. In fact, you can write pseudocode without even
knowing what programming language you will use for the final implementation.
PSEUDOCODING GUIDELINES:
• Write only one statement per line.
• Capitalize initial keyword.
• Indent to show hierarchy and structures.
• End multi-line structures.
• Keep statements language independent.

TURBO C INTEGRATED PROGRAMMING ENVIRONMENT

The integrated programming environment (IDE) makes it possible to edit, compile, link,
and run a program without ever leaving the Turbo C environment. This allows extremely
rapid recompilation cycles, which make the creation, testing, and debugging of software
easier and faster.
THE PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT CYCLE:
The program Development Cycle has its own steps.
1. Use an editor to create a disk file containing your source code.
2. Compile the source code to create an object file.
3. Link the compile code to create an executable file.
4. Run the program, to see whether it works as originally planned.

DISSECTING C PROGRAM

THE PROGRAM’S COMPONENT:

• The main () function: the main() function consists of the name main followed by
a pair of empty Parentheses (()) and a pair of braces ({}). Within the braces are
statements that make up the main body of the program. Under normal
circumstances, program execution starts at the first statement in main() and
terminates at the last statement in main().
• The #include Directive: The #include directive instruct-the C compiler to add the
contents of an include file into your program during compilation. An include file is
a separate disk file that contains information needed by you program or the
compiler. Include files should all have an H extension
• The variables definition: A variable is a name assigned to a data storage
location. In C, a variable must be defined before it can be used. A variable
definition informs the compiler of the variable's name and the type of data it is to
hold.
• The function prototype: A functional prototype provides the C compiler with the
name and arguments of the functions contained in the program. It must appear
before the function is used. A function prototype is distinct from a function
definition, which contains the actual statements that make up the function.
• Program Statements: C statements display information on-screen, read
keyboard input, perform mathematical operations, call functions, read disk files,
and carry out all the other operations that a program needs to perform.
• The function definition: A function is an independent, self-contained section of
code that is written to perform a certain task. Every function has a name, and the
code in each function is executed by including that function's name in a program
statement. This is known as calling the function.
• Program comments: Any part of your program that starts with /* and ends with
*/ is called a comment. The compiler ignores all comments, so they have
absolutely no effect on how a program works. You can put anything you want into
a comment, and it won't modify the way your program operates.
 • Braces: You use braces ({}) to enclose the program lines that make up every C
function - including the main() function. A group of one or more statement
enclosed with braces is called a block.

SCREEN AND KEYBOARD MANIPULATION

The printf() function
#include <stdio.h>
Printf (format-string [,arguments,…]);
printf() is a function that accepts a series of arguments, each applying to a conversion
specifier in the given format string. printf() prints the formatted information to the
standard output device, usually the display the display screen. When using printf(), you
need to include the standard input/output header file, STDIO.H. The format-string is
required; however, arguments are optional. For each argument, there must be a
conversion specifier. The format-string can also contain escape sequences.
The printf() Format strings
A printf() format string specifies how the output is formatted. Here are the three possible
components of a format string:
• Literal text is displayed exactly as entered in the format string.
• An escape sequence provides special formatting control. An escape sequence
consists of a backlash (\) followed by a single character.
• A conversion specifier consists of the percent sign (%) followed by a single
character.
The scanf() function
#include <stdio.h>
scanff (format-string [,arguments,…]);
scanf() is a function that uses a conversion specifier in a given format-string to place
values into variable arguments. The arguments should be the addresses of the
variables rather than the actual variables themselves. For the numeric variables, you
can pass the address by putting the address-of operator (&) at the beginning of the
variables name. when using scanf(), you should include the STDIO>H header file.
scanf() reads input fields from the standard input stream, usually the keyboard. It places
each of these read fields into an argument. When it places the information, it converts it
to the format of the corresponding specifier in the format string. for each argument,
there must be a conversion specifier.

VARIABLES, CONSTANTS, AND OPERATORS.

VARIABLES
A variable is a named data storage location in your computer's memory. By using an
identifier name in your program, you are in effect, referring to the data stored there.
IDENTIFIER NAME
To use variables in your C programs, you must know how to create identifier names. In
C, identifier names must adhere to the following rules:
• The name can contain letters, digits, and the underscore character LJ.
 • The first character of the name must be a letter. The underscore is also a legal
first character, but its use is not recommended.
• Case matters (that is, upper-and lowercase letters). Thus, the names count,
and count refer to two different variables.
• C keywords can't be used as variables names. A keyword is a word that is part
of the C language. The following list contains some examples of legal and illegal C
variable names:
DATA TYPES:
• Integer variables hold values that have no fractional part (that is, whole numbers
only). Integer variables. come in two flavors: signed integer variables can hold positive
or negative values, whereas unsigned integer variables can hold only positive values
(and 0).
• Floating-point variables hold values that have a fractional part (that is, real
numbers).
VARIABLE DECLARATIONS:
A variable declaration tells the compiler the name and type of a variable and optionally
initialize the variables to a specific value. If your program attempts to use a variable that
hasn't been declared, the compiler generates an error message. A variable declaration
has the following form: Typename varname; Typename specifies the variable type.
THREE MAJOR SCOPE RULES IN C:
• A local variable is one that is defined within a function. The scope of a local variable
is limited to the function in which it is defined.
• A formal variables are declared s arguments of a function. Formal variable copies the
value passed to it and used it inside and function. Like local variables the scope of it is
limited to the function in which it is defined.
• The global variable is declared outside of all function, including the main() function. It
is commonly placed at the beginning of the code after the #include directives.
CONSTANTS:
Like a variable, a constant is a data storage location used by your program. Unlike a
variable the value stored in a constant can't be changed during program execution. C
has two types of constants, each with its own specific uses.
LITERAL CONSTANTS:
A literal constant is a value that is typed directly into the source code wherever it is
needed.
SYMBOLIC CONSTANT
A symbolic constant is a constant that is represented by a name (symbol) in your
program. Like a literal constant, a symbolic constant can't change. Whenever you need
the constant's value in your program, you use its name as you would use a variable
name. The actual value of the symbolic constant needs to be entered only once when it
is first defined.
C has two methods for defining a symbolic constant: the #define directive and the canst
keyword. The #define directive is used as follows: #define COSTNAME literal;
OPERATORS:
An operator is a symbol that instructs c to perform, or action, on one or more operands.
An operand is something that an operator acts on. In C, all operands are expressions. C
operators fall into several categories: The assignment operator, Mathematical
operators, Logical operators.
• The assignment operator is the equal sign (=). Its use in programming in
somewhat different from its use in regular math.
• Mathematical Operators C's mathematical operators perform mathematical
operations such as addition and subtraction. C has two unary mathematical
operators and five binary mathematical operators.
• Unary Mathematical Operators the unary mathematics\al operators are so
named because they take a single operand.
The increment (++) and decrement (--) operators can be used only with variables, not
with constants. The operation performed is to add one to or subtract one from the
operand. In other words, the statements
BINARY MATHEMATICAL OPERATORS:
C's binary operators take two operands. The binary operators, which include the
common mathematical operations found on a calculator.
OPERATOR PREDECENCE AND PARENTHESIS

RELATIONAL OPERATORS:
C's relation operators are used to compare expression, and asking questions.
THE PRECEDENCE OF RELATIONAL OPERATORS:
the relational operators each have precedence that determines the order in which they
performed in a multiple operator expression. Similarly, you can use parenthesis to
modify precedence in expressions that use relational operators.

LOGICAL OPERATORS
C's logical operators let you combine two or more relational expressions into a single
expression that evaluates to either true or false.

PROGRAM CONTROL STATEMENTS

C STATEMENTS:
a statement can consist of the following: a single statement, a block statement, or
nothing (in the case of empty statements). In the descriptions presented here, the term
statement is used to mean all three of these possibilities.
CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS:
C supports two types of conditional statements: if and switch.
THE IF STATEMENT:
the if statement evaluates an expression and directs program execution depending on
the result of that execution.
If expression evaluates to true, statement is executed. If expression evaluates to false,
statement is not executed. In either case, execution then passes to whatever code
follows the if statement.
THE ELSE CLAUSE:
An if statement can optionally include an else clause.
THE NESTED IFS:
A nested if is an if statement that is the object of either an if or else. The reason that
nested ifs are so troublesome is that it can be difficult to know what else associates with
what if. in C, the else is linked to the closest preceding if that does not already have an
else statement associated with it. In this case, the else is associated with the if(y)
statement. To make the else associate with the if(x) you must use braces to override its
normal association.

THE IF-ELSE-IF LADDER

The condition is evaluated from top downward. As soon as a true condition is found, the
statement associated with it is executed, and the rest of the ladder is bypassed. If none
of the conditions are true, the final else is executed. The final else often acts as a
default condition; that is, if all other condition tests fails, the last else statement is
performed. If the final else is not present, then no action takes place if all other
conditions are false.
THE SWITCH STATEMENT:
The switch statement allows for multiple branches from a single expression, its more
efficient and easier to follow than a multileveled if statement. A switch statement
evaluates an expression and then branches to the case statement that contains the
template matching the expression's result. If no template matches the expression's
result, control goes to the default statement. If there is no default statement, control
goes to the end of the switch statement. Program flow continues from the case
statement down unless a break statement is encountered. In that case, control goes to
the end of the switch statement.
LOOPS
loops allow a set of instructions to be performed until a certain condition is reached.
This condition may be predefined as in the for loop, or open-ended as in the while and
do loops.
THE FOR STATEMENT:
Initial is any valid C expression. It is usually an assignment statement that sets the
variable to a particular value.
Condition is any valid C expression. It is usually a relational expression. When
condition evaluates to false (0). The for statement terminates, the execution passes to
the first statement following statement(s), otherwise, the C statement(s) are executed.
Increment is any valid C expression. It is usually an expression that increments a
variable initialized by the initial expression.
Statement(s) are the C statements that are executable as long as the condition remains
true.
A for statement is a looping statements. It can have an initializations, test condition,
and increment as part of its command. The for statement executes the initial expression
first. It then check the condition. If the condition is true, the statements execute. Once
the statements are completed the increment expression is evaluated. The for statement
then rechecks the condition and continues to loop until the condition is false.

THE DO…WHILE STATEMENTS

Condition is any valid C expression, usually a relational expression. When condition
evaluates to false (zero), the while statement terminates, and execution passes to the
first statement following the while statement; otherwise, the program loops back to the
do, and the C statement(s) in the statement(s) is executed.
Statement(s) is either a single C statement or a block of statements that are executed
the first time through the loop and then as long as condition remains true.
A do ... while statement is a C looping statement. It allows repeated execution of a
statement or block of statements as long as the condition remains true (nonzero). Unlike
the while statement, a do ... while loop executes its statement at least once.
NESTED LOOPS:
The term nested loop refers to a loop that is contained within another loop. C places no
limitation on the 'nesting of loops, except that each inner loop must be enclosed
completely in the outer loop; you can't have overlapping loop. When you use nested
loops, remember that changes made in the inner loop might affect the outer loop as
well. Note, however, that the inner loop might be independent from any variables in the
outer loop.
THE BREAK STATEMENT:
break is used inside a loop or switch statement. It causes the control of a program to
skip past the end of the current loop (for, while, or do ... while) or switch statement. No
further iterations of the loop execute; the first command following the loop or switch
statement executes.
THE CONTINUE STATEMENT:
continue is used inside a loop. It causes the control of a program to skip the rest of the
current iteration of a loop and start the next iteration.
THE EXIT() FUNCTION:
The exit() function terminates program execution and return control to the operating
system. This function takes a single type int argument that is passed back to the
operating system to indicate the program's success or failure.
THE GOTO STATEMENT:
goto location;
location is a label statement that identifies the program location where execution is to
branch. A label statement consists of an identifier followed by a colon and a C
statement.