MEANING OF COMMUNICATION

Communication is a process of exchanging information, ideas, thoughts, feelings and emotions

through speech, signals, writing, or behavior. In communication process, a sender(encoder)
encodes a message and then using a medium/channel sends it to the receiver (decoder) who
decodes the message and after processing information, sends back appropriate feedback/reply
using a medium/channel.

Other Definitions of Communication

1. Communication is any means by which a thought is transferred from one person to

another. (R.. Chappel and W.L. Read, 1964:1).
2. Communication is the process by which one person (or a group) shares and imparts
information to another person (or group) so that both people (or groups) clearly
understand one another (Rita Udall and Sheila Udall, 1979:5).
3. Communication is not just the giving of information, it is the giving of understandable
information and receiving and understanding the message. Communication is the
transferring of a message to another party so that it can be understood and acted upon
(E.C. Eyre, 1983:1).
4. The communication process involves all acts of transmitting messages to channels which
link people to the languages and symbolic codes which are used to transmit messages,
the means by which messages are received and stored, and the rules, customs and
conventions which define and regulate human relationships and events (Frank
Ugboajah,1985:2).
5. At the levels of organizations among and between executives, staff, personnel,
supervisors and foremen and employees, the communication process is continuously in
action, conveying information, ideas, attitudes and feelings among individuals (J.
Chruden and W. Sherman, 1978:325).
Therefore;
Communication can be seen as the process of eliciting a response from an individual or
group by another individual or group, the process of which involves the sending and
receiving of symbols.
 Elements of Communication

1. Message;
The Information - written or spoken-to be sent from one “person” to another “Person” . It
is organized, structured, shaped.
2. Sender - Transmits / spreads / communicates – message or operates the electronic device.
Conceives and initiates the message with purpose of informing/ persuading / influencing /
changing the attitude / opinion or behaviour of the receiver. Decides the symbols,
channel, time of sending the message after carefully considering the total situation in
which communication takes place.
3. Encoding - Changing message from mental form to symbols – putting ideas, facts,
feelings, opinions into words, actions, signs, pictures & audio-visuals Communication
symbols selected keeping in mind the receiver’s ability to understand & interpret
correctly.
4. Channel
Vehicle or medium which facilitates the sender to convey the message to the receiver
Medium – written, oral, audio-visual
Written medium – letters, memos, reports, manuals, notices, circulars, questionnaires, minutes
etc.
Oral medium – dialogue, face-to-face interview, telephone conversation, conference recording
etc.
Visuals - Hoardings, posters, slides, documentary films, TV programs & advertisements

5. Receiver
Targeted audience - Receives, understands, interprets and tries to perceives total meaning of the
message as transmitted by sender.
6. Decoding
Act of translating symbols into their ordinary meanings. Total meaning – meaning of words
(symbols) with tone, attitude of sender reflected by the structure of message & choice of words
used by sender.
Message manipulates receiver to act in a desired manner. Response action shows that he has
understood the message. Receiver completes chain of communication by responding to the
message.
7. Feedback
Loop that connects the receiver in the communication process with the sender. Sender acts as the
feedback receiver and gets to know that communication has been accomplished. Feedback plays
an important role.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

People communicate with each other in a number of ways that depend upon the message and its
context in which it is being sent. Choice of communication channel and your style of
communicating also affects communication. So, there are variety of types of communication.

Types:

1. Verbal Communication

Verbal communication refers to the form of communication in which message is

transmitted verbally; communication is done by word of mouth and a piece of writing.
 When we talk to others, we assume that others understand what we are saying because we
know what we are saying. But this is not the case. usually people bring their own attitude,
perception, emotions and thoughts about the topic and hence creates barrier in delivering
the right meaning. So in order to deliver the right message, you must put yourself on the
other side of the table and think from your receiver‟s point of view. Would he understand
the message? how it would sound on the other side of the table?

Verbal Communication is further divided into:

a) Oral Communication

In oral communication, spoken words are used. It includes face-to-face conversations,

speech, telephonic conversation, video, radio, television, voice over internet. In oral
communication, communication is influence by pitch, volume, speed and clarity of
speaking.

Written Communication

In written communication, written signs or symbols are used to communicate. A written

message may be printed or hand written. In written communication message can be
transmitted via email, letter, report, memo etc. Message, in written communication, is
influenced by the vocabulary & grammar used, writing style, precision and clarity of the
language used. Written Communication is most common form of communication
being used in business. So, it is considered core among business skills.

Memos, reports, bulletins, job descriptions, employee manuals, and electronic mail are
the types of written communication used for internal communication. For communicating
with external environment in writing, electronic mail, Internet Web sites, letters,
proposals, telegrams, faxes, postcards, contracts, advertisements, brochures, and news
releases are used.

2. Nonverbal Communication
 Nonverbal communication is the sending or receiving of wordless messages. We can say
that communication other than oral and written, such as gesture, body language,
posture, tone of voice or facial expressions, is called nonverbal communication.
Nonverbal communication is all about the body language of speaker. Nonverbal
communication helps receiver in interpreting the message received. Often, nonverbal
signals reflects the situation more accurately than verbal messages. Sometimes nonverbal
response contradicts verbal communication and hence affect the effectiveness of
message.

Nonverbal communication have the following three elements:

Appearance
Speaker: clothing, hairstyle, neatness, use of cosmetics
Surrounding: room size, lighting, decorations, furnishings

Body Language
facial expressions, gestures, postures

Sounds
Voice Tone, Volume, Speech rate

Types of communication based on purpose and style

Based on style and purpose, there are two main categories of communication and they both bears
their own characteristics. Communication types based on style and purpose are:

1. Formal Communication
2. Informal Communication

1. Formal Communication

In formal communication, certain rules, conventions and principles are followed while
communicating message. Formal communication occurs in formal and official style.
 Usually professional settings, corporate meetings, conferences undergoes in formal
pattern.

In formal communication, use of slang and foul language is avoided and correct
pronunciation is required. Authority lines are needed to be followed in formal
communication.

2. Informal Communication

Informal communication is done using channels that are in contrast with formal
communication channels. It‟s just a casual talk. It is established for societal affiliations of
members in an organization and face-to-face discussions. It happens among friends and
family. In informal communication use of slang words, foul language is not
restricted. Usually. informal communication is done orally and using gestures. Informal
communication, Unlike formal communication, doesn’t follow authority lines. In an
organization, it helps in finding out staff grievances as people express more when talking
informally. Informal communication helps in building relationships.
TOPIC: HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATIONS
1. Introduction
The various forms of mass media that have developed over the years have made a tremendous
impression on the technological, political, economic, social and cultural trends of every nation.
Mass communications is defined as communication reaching large numbers of people,
primarily developed in just the last 500 years. Earlier developments, along with technological
advances and social change, helped spark the demand and innovation necessary for creating
today's mass media.

Books are the oldest of the media, with the first known book written in Egypt around 1400 B.C.
However, Books were not reproduced for the masses, until the invention of the printing press in
1456. Newspapers are otherwise considered to be the oldest mass medium. News-sheets
appeared as early as 100 B.C. in Rome, and as political tracts and pamphlets roughly 400 to 500
years ago. Nonetheless, the first regular newspapers did not debut until the 1600s. Magazine
development was also slow. Derived from the French word "magasin", the first English
magazine did not appear until 1704.

The electronic media developed more quickly. Radio emerged as a mass medium in the 1920s,
thanks to the growing popularity of mass entertainment and technological advances stemming
from the development of the telegraph, telephone and the wireless. A worldwide race to add
pictures then ensued, with the creation of television considered to be one of the most important
inventions of the twentieth century. Television hit its stride in the 1940s, followed by cable
television and satellite communications in the latter half of the century. The newest mass
medium is the Internet, which has revolutionized communications. Over the years, each new
medium has emerged to supplement and compete with the traditional media. Trends have
included specialization, globalization, consolidation and convergence.

The history of mass communications is relatively short in the scope of world history. As nations
moved from agrarian- to industrial-based societies, tremendous social changes influenced the
development of mass media. During the Industrial Revolution, advances in education and
transportation, as well as increases in leisure time and urbanization, helped spur reader demand
and hence the growth of newspapers, books and magazines.
As the public's appetite for information and entertainment grew, technological innovations paved
the way for the creation of the electronic mass media of the twentieth century. Satellite
communications and the Internet are now among the products of today's Information Age,
sparked by the demand for even more channels of communication that are faster, clearer and
farther-reaching.
From the simple, crude printing techniques of yesteryear to today's sophisticated digital
communications that canvas the globe, the mass media have continually evolved and adapted to
changing demands and technological opportunities. Over the years, a greater variety of mass
media has appeared, combining new and old forms of technology and content. In some cases, the
media have become more global, local, interactive and personal. In general, the media have also
grown more specialized, competitive and consolidated.

Throughout their short history, the mass media have had a tremendous impact on the political,
social, economic and cultural trends of every country. The media have been credited with such
advances as the rise in literacy and the distribution of the arts, while shaping political systems
and promoting democracy. Mass media advertising has become a vital element of the capitalist
economic system. Societies have come together thanks to the expanding reach of modern
communications. On the other hand, governments in most nations have, at some point, exerted
various levels of control over the media. The mass media have been blamed for misleading
consumers, voters and children with political propaganda and advertising, while encouraging
violence, indecency, and an erosion of cultural values.
Therefore , Mass media developed starting with books, newspapers and magazines as the oldest
mass media. The twentieth century media of Radio and Television are then chronicled, followed
by the history of newer media, such as cable television, satellite communications and the
Internet. The technological, political, economic, cultural and social impacts of each medium have
also been experienced by the consumers.
TOPIC: BOOKS

History of Books

The history of books can be traced back to the time man started writing. The different materials
man used to write on went through different stages of evolution. The evolution has been going
on even up to the current books we use.

Writing is a system of linguistic symbols which permits one to transmit and converse
information. For longtime memorization, mnemonic systems (Mnemonic symbols/devices: are
any learning techniques that aid memory) had to be used e.g. Digits, calendar, phases of the
moon. This later advanced to ideograms and pictographs.

Ideograms - a symbol that is used in a writing system to represent the idea of a thing, rather the
sounds of a word a sign or a symbol for something.

The oldest known form of writing was logographic, and then came the syllabic and currently we
have the alphabet.

logographic- the smallest meaningful unit of language e.g. in ancient Egyptian days the use of a
duck meant two things: the bird or a son.

syllabic (syllable)-is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds e.g.

„water‟..Composed of two syllables „wa‟ and „ter‟ of „fea‟ and „ture‟. (Mostly a vowel and
consonant).

Alphabet- is a standard set of letters(symbols)which is used to write one or more languages

based on the general principle that the letter represent phonemes(significant sounds)of the
spoken language.

 The first true alphabet was from the Greek followed by Latin then came the alphabetical
order. The most common tool to draw/write with during these times was ‘silk’.
 Silk then was natural protein fiber some forms of it were woven into textiles then they‟d
use brushes to write.
 Stones could be the most ancient form of writing but wood would be the first medium to
take the guise of a book.
CLAY TABLETS

They came through in the 3rd millennium. Calamus was an instrument in the form of a triangle
that was used to make characters in a palm tree. Characters were done in the moist clay.

PAPYRUS

 The use of papyrus was during ancient times of Pharaoh. They would extract marrow from
stems then take it through a process of humidification-pressing-drying-gluing and lastly
cutting. They‟d then condense to form a scroll of many sheets pasted together.
 This use was mostly for sacred writing. Finally their writing tool was bird feathers.

WAX TABLETS

Romans used wax coated wooden tablets and they would write and erase by using ‘stylus’.
Stylus was a writing utensil sometime pointed and other times spherical. They‟d use this for
daily purposes e.g. teaching children.

PARCHMENT
 Used in the 3rd century. The people of that time used skin of animal especially of sheep, cattle,
donkey, antelope but ‘vellum’-skin made from calf, was the finest quality of parchment. The
advantage of using parchment at that time was it was easier to conserve overtime, parchment
also provided more solid to write on and easy to erase text.

PAPER

 Invented by the Chinese in 105AD Imperial Court official. Cai Lun during Han Dynasty.
 The 1st ever made paper was from mulberry, bast fibres, fishnets, old rags and hemp waste
all together!
  The problem with that was making them was very heavy and awkward and hard to
transport.
 At that time came another version of paper in ‘silk’ but the problem with that was it was
very expensive.

Book production in Rome

Book production developed in Rome in the 1st century BC with Latin literature that had been
influenced by the Greek. This diffusion primarily concerned circles of literary individuals was
the editor of his friend Cicero. However, the book business progressively extended itself through
the Roman Empire; for example, there were bookstores in Lyon. The spread of the book was
aided by the extension of the Empire, which implied the imposition of the Latin tongue on a
great number of people (in Spain, Africa, etc.).

Libraries were private or created at the command of an individual. Julius Caesar, for example,
wanted to establish one in Rome, proving that libraries were signs of political prestige. In the
year 377, there were 28 libraries in Rome, and it is known that there were many smaller libraries
in other cities. Despite the great distribution of books, scientists do not have a complete picture
as to the literary scene in antiquity as thousands of books have been lost through time.

Paper

Papermaking has traditionally been traced to China about AD 105, when Cai Lun, an official
attached to the Imperial court during the Han Dynasty (202 BC-AD 220), created a sheet of
paper using mulberry and other bast fibres along with fishnets, old rags, and hemp waste. While
paper used for wrapping and padding was used in China since the 2nd century BC, paper used as
a writing medium only became widespread by the 3rd century. By the 6th century in China,
sheets of paper were beginning to be used for toilet paper as well. During the Tang Dynasty (AD
618–907) paper was folded and sewn into square bags to preserve the flavor of tea. The Song
Dynasty (AD 960–1279) that followed was the first government to issue paper currency.

An important development was the mechanization of paper manufacture by medieval

papermakers. The introduction of water-powered paper mills, the first certain evidence of which
dates to 1282, allowed for a massive expansion of production and replaced the laborious
handcraft characteristic of both Chinese and Muslim papermaking. Papermaking centres began to
multiply in the late 13th century in Italy, reducing the price of paper to one sixth of parchment
and then falling further.

Middle Ages

By the end of antiquity, between the 2nd century and 4th century, the codex had replaced the
scroll. The book was no longer a continuous roll, but a collection of sheets attached at the back.
It became possible to access a precise point in the text directly. The codex is equally easy to rest
on a table, which permits the reader to take notes while he or she is reading. The codex form
improved with the separation of words, capital letters, and punctuation, which permitted silent
reading. Tables of contents and indices facilitated direct access to information. This form was so
effective that it is still the standard book form, over 1500 years after its appearance.

Paper would progressively replace parchment. Cheaper to produce, it allowed a greater diffusion
of books.

Books in monasteries

A number of Christian books were destroyed at the order of Diocletian in 304 AD. During the
turbulent periods of the invasions, it was the monasteries that conserved religious texts and
certain works of Antiquity for the West. But there would also be important copying centers in
Byzantium.

The role of monasteries in the conservation of books is not without some ambiguity:

 Reading was an important activity in the lives of monks, which can be divided into
prayer, intellectual work, and manual labour (in the Benedictine order, for example). It
was therefore necessary to make copies of certain works. Accordingly, there existed
scriptoria (the plural of scriptorium) in many monasteries, where monks copied and
decorated manuscripts that had been preserved.
  However, the conservation of books was not exclusively in order to preserve ancient
culture; it was especially relevant to understanding religious texts with the aid of ancient
knowledge. Some works were never recopied, having been judged too dangerous for the
monks. Morever, in need of blank media, the monks scraped off manuscripts, thereby
destroying ancient works. The transmission of knowledge was centered primarily on
sacred texts.

TRANSFORMATION FROM THE 12TH CENTURY

The revival of cities in Europe would change the conditions of book production and extend its
influence, and the monastic period of the book would come to an end. This revival accompanied
the intellectual renaissance of the period. The Manuscript culture outside of the monastery
developed in these university-cities in Europe in this time. It is around the first universities that
new structures of production developed: reference manuscripts were used by students and
professors for teaching theology and liberal arts. The development of commerce and of the
bourgeoisie brought with it a demand for specialized and general texts (law, history, novels,
etc.). It is in this period that writing in the common vernacular developed (courtly poetry, novels,
etc.). Commercial scriptoria became common, and the profession of book seller came into being,
sometimes dealing internationally.

There is also the creation of royal libraries as in the case of Saint Louis and Charles V. Books
were also collected in private libraries, which became more common in the 14th century and
15th centuries.

The use of paper diffused through Europe in the 14th century. This material, less expensive than
parchment, came from China via the Arabs in Spain in the 11th and 12th century. It was used in
particular for ordinary copies, while parchment was used for luxury editions.

Printing press

The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg around 1440 marks the entry of the
book into the industrial age. The Western book was no longer a single object, written or
reproduced by request. The publication of a book became an enterprise, requiring capital for its
realization and a market for its distribution. The cost of each individual book (in a large edition)
was lowered enormously, which in turn increased the distribution of books. The book in codex
form and printed on paper, as we know it today, dates from the 15th century. Books printed
before January 1, 1501, are called incunables.

Contemporary era

The demands of the British and Foreign Bible Society (founded 1804), the American Bible
Society (founded 1816), and other non-denominational publishers for enormously large and
impossibly inexpensive runs of texts led to numerous innovations. The introduction of steam
printing presses a little before 1820, closely followed by new steam paper mills, constituted the
two most major innovations. Together, they caused book prices to drop and the number of books
to increase considerably. Numerous bibliographic features, like the positioning and formulation
of titles and subtitles, were also affected by this new production method. New types of
documents appeared later in the 19th century: photography, sound recording and film.

Typewriters and eventually computer-based word processors and printers let people print and put
together their own documents. Among a series of developments that occurred in the 1990s, the
spread of digital multimedia, which encodes texts, images, animations, and sounds in a unique
and simple form was notable for the book publishing industry. Hypertext further improved
access to information. Finally, the internet lowered production and distribution costs.

E-Resources

It is difficult to predict the future of the book. A good deal of reference material, designed for
direct access instead of sequential reading, as for example encyclopedias, exists less and less in
for the form of books and increasingly on the web. Leisure reading materials are increasingly
published in e-reader formats.

Although electronic books, or e-books, had limited success in the early years, and readers were
resistant at the outset, the demand for books in this format has grown dramatically, primarily
because of the popularity of e-reader devices and as the number of available titles in this format
has increased. Another important factor in the increasing popularity of the e-reader is its
continuous diversification. Many e-readers now support basic operating systems, which facilitate
email and other simple functions. The iPad is the most obvious example of this trend, but even
mobile phones can host e-reading software.

E-book readers such as the Sony Reader, Barnes & Noble's Nook, and the Amazon Kindle have
increased in popularity each time a new upgraded version is released. The Kindle in particular
has captured public attention not only for the quality of the reading experience but also because
users can access books (as well as periodicals and newspapers) wirelessly online (a feature now
available in all other e-reader devices). Apple has also entered this arena with applications for the
iPhone and iPad which enable e-book reading.

2.2. Competition and Consolidation

As book publishing entered the twentieth century, there were many changes. Competition and
increasing costs led to the decline of the dime novel, and companies began consolidating. Soon,
the industry began experiencing considerable growth. By 1914 in the U.S., cheaper parcel post
mailing rates for books promoted distribution.
Book clubs emerged in the 1920s, revitalizing the industry by ensuring sales . Europeans were
the first to publish cheaply bound paperback books, which became a hit during WWII. The
growth in education was a boon to the production of textbooks, which today amounts to more
than one-third of the total gross sales of books.

The latter half of the twentieth century saw greater specialization. More scientific and technical
books appeared, along with "how-to" books and psychology books. The romance market took off
in the 1960s. In the 1970s, the streamlined "managed" or "instant" book appeared where
publishers initiated and put together books quickly, based on timely topics and sales projections .
Industry consolidation continued as more conglomerates swallowed up smaller, independent
book publishers. One result was the production of media packages of books, movies and
television programs. The industry also saw the decline of the family owned bookstore and the
rise of profitable book superstores with comfortable coffee shop atmospheres.
With the advent of the electronic media and the Internet, it might seem that books would have
faded from the scene. But book production has only increased. Roughly 50,000 new titles are
published every year, with about 700,000 other titles still in print.
Bookseller Amazon.com is among the most successful online companies. A return to fantasy
themes with the "Harry Potter" book series also reinvigorated traditional book reading among
youth at a time when more are fixated on computer and television screens .Books are still the
most convenient and most permanent way of packaging information for efficient storage, quick
retrieval and individual consumption. Consumers still cite books as one of the best values for
their entertainment money.