Symmetrical Fault Analysis

The normal operation of a power system may be disturbed or disrupted owing to a system fault
when abnormally high currents flow through an abnormal path as a result of the partial or complete
failure of the insulation at one or more points of the system. The complete failure of insulation is
called a “short circuit” or “fault.”
The purpose of the fault analysis is to calculate the maximum and minimum fault currents and
voltages at different locations of the power system for various types of faults so that the appropriate
protective schemes, relays, and circuit breakers can be selected in order to rescue the system from the
abnormal condition within minimum time.
The fault types
A. Shunt faults:
1. Balanced (also called symmetrical) three-phase faults
a. Three-phase direct (L–L–L) faults
b. Three-phase faults through a fault impedance to ground (L–L–L–G)
2. Unbalanced (also called unsymmetrical) faults
a. Single line-to-ground (SLG) faults
b. Line-to-line (L–L) faults
c. Double line-to-ground (DLG) faults
B. Series faults:
1. One line open (OLO)
2. Two lines open (TLO)
3. Unbalanced series impedance condition
C. Simultaneous faults:
1. A shunt fault at one fault point and a shunt fault at the other
2. A shunt fault at one fault point and a series fault at the other
3. A series fault at one fault point and a series fault at the other
4. A series fault at one fault point and a shunt fault at the other
Shunt faults are more severe than series faults. Balanced faults are simpler to calculate than
unbalanced faults.
Though the symmetrical faults are rare, the symmetrical fault analysis must be carried out, as this
type of fault generally leads to most severe fault current flow against which the system must be
protected. Symmetrical fault analysis is, of course, simpler to carry out. Symmetrical fault may be a
solid three-phase short circuit or may involve arc impedance.
 In a modern large interconnected power system, heavy currents flowing during a fault must be
interrupted much before the steady state conditions are established.

Transient on a Transmission Line

Certain simplifying assumptions are considered:

1. The line is fed from a constant voltage source.
2. Short circuit takes place when the line is unloaded.
3. Line capacitance is negligible and the line can be represented by a lumped RL series circuit.

The short circuit is assumed to take place at 𝑡 = 0. The parameter 𝛼 controls the instant on the
voltage wave when short circuit occurs.
The current after short circuit is composed of steady state current (𝑖𝑠 ) and transient current (𝑖𝑡 ).
𝑖 = 𝑖𝑠 + 𝑖𝑡
√2𝑉
𝑖𝑠 = sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛼 − 𝜃)
|𝑍|
𝜔𝐿
𝑍 = √(𝑅 2 + 𝜔 2 𝐿2 )∠𝜃 = tan−1
𝑅
𝑖𝑡 is such that 𝑖(0) = 𝑖𝑠 (0) + 𝑖𝑡 (0) = 0 being an inductive circuit; it decays corresponding to the
time constant 𝐿/𝑅.
𝑅 √2𝑉 𝑅
𝑖𝑡 = −𝑖𝑠 (0)𝑒 −( 𝐿 )𝑡 = sin(𝜃 − 𝛼) 𝑒 −( 𝐿 )𝑡
|𝑍|
Thus, short circuit current is given by

√2𝑉 √2𝑉 𝑅
𝑖= sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛼 − 𝜃) + sin(𝜃 − 𝛼) 𝑒 −( 𝐿 )𝑡 (1)
|𝑍| |𝑍|

The sinusoidal steady state current is called the symmetrical short circuit current and the
unidirectional transient component is called the DC off-set current, which causes the total short
circuit current to be unsymmetrical till the transient decays.
 From the following figure, the maximum momentary short circuit current 𝑖𝑚𝑚 corresponds to the
first peak. If the decay of transient current in this short time is neglected,

√2𝑉 √2𝑉
𝑖𝑚𝑚 = sin(𝜃 − 𝛼) + (2)
|𝑍| |𝑍|

Since transmission line resistance is small, 𝜃 = 90o .

√2𝑉 √2𝑉
∴ 𝑖𝑚𝑚 = cos 𝛼 + (3)
|𝑍| |𝑍|

𝑖𝑚𝑚 has the maximum possible value for 𝛼 = 0, i.e., short circuit occurring when the voltage
wave is going through zero. Thus,

2√2𝑉
∴ 𝑖𝑚𝑚 (max possible) =
|𝑍| (4)
= twice the maximum of symmetrical short circuit current (doubling effect)

For the selection of circuit breakers, momentary short circuit current is taken corresponding to its
maximum possible value (a safe choice).

Modern day circuit breakers are designed to interrupt the current in the first few cycles (five cycles
or less). With reference to the above figure, it means that when the current is interrupted, the DC off-
set (𝑖𝑡 ) has not yet died out and so contributes to the current to be interrupted. Rather than computing
the value of the DC off-set at the time of interruption (this would be highly complex in a network
of even moderately large size), the symmetrical short circuit current alone is calculated.
Short Circuit of a Synchronous Machine (on No Load)
Under steady state short circuit conditions, the armature reaction of a synchronous generator
produces a demagnetizing flux. In terms of a circuit, this effect is modelled as a reactance 𝑋𝑎 in series
with the induced emf. This reactance when combined with the leakage reactance 𝑋𝑙 of the machine is
called synchronous reactance 𝑋𝑑 (direct axis synchronous reactance in the case of salient pole
machines). Armature resistance being small can be neglected. The steady state short circuit model of
a synchronous machine is shown in the following figure (i.e. Fig. (a)) on per phase basis

Consider now the sudden short circuit (three-phase) of a synchronous generator initially operating
under open circuit conditions. The machine undergoes a transient in all the three phases finally ending
up in steady state conditions
The circuit breaker must, of course, interrupt the current much before steady conditions are
reached.
Immediately in the event of a short circuit, the symmetrical short circuit current is limited only by
the leakage reactance of the machine. Since the air gap flux cannot change instantaneously to counter
the demagnetization of the armature short circuit current, currents appear in the field winding as well
as in the damper winding in a direction to help the main flux. These currents decay in accordance
with the winding time constants. The time constant of the damper winding which has low leakage
inductance is much less than that of the field winding, which has high leakage inductance. Thus during
the initial part of the short circuit, the damper and field windings have transformer currents induced
in them so that in the circuit model their reactances—𝑋𝑓 of field winding and 𝑋𝑑𝑤 of damper
winding—appear in parallel with 𝑋𝑎 as shown in the above figure (b). As the damper winding currents
are first to die out, 𝑋𝑑𝑤 effectively becomes open-circuited and at a later stage 𝑋𝑓 becomes open
circuited. The machine reactance, thus changes from the parallel combination of 𝑋𝑎 , 𝑋𝑓 and 𝑋𝑑𝑤
during the initial period of the short circuit to 𝑋𝑎 and 𝑋𝑓 in parallel (see figure (c)) in the middle period
of the short circuit, and finally to 𝑋𝑎 in steady state (see figure (a)).
 The reactance presented by the machine in the initial period of the short circuit is called the
subtransient reactance of the machine and can be calculated as
1
𝑋𝑙 + = 𝑋𝑑′′ (5)
(1⁄𝑋 + 1⁄𝑋 + 1⁄𝑋 )
𝑎 𝑓 𝑑𝑤

The reactance effective after the damper winding currents have died out is called the transient
reactance of the machine and can be calculated as

𝑋𝑑′ = 𝑋𝑙 + (𝑋𝑎 ||𝑋𝑓 ) (6)

The reactance under steady conditions is the synchronous reactance of the machine (𝑋𝑑 ).
Obviously 𝑋𝑑′′ < 𝑋𝑑′ < 𝑋𝑑 . The machine thus offers a time-varying reactance which changes from
𝑋𝑑′′ ≤ to 𝑋𝑑′ and finally to 𝑋𝑑 .
The current wave shape given in the following figure (i.e. Fig. (a)) is the short circuit current of a
synchronous machine after the DC off-set currents have been removed from it. The envelope of the
current wave shape is plotted in Fig. (b). The short circuit current can be divided into three periods:
1. Initial subtransient period when the current is large as the machine offers subtransient
reactance.
2. The middle transient period where the machine offers transient reactance.
3. The steady state period when the machine offers synchronous reactance.
 If the transient envelope is extrapolated backwards in time, the difference between the transient
and subtransient envelopes is the current ∆𝑖 ′′ (corresponding to the damper winding current) which
decays fast according to the damper winding time constant. Similarly, the difference ∆𝑖 ′ between the
steady state and transient envelopes, decays in accordance with the field time constant.
In terms of the oscillogram, the currents and reactances discussed above, can be written as

𝑂𝑎 |𝐸𝑔 |
|𝐼| = = (7)
√2 𝑋𝑑

𝑂𝑏 |𝐸𝑔 |
|𝐼 ′ | = = (8)
√2 𝑋𝑑′

𝑂𝑐 |𝐸𝑔 |
|𝐼 ′′ | = = (9)
√2 𝑋𝑑′′

where |𝐼| is the steady state current (rms), |𝐼 ′ | is the transient current (rms) excluding DC component,
|𝐼 ′′ | is the subtransient current (rms) excluding DC component, 𝑋𝑑 is the direct axis synchronous
reactance, 𝑋𝑑′ is the direct axis transient reactance, 𝑋𝑑′′ is the direct axis subtransient reactance and
|𝐸𝑔 |is the per phase no load voltage (rms).
Following table gives typical values of machine reactances which can be used in fault calculations
and in stability studies.
Example 1: For the radial network shown below, a three-phase fault occurs at 𝐹. Determine the fault
current and the line voltage at 11 kV bus under fault conditions.

Solution: Select a system base of 100 MVA. Voltage bases are: 11 kV in generators, 33 kV for
overhead line and 6.6 kV for cable.

Since the system is on no load prior to occurrence of the fault, the voltages of the two generators
are identical (in phase and magnitude) and are equal to 1 pu. The generator circuit can thus be replaced
by a single voltage source in series with the parallel combination of generator reactances as shown.
Example 2: A 25 MVA, 11 kV generator with 𝑋𝑑′′ = 20% is connected through a transformer, line
and a transformer to a bus that supplies three identical motors as shown in the following figure. Each
motor has 𝑋𝑑′′ = 25% and 𝑋𝑑′ = 30% on a base of 5 MVA, 6.6 kV. The three-phase rating of the
step-up transformer is 25 MVA, 11/66 kV with a leakage reactance of 10% and that of the step-down
transformer is 25 MVA, 66/6.6 kV with a leakage reactance of 10%. The bus voltage at the motors is
6.6 kV when a three-phase fault occurs at the point 𝐹. For the specified fault, calculate

(a) the subtransient current in the fault,

(b) the subtransient current in the breaker B,
(c) the momentary current in breaker B, and
(d) the current to be interrupted by breaker B in five cycles.
Given: Reactance of the transmission line = 15% on a base of 25 MVA, 66 kV. Assume that the
system is operating on no load when the fault occurs.
Solution: Choose a system base of 25 MVA.
For a generator voltage base of 11 kV, line voltage base is 66 kV and motor voltage base is 6.6 kV.
(a) For each motor

Line, transformers and generator reactances are already given on proper base values.
The circuit model of the system for fault calculations is given in Fig. (a). The system being initially
on no load, the generator and motor induced emfs are identical. The circuit can therefore be reduced
to that of Fig. (b) and then to Fig. (c).

(b) From Fig. (c), current through circuit breaker B is

(c) For finding momentary current through the breaker, we must add the DC off-set current to the
symmetrical subtransient current obtained in part (b). Rather than calculating the DC off-set current,
allowance is made for it on an empirical basis.
(d) To compute the current to be interrupted by the breaker, motor subtransient reactance (𝑋𝑑′′ =
𝑗0.25) is now replaced by transient reactance (𝑋𝑑′ = 𝑗0.3).

The reactances of the circuit of Fig. (c) now modify to that of Fig. (d). Current (symmetrical) to be
interrupted by the breaker (as shown by arrow)

Allowance is made for the DC off-set value by multiplying with a factor of 1.1. Therefore, the
current to be interrupted is

Short Circuit of a Loaded Synchronous Machine

Following figure shows the circuit model of a synchronous generator operating under steady
conditions supplying a load current 𝐼 0 to the bus at a terminal voltage of 𝑉 0 , Eg is the induced emf
under loaded condition and 𝑋𝑑 is the direct axis synchronous reactance of the machine.
When short circuit occurs at the terminals of this machine, the circuit model to be used for
computing short circuit current is given in Fig. (a) for subtransient current, and in Fig. (b) for transient
current. The induced emfs to be used in these models are given by

|𝐸𝑔′′ | = 𝑉 0 + 𝑗𝐼 0 𝑋𝑑′′ (10)

|𝐸𝑔′ | = 𝑉 0 + 𝑗𝐼 0 𝑋𝑑′ (11)

 The voltage 𝐸𝑔′′ is known as the voltage behind the subtransient reactance and the voltage 𝐸𝑔′ is
known as the voltage behind the transient reactance. In fact, if 𝐼 0 is zero (no load case), 𝐸𝑔′′ = 𝐸𝑔′ =
𝐸𝑔 , the no load voltage.
Synchronous motors have internal emfs and reactances similar to that of a generator except that the
current direction is reversed. During short circuit conditions, these can be replaced by similar circuit
models except that the voltage behind subtransient/transient reactance is given by

′′ |
|𝐸𝑚 = 𝑉 0 − 𝑗𝐼 0 𝑋𝑑′′ (12)

′ |
|𝐸𝑚 = 𝑉 0 − 𝑗𝐼 0 𝑋𝑑′ (13)

When it deal with short circuit of an interconnected system, the synchronous machines (generators
and motors) are replaced by their corresponding circuit models having voltage behind subtransient
(transient) reactance in series with subtransient (transient) reactance. The rest of the network being
passive remains unchanged.

Example 3: A synchronous generator and a synchronous motor each rated 25 MVA, 11 kV having
15% subtransient reactance are connected through transformers and a line as shown in the following
figure (i.e. Fig. (a)). The transformers are rated 25 MVA, 11/66 kV and 66/11 kV with leakage
reactance of 10% each. The line has a reactance of 10% on a base of 25 MVA, 66 kV. The motor is
drawing 15 MW at 0.8 power factor leading and a terminal voltage of 10.6 kV when a symmetrical
three-phase fault occurs at the motor terminals. Find the subtransient current in the generator, motor
and fault.
Solution: All reactances are given on a base of 25 MVA and appropriate voltages.

The prefault equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. (b). Under faulted condition (see Fig. (c))