MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

SCIBELLE JEMN RUIZ & KRISTINE ZAINAB PUENTE BSN 1-4 MIDTERM

Lesson 4: Language of Sets and Logical For example, let A = { x|x is a set of whole
Connectives numbers} Or A = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,…}
Is the branch of mathematics that studies Unit Set
sets or the mathematical science of the
- It is a set with only one element
infinite.
A={1}
Set
Empty Set/Null Set
is well-defined collection of objects; the
It is a unique set with no element
objects are called the elements or
A = { } or ∅
members
o J = {5, 11, 19,…} > Elements The Cardinality Number of a Set
The symbol ϵ is used to denote that an
object is an element of a set. It is the number of elements or members
o Example: In a set A = {1, 2, 3}. We in the set.
can say that 1 ∈ 𝐴, but 5 ∉ of A It is denoted by 𝑛(𝐴).
For finite sets A, 𝑛(𝐴) is the number of
Ways to Represent Set elements of A.
Roster method or Tabulation method For infinite sets A, write 𝑛(𝐴) = ∞.
Equal Set
It is the method where the set are
enumerated or listed and each elements Two sets are equal if they have the same
are separated by comma. elements.
o For Example: A = { a, e, i, o, u} For example, let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B
Rule method or Set Builder Notation = {5, 4, 3, 2, 1}.
Since both sets has exactly the same
It is a method that is used to describe the elements, hence, set A is equal to set B or
elements or members of the set it is denoted by A = B.
For example: A = {x|x is a collection of
vowel letters} Equivalent Set

Finite Set Two sets are equivalent if they have the

same number of elements.
It is a set whose elements are limited or For example, let A = {r, e, a, d} and B =
countable, and the last element can be {1, 2, 0, 7}.
identified. Since both sets has same number of
o For example, let A = { x|x is a elements (cardinality).
positive integer less than 10} Or A Hence, set A is equivalent to set B.
= { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} It is denoted by A ≈ B.
Infinite Set Universal Set
It is a set whose elements are unlimited It is a set that contains everything.
or uncountable, and the last element It is denoted by U.
cannot be specified.
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
SCIBELLE JEMN RUIZ & KRISTINE ZAINAB PUENTE BSN 1-4 MIDTERM
A set U that includes all of the elements Example: Let A = {1, 2} .and B = {2, 3},
under consideration in a particular then A ∩ B = {2}.
discussion.
Venn Diagrams
Subset
These are diagrams that make use of
When we define a set and we take pieces geometric shapes to show relationship
of that set, we can form what is called a between them.
subset.

A is a subset of B if every element of A is The BFF’s Example:

an element of B.
Ms. Arlene have a clique namely The BFF’s.
Notation: A  B Their name are Airish, Aira, Archie, Avi, Leila,
For each set A, A  A Eloisa, Rick, Chad, Maui, and including her.
For each set B, Ø  B They love to dance, sing and act.
A is proper subset of B if and A  B and
AB Let U = { Arlene, Airish, Aira, Archie, Avi, Leila,
Eloisa, Rick, Chad, Maui}
Union of Sets Ms. Arlene, Airish, Avi, Archie, and Chad loves
dancing
The union of A and B is the set of all A = {Arlene, Airish, Avi, Archie, Chad}
elements in 𝑥 in 𝒰 such that 𝑥 is in 𝐴 or 𝑥
is in 𝐵. On the other hand, Archie, Aira, Leila,
It is denoted by 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵. Eloisa, Airish, Avi, Maui loves singing
•The union of two sets A and B in symbol B = {Archie, Aira, Leila, Eloisa, Airish, Avi,
is defined by Maui}
A ∪ B = { x|x ∈ A or x ∈ B
The word “or” is inclusive. While, Rick, Chad, Maui, Airish, and Avi loves
acting
Example: Let A = {1, 2} and B = {2, 3}, then C = {Rick, Chad, Maui, Airish, Avi}
A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3}.
Union of Two Sets
Intersection of Sets Who among the BFF love either dancing
The intersection of A and B is the set of or singing?
o A ∪ B = {arlene, airish, avi, archie,
all elements 𝑥 in 𝒰 such that 𝑥 is in 𝐴 and
aira, leila, eloisa, chad, maui}
𝑥 is in 𝐵.
It is denoted as 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵.
The intersection of A and B in symbol is
defined by
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 }
The word “and” is inclusive.
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
SCIBELLE JEMN RUIZ & KRISTINE ZAINAB PUENTE BSN 1-4 MIDTERM
A ∩ B = {airish, avi, archie}

Intersection of Three Sets

Who among the BFF love to dance, sing
and act?
A ∩ B ∩ C = {airish, avi}

Union of Three Sets Complement of a Set

The complement of A is the set of all
Who among the BFF love either to dance,
elements 𝑥 in 𝒰 such that 𝑥 is not in 𝐴.
to sing or to act?
It is denoted as 𝐴′.
A ∪ B ∪ C = {arlene, airish, avi, archie, aira, leila,
The complement of A in symbol is
eloisa, rick, chad, maui}
defined as 𝐴′ = {𝑥 ∈ 𝒰 | 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴}.
•Let 𝒰 = {𝑎,𝑏,𝑐,𝑑,𝑒,𝑓,𝑔} and
•𝐴 = {𝑎,𝑏,𝑐,𝑑,𝑒} then 𝐴′ = {𝑓,𝑔} .

Difference of Sets
The difference between A and B is the set
of elements 𝑥 in 𝒰 such that 𝑥 is in 𝐴 and
𝑥 is not in 𝐵.
It is denoted as 𝐴 − 𝐵.
The difference between A and B in
Intersection of Two Sets symbol is defined as A−B=
Who among the BFF love to dance and to {𝑥|𝑥∈𝐴𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑥∉𝐵} =𝐴∩𝐵′
sing? Let 𝐴 = {𝑎,𝑏,𝑐} and 𝐵 = {𝑐,𝑑,𝑒} then 𝐴−𝐵=
{𝑎,𝑏}.
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
SCIBELLE JEMN RUIZ & KRISTINE ZAINAB PUENTE BSN 1-4 MIDTERM
Example It is a variable which is used to represent
a proposition.

Formal Propositional Variable

It is written using propositional logic

notation such as 𝑝, 𝑞, and 𝑟 are used
represent propositions.

Logical Connectives

It is the mathematical equivalent of a

conjunction in English.
Some Fundamental of Logic And / ˄
Or / ˅
Logic
It is a discipline that deals with the Compound Proposition
methods of reasoning.
It is the study of how to evaluate It is a proposition of two or more simple
arguments and reasoning. propositions connected by logical
connectives.
Logic Reasoning
It is used on mathematics to prove The Truth Table
theorems, to verify correctness of It is a table that shows the truth value of
programs (in computer science) and to a compound statement for all possible
prove theorems. truth values of its simple proposition.

Proposition Conjunction
The conjunction of the proposition p and
A statement or proposition, is a q is the compound proposition “p and q,”
declarative sentence that is either true or denoted as p ˄ q.
false, but not both. The conjunction of two propositions is
true only if both p and q are true,
Examples: otherwise, it is false.
a: Arlene loves Airish.
b: Five is less than eleven.

Truth Value

It is the truth and falsity of the

proposition.
Example: Example:
1. 9 is a prime number. Write the two statements into conjunction.
- False, because 9 is a composite P: “Today is Friday.”
number Q: “It is a sunny day.”
2. 5 + 3 = 8 Solution:
“Today is Friday and it is a sunny day.
Propositional Variable
Disjunction
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
SCIBELLE JEMN RUIZ & KRISTINE ZAINAB PUENTE BSN 1-4 MIDTERM
P: A is a consonant
The disjunction of the proposition p, q is ¬𝑃: it is the case that A is not a consonant
the compound proposition “p or q,” it is
denoted as (p ˅ q)
The disjunction of two propositions is
false when both 𝑝 and 𝑞 are false,
otherwise it is true.

Implications
Let 𝑃 and 𝑄 be statements.
The statement “if 𝑃 then 𝑄” is called an
implication or conditional statements.
It is denoted as 𝑃 → 𝑄 where 𝑃 is the
Example:
hypothesis and 𝑄 is the conclusion
Write the two statements as disjunction.
P: “Today is Monday.”
Q: “It is raining today.”
Solution:
“Today is Monday or it is raining today.”

Exclusive Or
The disjunction, exclusive or, is true only
when one of the propositions is true. For example, let P: Today is Sunday
Otherwise, it is false. and Q: I will wash the car.
For example, “Students who have taken 𝑃 → 𝑄: If today is Sunday, then I will
calculus or completing essentials but not wash the car.
both, can take this class.” – only those The converse of this implication is
who take one of them. denoted as 𝑄 → 𝑃:
If I wash the car, then today is Sunday.
The inverse of this implication is ¬𝑃 →
¬𝑄.
If today is not Sunday, then I will not
wash the car.
The contrapositive of this implication
is ¬𝑄 → ¬𝑃.
If I do not wash the car, then today is not
Summary of Truth Table Sunday.

Negation Biconditionals
A statement is a negation of another if Let 𝑃 and 𝑄 be statements.
the word is not introduced in the The statement “𝑃 if and only if 𝑄” is
negative statement. Let P be a called biconditional of 𝑃 and 𝑄.
proposition. The negation of P is “not P” The biconditional “P if and only if Q” is
or ¬𝑃. denoted as 𝑃 ↔ 𝑄.
The truth value of the negation of a The phrase “if and only if” can be
proposition is always the reverse of the rewritten as “iff”
truth value of the original proposition. Note: Biconditional is also known as
Example: good definition.
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
SCIBELLE JEMN RUIZ & KRISTINE ZAINAB PUENTE BSN 1-4 MIDTERM
For a statement to be a good definition, A bit string is a sequence of zero or
the implication and its converse must be more bits. The length of this string is
both true. the number of bits in the string.
Otherwise, it is not a good definition. Example: Find the bitwise OR, bitwise
AND, and bitwise XOR of the bit string
01 1011 0110 and 11 0001 101.

Example:
𝑝: “You can take the flight”
𝑞: “You buy a ticket.”
Then, 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞: You can take the flight if
PROBLEM SOLVING & REASONING
and only if you buy a ticket.
Write the following statements into
Inductive Reasoning
symbolic form using the logical
It is a type of reasoning that uses specific
connectives.
examples to reach a general conclusion.
Let P: The sun is shining.
The conclusion formed by using
Q: It is raining.
inductive reasoning is called a
R: The ground is wet
conjecture
If it is raining, then the sun is not
A Conjecture is an idea that may or may
shining.
not be correct.
Answer: 𝑄 → ¬P Example:
- Use inductive reasoning to predict the next
It is raining and the ground is wet. number of the pattern below.
Answer: Q ∧ R A. 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, _____. 30
B. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, _____. ?
The ground is wet if and only if it is
raining and the sun is shining. Counterexample
Answer: 𝑅 ↔ (𝑄 ∧ P) It is a method that disproving a
conjecture.
The sun is shining or it is raining. For example, give a counterexample of
Answer: 𝑃 ∨ Q the following equation.
x/𝑥=1
Logic and Bit Operators 𝑥2+4=𝑥+2
Computers represent information using Deductive Reasoning
bits. It is a type of reasoning that uses general
A bit is a symbol with two possible procedures and principles to reach a
values, 0 and 1. conclusion.
By convention, 1 represent T(true) and 0 It is the process of reaching a general
represents F(false). conclusion by applying general
A variable is called a Boolean assumptions, procedures, or principles.
variable if its value is either true or Use deductive reasoning to make a
false. conjecture.
Consider the following procedure:
Definition 7 a. Pick a number.
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
SCIBELLE JEMN RUIZ & KRISTINE ZAINAB PUENTE BSN 1-4 MIDTERM
b. Multiply the number by 10. Step 2 : Devise a plan.
c. Add 8 to the product. Step 3: Carry out the plan.
d. Divide the sum by 2, and subtract 4 from Step 4: Review the solution
the quotient.
Step 1 : Understand the problem.
What is the goal?
What is being asked?
What is the condition?
What sort of a problem is it? What is
known or unknown?
Is there enough information?
Can you draw a figure to illustrate the
problem?
Is there a way to restate the problem in
LOGIC PUZZLE your own words?
Logic Puzzle
Logic puzzles can be solved by using Step 2 : Devise a plan.
deductive reasoning and a chart that Act it out.
enables us to display the given Be systematic.
information in a visual manner. Work backwards.
Example: Consider special cases.
Determine whether the arguments is an Eliminate possibilities.
example of inductive reasoning or Perform an experiment.
deductive reasoning. Draw a picture/diagram.
• Deductive - Emma enjoyed reading Make a list or table/chart.
the novel Finders Keepers by Stephen Use a variable, such as x.
King, so she will enjoy reading his Look for a formula/formulas.
next novel. Write an equation or model.
• Inductive - All pentagons have Look for a pattern/patterns.
exactly five sides. Figure A is a Use direct or indirect reasoning.
pentagon. Therefore, Figure A has Solve a simple version of the problem.
exactly five sides. Guess and check your answer (trial and
• Deductive - Every English setter error).
likes to hunt. Duke is an English Step 3: Carry out the plan.
setter. So, Duke like to hunt. Be patient,
Work carefully
PROBLEM-SOLVING AND PROBLEM- Modify the plan or try a new plan. Keep
SOLVING STRATEGIES trying until something works.
Implement the strategy and strategies in
George Polya (1887-1985) step 2.
The father of problem-solving. Try another strategy if the first one isn’t
A mathematics educator who strongly working.
believed that the skill of problem solving Keep a complete and accurate record of
can be taught. your work.
Be determined and don’t get discouraged
Polya’s Four-Step Problem Solving if the plan does not work immediately.
Strategy Step 4: Review the solution
Look for an easier solution.
Step 1 : Understand the problem. Does the answer make sense?
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
SCIBELLE JEMN RUIZ & KRISTINE ZAINAB PUENTE BSN 1-4 MIDTERM
Check the results in the original problem.
Interpret the solution with the facts of
the problem.
Recheck any computations involved in STRATEGY 2: MAKE A TABLE OR AN
the solution. ORGANIZED LIST
Can the solution be extended to a more
general case? In this strategy, data or information are
Ensure that all the conditions related to organized by listing them or recording
the problem are met. them systematically in tables.
Determine whether there is another The data are then analyzed to discover
method of finding the solution. relationships and patterns and to draw
Ensure the consistency of the solution in out generalizations or solutions to the
the context of the problem. problem.

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES AND

RECREATION Example:
In a medical study, patients are classified
STRATEGY 1: DRAW A DIAGRAM, according to whether they have blood
PICTURE OR MODEL type A, B, AB or O, and also according to
whether their blood pressure is low,
It is a process of translating a problem normal, or high. In how many different
scenario into a drawing or using of a ways can a patient thus be classified.
picture or model helps learners visualize
the problem situation which may
successfully lead to the desired solution
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
SCIBELLE JEMN RUIZ & KRISTINE ZAINAB PUENTE BSN 1-4 MIDTERM
List the 4-digit numbers that can be
written using each of 1, 3, 5, and 7 once STRATEGY 4: ACT IT OUT!
and only once.

Acting out the Problem is a strategy in

which people physically act out what is
taking place in a word problem.
One may use people or objects exactly as
described in the problem, or you might
use items that represent the people or
objects.
Using this strategy, people visualize and
STRATEGY 4: GUESS AND CHECK stimulate the actions described in the
problem.
To use the guess-check strategy, one STRATEGY 5: WORK BACKWARDS
follows these steps:
Making a logical guess at the answer. The The “Work Backward” method works
student learns more about the problem. well for problems where a series of
Checking the guess. operations is done on an unknown
It is important that computation is number and you’re only given the result.
accurate to avoid wastage of time and To use this method, start with the result
effort by making more guesses when in and apply the operations in reverse order
fact, the solution might have found some until you find the starting number.
guesses before. Example:
To use the guess-check strategy, one In a dancing competition all the
follows these steps: contestants started dancing together.
Using the information obtained in After three minutes half the people were
checking to make another guess if eliminated. During the next ten minutes
necessary. The student is left to half of the remaining were eliminated. At
make his guess skip around so he the 15 minute mark, half again were
can bracket the right answer. eliminated, and at the 20 minute mark,
As to whether the next guess half of those still remaining were
would be a smaller or a bigger eliminated. In the last two minutes one
number depends on how good the more contestant was eliminated leaving a
skill of the learner is in estimating winner of the competition. How many
and logical thinking. dancers were there in the beginning?
To use the guess-check strategy, one
follows these steps:
Continuing the procedure until
the correct answer is obtained
Note: Use logical reasoning to minimize
the number of trials.
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
SCIBELLE JEMN RUIZ & KRISTINE ZAINAB PUENTE BSN 1-4 MIDTERM
LESSON #1: THE NATURE OF METHODS O
STATISTICS

Data Management
It is development, execution, and
supervision of plans, policies, programs,
and practices that control, protect,
deliver, and enhance the value of data
and information assets.
It is administrative process by which the
required data is acquired, validated,
stored, protected, and processed, and by
which its accessibility, reliability and F DATA GATHERING
timeliness is ensured to satisfy the needs
of the data users. Direct or Interview Method
It is a person-to- person encounter
Statistics between the source of information, the
The word statistics originated from the interviewee, and the one who gathers
word “status” meaning “state”. information, the interviewer.
It is the science that deals with the Indirect or Questionnaire Method
collection, classification, analysis, and It is a person-to- person encounter
interpretation of numerical facts or data, between the source of information, the
in such a way that valid conclusions and interviewee, and the one who gathers
meaningful predictions can be drawn information, the interviewer.
from them. Registration Method
It obtains data from the records of
GENERAL PURPOSES OF STATISTICS government agency authorized by law to
keep such data or information and made
1. Statistics are used to organize and these available to researchers.
summarize the information so that the Examples:
researcher can see what happened in the Registration of birth
research study and can communicate the Registration of marriage
results to others. Registration of death
2. Statistics help the researcher to answer
the questions that initiated the research Observation Method
by determining exactly what general It is the technique in which data
conclusions are justified based on the particularly those pertaining to the
specific results that were obtained. behaviors of individuals or group of
individuals during the given situation.
To notice using a full range of
appropriate senses. To see, hear, feel,
taste, and smell.
This is also used when the respondents
cannot read nor write.

Experimental Method
It is a system used to gather data from the
results of performed series of
experiments on some controlled and
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
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experimental variables. This is A bowler wants to find his bowling
commonly used in scientific inquiries. average for the past 10 games.
A teacher wishes to determine the
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE (IV) percentage of students who passed the
The independent variable in an examination.
experiment is the variable that is
systematically manipulated by the INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
investigator. Involves the analysis and interpretation
The cause of data.
A manager like to predict based on
DEPENDENT VARIABLE (DV) previous years’ sales, the sales
The dependent variable in a experiment performance of a company for the next
is the variable that the investigator five years.
measures to determine the effect of the A politician would like to estimate,
independent variable. based on an opinion poll, his chance for
The effect winning in the upcoming senatorial
election.

POPULATION
Is the set of measurements
corresponding to the entire collection of
units about which the information is
sought. It is the group of objects/subjects
about which conclusions are to be drawn.
Example:
SCIENTIFIC METHOD The scores of entire students of Senior
The data from the experiment force a High School in EAC-Cavite.
conclusion consonant with reality. Thus, All children of any age who have older or
scientific methodology has a built-in younger siblings in Barangay Lucsuhin.
safeguard for ensuring that truth
assertions of any sort about reality must SAMPLE
conform to what is demonstrated to be Is a set of individuals selected from a
objectively true about the phenomena population, usually intended to represent
before the assertions are given the status the population in a research study.
of scientific truth. Example:
The scores of 50 students of Senior High
School in EAC-Cavite.
The 40 children who actually
participated in one specific study about
siblings in Barangay Lucsuhin.
In a recent survey, 614 small business
owners in the National Capital Region
were asked whether they thought their
company’s Facebook presence was
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS valuable.
Answer:
Involves the collection and classification Population: The set of all business
of data. owners in the National Capital
Region.
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
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Sample: The participating 614
business owners in the National
Capital Region.

SAMPLE SIZE

Example:
Compute the sufficient sample size of a target
population consisting of 1, 524 sixth- graders in
a given school district using sample
determination formula. Given:𝑁=1524 𝑒=0.05

POPULATION & SAMPLE

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SCIBELLE JEMN RUIZ & KRISTINE ZAINAB PUENTE BSN 1-4 MIDTERM
DATA
Data are measurements or observations. QUALITATIVE VARIABLE
A data set is a collection of measurements A qualitative variable describes an object
or observations. or individual by placing the object or
A datum is a single measurement or individual into a category or group.
observation and is commonly called a Categorical
score or raw score. Examples are gender, nationality, color,
The measurements that are made on the types of personality, and product brand.
subjects of an experiment are also called
data QUANTITATIVE VARIABLE
Usually data consist of the A quantitative variable has a value or
measurements of the dependent variable numerical measurement for which
or of other subject characteristics, such operation can be applied.
as age, gender, number of subjects, and Numerical
so on. The data as originally measured For example, age, height, and weight are
are often referred to as raw or original quantitative.
scores
CLASSIFICATION OF QUANTITATIVE
PARAMETER VARIABLES
Is a value, usually a numerical value that
describes a population. Continuous Variables
A parameter is usually derived from It can assume any of an infinite number
measurements of the individuals in the of values and can be associated with
population. points on a continuous line interval.
Example: Example: Height, weight, volume
In the National Achievement Test of
High School in SY 2011-2012, the mean Discrete Variables
percentage score in Mathematics is It results from either a finite number of
46.37. possible values or a countable number of
possible values.
Example: number of students, number
STATISTICS of books, and number of patients.
Is a value, usually a numerical value that
describes a sample.
A statistic is usually derived from
measurements of the individuals in the
sample.

SAMPLING ERROR
Is naturally occurring discrepancy, or
error, that exists between a sample
statistic and the corresponding
population parameter.

VARIABLE
It is any property or characteristic of LEVELS OF MEASUREMENTS
some event, object, or person that may Nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio
have different values at different times (Interval and ratio are sometimes called
depending on the conditions. continuous or scale).
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
SCIBELLE JEMN RUIZ & KRISTINE ZAINAB PUENTE BSN 1-4 MIDTERM

NOMINAL
At this level of measurement, the
numbers in the variable are used only to
classify the data. Words, letters, and
alpha-numeric symbols can be used.
Examples: Religious affiliation, School
type, or Course.

ORDINAL
At this level of measurement, the
numbers indicate an order
Examples: in a marathon (1st, 2nd, 3rd)

Survey about consumer product

satisfaction(very satisfied, somewhat
satisfied, somewhat dissatisfied, very
dissatisfied)

Example of Nominal & Ordinal: FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION & GRAPHS

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

1. A frequency distribution presents the

score values and their frequency of
occurrence. When presented in a table,
the score values are listed in rank order,
with the lowest score value usually at the
bottom of the table.

INTERVAL
At this level of measurement, the
numbers tell the distance between the
measurements in addition to the Constructing a Frequency Distribution of
classification and ordering. Grouped Scores
Examples: temperature, the distance
between 30 degree Celsius is 40 degree The steps for constructing a frequency distribution of
Celsius is the same as the distance grouped scores are as follows:
between 33 degree Celsius and 35 degree
Celsius 1. Find the range of the scores.
0 degree Celsius does not mean there is
no temperature, it is just a freezing point. Range = Highest Score – Lowest Score

RATIO 2. Determine the tentative number of classes (K).

Has an absolute zero that is meaningful
Examples: Can construct a meaningful 𝐾=1+[3.332(log𝑁)]
ratio (fraction), for example, number of
3. Determine the width of each class interval (i).
clients in past six months
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SCIBELLE JEMN RUIZ & KRISTINE ZAINAB PUENTE BSN 1-4 MIDTERM
𝑖= 𝑅 / 𝐾

4. List the interval, placing the interval containing the

lowest score value at the bottom.

5. Tally the raw scores into the appropriate class

intervals.

6. Add the tallies for each interval to obtain the

interval frequency.
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
SCIBELLE JEMN RUIZ & KRISTINE ZAINAB PUENTE BSN 1-4 MIDTERM

GRAPH

BAR GRAPH
➢Displays data by using bars of equal width on
a grid. The bars may be vertical or horizontal.
Bar graphs are used for comparisons.
➢Displays a bar for each category with the
length of each bar representing the frequency of
that category.
PARETO CHART
➢A bar graph ordered from highest to lowest
frequency.
CIRCLE GRAPH (PIE CHART)
Displays data using a circle divided into
sectors. We use a circle graph (also called a
pie chart) to show how data represent
portions of one whole or one group
Notice that each sector is represented by %
BROKEN LINE GRAPH

A graph showing data points joined by line

segments to show trends over time.
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
SCIBELLE JEMN RUIZ & KRISTINE ZAINAB PUENTE BSN 1-4 MIDTERM
CONTINUOUS LINE GRAPH

A graph in which points on the line

between the plotted points also have
meaning. Sometimes, this is a “best fit”
graph where a straight line is drawn to fit
the data points.
Notice that the independent variable is on
the x-axis, & the dependent is on the y-
axis.

PICTOGRAPH

Uses pictures and symbols to display

data; each picture or symbol can
represent more than one object; a key
tells what each picture represents.

SCATTER PLOTS

SCATTER PLOT EXAMPLE

PARETO GRAPH EXAMPLE

 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
SCIBELLE JEMN RUIZ & KRISTINE ZAINAB PUENTE BSN 1-4 MIDTERM

LESSON 2: MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY AND

DISPERSION

MEAN

– Also known as the “average” or arithmetic mean”

Answer:
MEDIAN
The mean is 80.93. The median is 80. The mode is 80.
– Middle most score
MEAN. The average score of 14 students who took
Mode Statistics and Probability Midterm exam is 80.93.

– the most frequent score. MEDIAN. Seven out of fourteen or 50% of students has a
score above 80. Or, seven out of fourteen or 50% of
student has a score below 80.

MODE. The most frequent scores is 80.

LESSON 2: MEASURES OF POSITION

PERCENTILES
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
SCIBELLE JEMN RUIZ & KRISTINE ZAINAB PUENTE BSN 1-4 MIDTERM
These are positional measures used manly In Therefore, the number of girls higher than
educational and health-related to indicate her I.Q. score is 4.
the position of an individual in a group.
It is denoted by 𝑃 and divide a set of data SOME FREQUENTLY USED MEASURES OF
𝑥 POSITION:
into 100 equal parts.
It is used as positional measures to A. QUARTILES – are the values that are in the quarter
indicate what percent of the data set have position of data set.
a value less than a specified value.
Q1 Lower quartile/first quartile = P25
Example:
Q3 Upper quartile / Third quartile = P75
If a student gets 72 correct answers out
of 100 on a test they earn 72%. B. Median - is the value that is in the halfway position
If a score of 72 correct of a data set.

answers corresponds to the 64th percentile, It is the same as Q2

then they did better than 64% of the students
in the class, but still received a score of 72%.
Median Second quartile = P50
Roxanne has an I.Q. corresponding to
C. Deciles - are the values that are in positions that
percentile rank of 81 in a group of girls. If
divided the data into 10 pieces.
there are 25 girls in the group, how many
of them have higher I.Q. than Roxanne
D = P D =P D =P
Jean? 1 10 2 20 10 100

Solution: EXAMPLE:

The percentile rank of 81 means that • Anthony is a secretary in one big company in Metro
Roxanne has higher I.Q than the other Manila. His salary is in the 7th decile. Should Anthony
girls. be glad about his salary or not? Explain your answer.
To determine the number of girls lower
st ANSWER:
than her or the 81 percentile, multiply
81% by 25, total number of girl.
25 × 0.81 = 20 70% of the employees receive a salary that is less
It means that there are 20 girls who are than or equal to his salary
st
below her or below 81 percentile. • and 30% of the employees receive a salary that is
greater than his salary.
Next is to determine the number of girls
st • Anthony should be pleased with his salary.
higher than her or 81 percentile,
subtract 20 from 25, EXAMPLE:
25 − 20 = 5
However, Roxanne Jean is included in the Christine got the median score in an examination in a
five students. public school. If the cut-off score for passing is upper
To exclude her, subtract one from five such quartile, did she pass the entrance examination?
as:
ANSWER:
5−1=4
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
SCIBELLE JEMN RUIZ & KRISTINE ZAINAB PUENTE BSN 1-4 MIDTERM
The upper 25% is the passing score while the lower
75% is the failing score. Since Christine is included in
the lower 75%, then she did not pass the entrance MEASURES OF ABSOLUTE DISPERSION
examination
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
SCIBELLE JEMN RUIZ & KRISTINE ZAINAB PUENTE BSN 1-4 MIDTERM

OUTLIER

➢A value that "lies outside" (is much smaller or larger

than) most of the other values in a set of data.

➢One way to determine if a data point is an outlier is

to use the interquartile range (IQR) method.

➢Lower Boundary : Q1 – 1.5 IQR ➢Upper Boundary :

Q3 + 1.5 IQR
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
SCIBELLE JEMN RUIZ & KRISTINE ZAINAB PUENTE BSN 1-4 MIDTERM
EXAMPLES

VARIANCE

STANDARD DEVIATION
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
SCIBELLE JEMN RUIZ & KRISTINE ZAINAB PUENTE BSN 1-4 MIDTERM

MEASURES OF RELATIVE DISPERSION

These are unit-less and are used when one wishes to

compare the scatter of one distribution with another
distribution

STANDARD SCORE

It measures how may standard deviation is above or

below the mean.

NOTE: Not really a measure of relative dispersion but

related somehow.