(GE 111 – Ethics)

Lesson - THE STANDARD OF MORALITY

(Moral Practices - Ethical Standards)

Introduction
This module discusses the standard of morality, senderesis, conscience, meaning and
purpose of commandments, modern ethical standards moral philosophies and the
passion of man. It entails the students to have a deeper understanding on what is really
considered right and wrong. 

Student Learning Objectives (SLO)

1. Explain the meaning of standard of morality and its connection to moral practices
2. Enumerate the meaning and purpose of ten commandments
3. Appreciate the importance of conscience and the contribution of different
philosophers to morality
4. Reflect on how the passion of man contributes to the well being of human life

Content
Standard something used for measuring, or for evaluating how good other things
are. A standard is chosen because its quality is already known and highly
esteemed. When there is a standard, and is called 'standardized'. Because we know
that the parts in a design meet the standard, we can trust that each part will fit right and
make for a better whole. The Bible's quality has been established as a standard by
thousands of years of use, and by its ability to surprise us and prompt us to change
even today. As with the other terms about the Bible's quality level, its being a 'standard'
comes not so much by the work itself, or by the church leaders who first called it the
standard, but by the One who stands behind it. Other terms with a meaning like
'standard' are 'benchmark', 'yardstick', 'norm', 'gauge', 'criterion', 'specification', and
'scale'.

A moral standard refers to the norms which we have about the types of actions
which we believe to be morally acceptable and morally unacceptable. Specifically, moral
standards deal with matters which can either seriously harm or seriously benefit human
beings. The validity of moral standards comes from the line of reasoning that was taken
to back or support them, and thus are not able to be formed or changed by particular
bodies of authority.
Social Norms are informal understandings that govern the behavior of members of
a society. Rules that help guide behavior in a certain situations or environments. They
are sometimes collective representations of acceptable group conduct as well as
individual perceptions of particular group conduct. They can be viewed
as cultural products (including values, customs, and traditions) which represent
individuals' basic knowledge of what others do and think that they should
do. Respecting someone does not always mean that you're agreeing with someone,
you're just waiting for a better time and place to address certain actions and behaviors.
Asking questions to better understand behaviors is better then jumping to
conclusions on your personal interpretation. Rulemaking is one of the
basic systems that humans have for organizing and simplifying actions. But it must be
done without risking blind conformity, and without infringing on individuality or freedoms
of expressions.

Examples of Moral Standard

 Always tell the truth.
 Do not destroy property.
 Have courage.
 Keep your promises.
 Do not cheat.
 Treat others as you want to be treated.
 Do not judge.
 Be dependable.

“Thinking is man’s only basic virtue, from which all the others proceed. And his basic
vice, the source of all his evils, is . . . the refusal to think—not blindness, but the
refusal to see; not ignorance, but the refusal to know.” 

—Ayn Rand

You’ve heard it countless times and in various forms: “If there is no God, there is no
objective morality”—“If there is no God, anything goes”—“If there is no God, ‘good’ and
‘evil’ have no objective meaning”—and so on.
Moral standards involve the rules people have about the kinds of actions they believe
are morally right and wrong, as well as the values they place on the kinds of objects
they believe are morally good and morally bad. Some ethicists equate moral standards
with moral values and moral principles.
 
Non-moral standards  refer to rules that are
unrelated to moral or ethical considerations. Either these standards are not necessarily
linked to morality or by nature lack ethical sense. Basic examples of non-moral
standards include rules of etiquette, fashion standards, rules in games, and various
house rules.
The following six (6) characteristics of moral standards further differentiate them from
non-moral standards .
a. Moral standards involve serious wrongs or significant benefits.

Moral standards deal with matters which can seriously impact, that is, injure or benefit
human beings. It is not the case with many non-moral standards. For instance, following
or violating some basketball rules may matter in basketball games but does not
necessarily affect one’s life or wellbeing.
b. Moral standards ought to be preferred to other values.

Moral standards have overriding character or hegemonic authority. If a moral standard

states that a person has the moral obligation to do something, then he/she is supposed
to do that even if it conflicts with other non-moral standards, and even with self-interest.  
c. Moral standards are not established by authority figures.
Moral standards are not invented, formed, or generated by authoritative bodies or
persons such as nations’ legislative bodies. Ideally instead, these values ought to be
considered in the process of making laws. In principle therefore, moral standards cannot
be changed nor nullified by the decisions of particular authoritative body. One thing
about these standards, nonetheless, is that its validity lies on the soundness or
adequacy of the reasons that are considered to support and justify them.
d. Moral standards have the trait of universalizability.
Simply put, it means that everyone should live up to moral standards. To be more
accurate, however, it entails that moral principles must apply to all who are in the
relevantly similar situation. If one judges that act A is morally right for a certain person
P, then it is morally right for anybody relevantly similar to P.
 
This characteristic is exemplified in the Gold Rule, “Do unto others what you would them
do unto you (if you were in their shoes)” and in the formal Principle of Justice, “It cannot
be right for A to treat B in a manner in which it would be wrong for B to treat A, merely
on the ground that they are two different individuals, and without there being any
difference  between the natures or circumstances of the two which can be stated as a
reasonable ground for difference of treatment.” Universalizability is an extension of the
principle of consistency, that is, one ought to be consistent about one’s value
judgments.
 
e. Moral standards are based on impartial considerations.
Moral standard does not evaluate standards on the basis of the interests of a certain
person or group, but one that goes beyond personal interests to a universal standpoint
in which each person’s interests are impartially counted as equal.
 
Impartiality is usually depicted as being free of bias or prejudice. Impartiality in morality
requires that we give equal and/or adequate consideration to the interests of all
concerned parties.
 
f. Moral standards are associated with special emotions and vocabulary.
Prescriptivity indicates the practical or action-guiding nature of moral standards. These
moral standards are generally put forth as injunction or imperatives (such as, ‘Do not
kill,’ ‘Do no unnecessary harm,’ and ‘Love your neighbor’). These principles are
proposed for use, to advise, and to influence to action. Retroactively, this feature is
used to evaluate behavior, to assign praise and blame, and to produce feelings of
satisfaction or of guilt.
 
If a person violates a moral standard by telling a lie even to fulfill a special purpose, it is
not surprising if he/she starts feeling guilty or being ashamed of his behavior afterwards.
On the contrary, no much guilt is felt if one goes against the current fashion trend (e.g.
refusing to wear tattered jeans). (Copyright 2013 by Jensen DG. Mañebog)
Synderesis

“Synderesis” is a technical term from scholastic philosophy, signifying the innate

principle in the moral consciousness of every person which directs the agent to good
and restrains him from evil. It is first found in a singe passage of St. Jerome (d. 420) in
his explanation of the four living creatures in Ezekiel’s vision. Jerome explains that most
commentators hold that the human, the lion, and the ox of the vision represent the
rational, the irascible, and the appetitive (or concupiscent) parts of the soul, according to
Plato’s division, while the fourth figure, that of the eagle, represents a fourth part of the
soul, above and outside these three:
The Greeks call synderesis, which spark of conscience was not extinguished from the
breast of Adam when he was driven from Paradise. Through it, when overcome by
pleasures or by anger, or even as sometimes deceived by a similitude of reason, we
feel that we sin; … and this in the scriptures is sometimes called spirit…. And yet we
perceive that the conscience (conscientia) is itself also thrown aside and driven from its
place by some who have no shame or modesty in their faults.
In recent years attention has been redirected to the significance of the ethical rule that
"good should be done and evil avoided." It may be called the synderesis rule (SR) or
principle, since in its most influential presentation it was associated by Thomas Aquinas
with the intellectual habit called syn- deresis.
What is the difference between senderesis and conscience?
Aquinas connected synderesis to natural law, identifying the first practical principles, of
which synderesis is the habit, with the general principles of natural law. ... According to
Aquinas, conscience is the consideration of a specific case in light of one's moral
knowledge.
Through our individual conscience, we become aware of our deeply held moral
principles, we are motivated to act upon them, and we
assess our character, our behavior and ultimately our self against those principles.
Types of Conscience

1.Correct Conscience - tells us when something is a good choice or a bad choice and
that this decision is in agreement with what that thing actually is according to the
objective law

2.Erroneous Conscience - judges something incorrectly, when something is bad you

think its good and when its good you think its bad

3.Certain Conscience - convinced without any doubt that an action is good or bad

4.Doubtful Conscience - when you cannot choose between good and bad choices

5. Lax Conscience - when you see no sin where there actually is sin

6.Scrupulous Sin - a conscience that judges that there is sin where there really is no sin,
or that judges that something is a mortal sin when it is only a venial sin

7.Delicate Conscience - judges correctly and with careful attention concerning the acts
that are about to be performed

What is doubt
Doubt is often defined as a state of indecision or hesitancy with respect to accepting or
rejecting a given proposition. Thus, doubt is opposed to belief. But doubt is also
contrasted with certainty. Since it seems intelligible to say that there are many things we
believe without being completely certain about them, it appears that we may not have a
unitary concept of doubt.
Although doubt is often associated in philosophy with scepticism, historically the relation
between the two is complex. Moreover, some philosophers deny that sceptical
arguments have any essential connection with inducing doubts.
Sceptical doubts, as philosophers understand them, differ from ordinary doubts in their
depth and generality. We all have doubts about some things. But the philosophical
sceptic wonders whether we ever have the slightest reason to believe one thing rather
than another. However, the reasonableness of such doubts – and even their intelligibility
– remains controversial. The various attitudes philosophers adopt with respect to the
status of sceptical doubts characterize the main approaches to epistemological theory.

Doubt is important because it helps you to challenge the status quo, to face and
overcome your fears, to redefine success as you see fit, to reflect on previous stories
you've told yourself and search for the silver lining, to ask new questions, and to search
for new answers.
The actual text of the Ten Commandments

1. “You shall have no other gods before me.

2. You shall not make for yourself a carved image, or any likeness of anything that is in
heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth.
You shall not bow down to them or serve them, for I the Lord your God am a jealous
God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers on the children to the third and the fourth
generation of those who hate me, but showing steadfast love to thousands of those
who love me and keep my commandments.
3. You shall not take the name of the Lord your God in vain, for the Lord will not hold
him guiltless who takes his name in vain.
4. Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy. Six days you shall labor, and do all
your work, but the seventh day is a Sabbath to the Lord your God. On it you shall
not do any work, you, or your son, or your daughter, your male servant, or your
female servant, or your livestock, or the sojourner who is within your gates. For in
six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that is in them, and
rested on the seventh day. Therefore the Lord blessed the Sabbath day and made it
holy.
5. Honor your father and your mother, that your days may be long in the land that the
Lord your God is giving you.
6. You shall not murder.
7. You shall not commit adultery.
8. You shall not steal.
9. You shall not bear false witness against your neighbor.
10. You shall not covet your neighbor’s house; you shall not covet your neighbor’s wife,
or his male servant, or his female servant, or his ox, or his donkey, or anything that
is your neighbor’s.”
The first and second commandment  are about God’s uniqueness and incomparability.
The third is about treating God’s name with respect, and the fourth is about keeping the
Sabbath – a time of rest and celebration to reflect upon God and his works. fifth, sixth
and seventh commandments prescribe against injury towards others, adultery and theft
respectively. The eighth commandment forbids lying or bearing false witness against a
neighbor. Lying is contrary to truth. The ninth and tenth forbids avarice and greed.
Coveting or eyeing another person’s property with malice is against the moral law. It is
not necessary that one steal. It is enough to covet or lust after another person’s wife
and/or property to commit a violation of these last two laws.
The meaning and purpose of the Ten Commandments

Throughout Israel’s history, these Ten Commandments should form the legal, moral and
spiritual foundation of the nation’s life. They were Israel’s institution. But there was more
to it, since those commandments were the terms of Israel’s covenant with God. Failing
to obey them thus was not just a problem for society, but also for the personal and
communal relationship with God. And it is clear that nobody ever managed to obey
these commandments fully all of his life. “Surely there is not a righteous man on earth
who does good and never sins” (Ecclesiastes 7:20).

It is impossible to earn God’s favor and your own salvation by obeying these
commandments. But the Ten Commandments do help people gain insight in the
problem of their sinful hearts (Romans 3:20). That should bring them to repentance, it
should motivate them to ask God for forgiveness (Psalm 32:5). The apostle Paul
concludes: “So then, the law was our guardian until Christ came, in order that we might
be justified by faith” (Galatians 3:24). Even before Jesus Christ had actually come to
earth, the Israelites were saved not by obedience to God’s commandments but  by faith
in Jesus .

Jesus fulfilled the law

The laws of the Old Testament have been fulfilled by Jesus (Matthew 5:17-19). They
pointed forward to Him, and have been perfectly obeyed by Him.

Therefore, Christians no longer live under the “yoke” of the law, but in the freedom of
Christ (Galatians 5:1). Paul explains further: “Only do not use your freedom as an
opportunity for the flesh, but through love serve one another. For the whole law is
fulfilled in one word: You shall love your neighbor as yourself” (Galatians 5:13-14).
Because we are freed from the power of sin, the Holy Spirit now enables us to actually
live a God pleasing life more and more.

The Ten Commandments function as a mirror

But their function as a mirror is still helpful to make us see how awful sin actually is. Like
Paul states: “If it had not been for the law, I would not have known sin. For I would not
have known what it is to covet if the law had not said, You shall not covet” (Romans
7:7). Naturally, we tend to underestimate our own sinfulness and not realize its
seriousness. The Ten Commandments can help us overcome that problem.

The Ten Commandments function as a guide

Moreover, these commandments show God’s eternal and infinite will and wisdom. This
same will and wisdom is expressed in New Testament sayings of Jesus and in various
letters. After all, these are “written” by the same God!

Although the Ten Commandments are not copied literally in the New Testament, we find
many similar commandments, e.g. “Now the works of the flesh are evident: sexual
immorality, impurity, sensuality, idolatry, sorcery, enmity, strife, jealousy, fits of anger,
rivalries, dissensions, divisions, envy, drunkenness, orgies, and things like these. I warn
you, as I warned you before, that those who do such things will not inherit the kingdom
of God. But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness,
faithfulness, gentleness, self-control; against such things there is no law. And those
who belong to Christ Jesus have crucified the flesh with its passions and desires”
(Galatians 5:19-24).

Keeping God’s commandments will bring about a blessing, both personally and as a
society. If everybody would follow these Ten Commandments, this would result in a
perfectly harmonious and peaceful world. God shows us the right way to live as
Christians, until we will finally reach perfection when we are eternally united with Him.

Eastern Philosophy is a diverse body of approaches to life and philosophizing, particularly

centered on understanding the process of the Universe and the endless "becoming".

1. Lao Tzu (old teacher)

The founder of Taoism outlined all the tenets of his globally beloved
philosophy in the Tao Te Ching sometime between the 6th and 4th
centuries B.C. — and some even debate whether or not he was a real or
 apocryphal individual. In his most influential (to put it mildly) work, he touts the concept
of the Tao, an invisible structure which drives all things, and believes enlightenment
comes from attaining oneness with the surrounding universe. Harmony with nature as
opposed to working against its will forms the crux of this religious and philosophical
approach, making it ideal for anyone hoping to reduce stresses in their lives.

In Taoism the concept of oneness means that everything is part of the same whole.
Everything begins and ends with the wholeness of nature. Everything (including you!) is
linked together with universe.

The concept of connecting oneself with the wavelength of the universe to unlock true
inner harmony within you. The best practice is meditation, unleashing a powerful focused
mind which can enable a person to truly grasp the miracles in nature. The Yin Yang
represents is the symbol of harmony. It describes the importance of opposites to keep
life balanced and state of constant flow with time.

2.Siddhartha Gautama
Indian prince Siddhartha Gautama probably lived around the
6th or 5th century B.C., but even today his spiritual guidance
inspires millions of practitioners globally. He only founded
Buddhism, after all. Although details of his life will likely remain
disputed for a while yet, the Four Noble Truths Buddha taught stay
largely static. The philosophy and faith encourages the pursuit of
these principles through as many lifetimes as it takes to finally
achieve perfect bliss and knowledge in Nirvana. Buddhism’s Middlewayness or Middle
Pat deserves special treatment. Gautama Siddhartha  (also known as the Buddha “ the
awakened one”) was the leader and founder of a sect of wanderer ascetics (Sramanas),
one of many sects which existed at that time all over India. The teachings of Siddhartha
Gautama are considered the core of Buddhism: after his death, the community he
founded slowly evolved into a religious-like movement which was finally established as
a state religion in India by the time of Emperor Ashoka, during the 3rd century BCE.
Buddha meaning “awakened or illumined” – a prince who was shielded from all forms of
pain and sufferings. He was not allowed to see the sick and the infirm.

He strayed by the gates of his palace grounds and saw for himself sickness and pain.
He left his princely home and sought the answer to life’s puzzles. Why should men
suffer? Why should they experience pain? He led a mendicant’s life and indulged in
long medications.

After 49 days, he was illuminated or awakened, he formulated the famous “ Four Noble
Truths”
 1. life is suffering
2. suffering is caused by selfish craving
3. suffering can be eliminated
4. suffering can be eliminated by the Eightfold Path

In Buddha’s doctrine, life is suffering; nothing can be done about it. But suffering can be
eliminated by the eightfold path which is a Middle or Path or a Middle Way. Everything
that man does must find the right middle ground between two extremes; otherwise,
frustration occurs.

Example:

Desire is in different, but when desires inordinately or when one desires insufficiently,
the right path has not been found, and it could lead to frustration.

Food is an enjoyable entity but too much of it or too little of it could lead to suffering.

To eliminate suffering, one has to discover the right or middleway. This is the also the
law of morality.

The Noble Eightfold Path

1. Right understanding (Samma Ditthi)

2. Right thought (Samma sankappa)
3. Right Speech (Samma vaca)
4. Right action (Samma kammanta)
5. Right livelihood (Samma ajiva)
6. Right effort (Samma vayama)
7. Right mindfulness (Samma sati)
8. Right concentration (Samma samadhi)

3.Confucius
In his Analects — and, some theorize, the Five Classics
(Spring and Autumn Annals, Classic of Poetry, Classic of
Changes, Classic of Rites, and Classic of History) — this 6th
and 5th century B.C. thinker promoted ancestor worship, strong
filial bonds, and considerate living. Many of the parables and
maxims shared in Confucius’ writings espouse humanistic
ideologies, placing the well-being of all over the needs of the
few. Li, an ethical framework encouraging the populace to behave appropriately,
serves as the best introduction to his philosophies for beginners hoping to learn more.
Like the Indians, do not have a concrete standard of morality.
For them one must follow nature if one wants to be happy in this world. Nature is tao
which is also the way, the truth and the law. When one conforms to nature one
experiences ease and tranquility. Chinese compares man’s life with water that flows in a
brook. When water encounters rocks, it sidetracks them or goes over them but never
hurtless against them. Man should live and let live If the other persons wants to behave
in a peculiar way one must be like the water that passes over a rock unmindful of the
obstacle that the rock poses. Chuang Chu commonly known as Zhuangzi cites the
examples of the heron and the duck

The heron has a naturally long neck. To shorten, it will give pain to the heron.
Shortening the neck of the heron is therefore an evil. A duck’s neck is short. To
lengthen, it will give pain to the duck. Hence, lengthening the neck of the duck is
evil. The Chinese standard of morality is nature. If one is tired, one must rest. If
sleepy ,one must sleep.. Indian and Chinese concepts must be looked upon with
benevolence and understanding. Refinements of these standards must be done to
make them answer to the needs of modern man. The essence of Indian and
Chinese working ideal is tenable. One is not expected to live as he ought to
depending on his station in life?
According to Confucius, “ A father should live or act like a father, a minister like a
minister.” if he does not, he must either mend his ways or change his name. His
doctrine of rectification of names has influenced Chinese real life and values.
Chinese and Indian philosophies could be looked up to for their ageless wisdom.

Greek Philosophers and Their Important Contributions

It is unarguably a known fact that ancient Greece was home to some of the most
important and celebrated philosophers in the world today. The ability of those selected
few to see life in a different perspective and their openness to share with us was a great
phenomenon.

Aristotle
Aristotle made sure to categorize knowledge into different fields such as Physics,
biology, ethics and math. He was an influential philosopher and excelled greatly in
math, astronomy, biology and philosophy. Aristotle based all his findings on factual data
which were gathered from his real-life experiences. He is also famously known as
Plato’s disciple.

Pythagoras
Pythagoras is an influential philosopher known for his famous theory Pythagoras
Theorem Belonging to the pre-Socrates era, this philosopher established a school
where studies and researches were done to back up philosophy and real life. A huge
number of disciples studied at his school, learning the ways and means of leading lives
with harmony and balance. Pythagoras teachings are still studied as these lay down the
doctrines for leading basic lives.

Socrates
Socrates was heavily invested in actions regarding his philosophical ideologies. He took
time to exercise his philosophies in his daily life. As a deep thinker and an answer
seeker, he sometime roamed the cities and markets seeking for answers through open
discussions and meetings. He also ensured his disciples implemented his philosophies
and others in their daily lives and associations through thinking and using their
intellects.

Plato
One among the greatest philosophers of ancient Greece was Plato, a student of
Socrates. He was able to revolutionize the modern world through his teachings. He was
able to establish an Academy in Athens which is identified as Western society’s first
institution of higher learning. A great contributor on the development of western
philosophy still being studied and governing actions. Plato preached his philosophy that
was based on a threefold approach, namely — ethics, dialects and physics. His work
‘The Republic’ is considered Plato’s most influential works till today as it offers great
insight into different fields like ethics, politics, and metaphysics.

Modern Ethical Standards

Ethical standards are a set of principles established by the founders of the organization
to communicate its underlying moral values. This code provides a framework that can
be used as a reference for decision making processes.

 Most Common Codes of Conduct:

Transparency
Transparency involves accurately representing facts, telling a truth in its entirety
and communicating clearly and openly about everything a company does and says. It is
the foundation of a strong relationship with customers, which directly impacts the
success and stability of a company. The more candidness a company shows, the more
the public is likely to trust in its service, product or mission. This is especially true during
public relations crises when full disclosure is imperative to overcoming business issues.
Integrity
Sticking with a decision, especially when pressured to do otherwise, shows honor and
courage. Companies that do what they believe is morally right based on equality and
fairness can demonstrate strength and commendable character.

Trustworthiness
Companies that keep promises and fulfill commitments to their employees, business
partners and customers display their commitment to business ethics. Trustworthiness is
a monumental component to success in business because people typically like to work
with and buy from those they believe are dependable and principled.

Loyalty
Loyalty encompasses all relationships a business has including those with staff,
partners, investors and consumers. Loyalty allows a business to make decisions
benefiting these relationships and overcome influences from outside conflicting
interests. This shows the business values the advancement of the company and
employees over an owner's personal gain.

Fairness
Companies should strive to act fairly and commit to exercising their power justly.
Leaders should only use honorable methods to gain an advantage over the competition.
Also, fairness relates to equality, which means having an open mind and treating
everyone fairly. Fairness and equality can be involved in hiring practices, marketing
initiatives, business partnerships and competing within the market for new consumers or
clients.

Compassion
Ethical companies demonstrate genuine kindness, understanding and care for the
livelihood of others. In business, this means accomplishing business goals to produce
the most good while causing the least amount of damage. When a business decision
needs to be made, careful consideration of the options and how each one may affect a
person or community helps reduce the potential negative impacts, depending on the
industry.

Respect
Having basic respect for the rights, privacy and dignity of people—including individuals
within and outside the company—is an important business ethical standard. Companies
that treat all humans with respect regardless of religion, sex, race, nationality or other
signifier are often reviewed positively in the public eye.
Lawfulness
Business ethics also include abiding by legal regulations and obligations regarding their
business activities like taxes, worker safety and employment and labor laws.
Companies that work within the boundaries of the legal system are more credible and
honorable, which can establish a strong positive reputation as an employer that
encourages high-quality candidates to apply for roles.

Providing excellence
Ethical organizations strive to provide excellence by always working to deliver the
greatest quality of service or products to their clients and customers. They pursue
creativity and innovation, looking for the best ways to deliver their goods and seek to
constantly improve their performance, customer satisfaction and employee morale.

Responsibility
Companies with high ethical standards recognize their responsibilities to their
employees and customers and understand how the conduct of their leadership affects
the business. Companies have a responsibility to lead with the values and mission of
the organization to make logical decisions that benefit everyone. Company leaders
should implement ethical standards and model them to others by displaying the
standards themselves.

Reputation upholding
An ethical company seeks to maintain and protect a positive reputation to build a
motivating work culture, keep investors engaged and provide exceptional service to
customers. Upholding a good reputation means engaging in conduct that uplifts the
company. If any action is taken to undermine a company's reputation, leaders need to
handle the situation appropriately utilizing other ethical standards such as transparency,
accountability and responsibility.

Accountability
Ethical businesses accept responsibility for all decisions made as a company and admit
their mistakes to all of those who may be affected by a misstep including shareholders,
employees and the public. In addition to taking accountability, they also accept any
consequences that result and do so transparently.

Modern Philosophers on Ethics

1.John Stuart Mill

known for his Greatest Happiness principle
 drives at the heart of modern man to whom uselessness ought to be avoided
because it does not promote happiness Maintains that utility or usefulness in the
standard of morality.
Anything that is useful is good; the opposite is evil. “Utility or the greatest happiness
principle, holds that actions are right in proportions as they tend to promote happiness,
are wrong as they end to promote the reverse of happiness. By happiness is intended
pleasure and the absence of pain; by happiness, pain and privation of pleasure.”

2. Jeremy Bentham
“Pleasure is in itself a good… pain is in itself an evil ; and indeed without
exception, the only evil; or else the words good and evil have no meaning.”

The above theories of pleasure connote a wrong notion of happiness. Pleasure is

fleeting but happiness is lasting. Food, drink, sex bring about pleasure but man tires of
them. There is a saturation point of pleasure; there is a point beyond which pleasure
becomes pain. Too much of a good thing becomes unpleasant and therefore, painful.

Happiness on the other hand has no limit.

No man can ever say that he has enough of it. Happiness has no saturation point. And
because man does not live forever on earth, no man has truly experienced real
happiness. This is perhaps what the Lord meant by His words in the Bible, “No eye
has ever seen, no ear has ever heard what the Father has prepared for those who love
Him.”

3 Layers of Life and Powers

1. Vegetative Life
Man shares in common with the plants and the powers that come with it like
nutrition, growth and reproduction

2. Sentient Life
Man shares in common with brute animals and with powers like internal and external
sensation, appetition and locomotion

3. Rational Life
Man alone possesses and with powers of intellection and volition.

To each of this life and powers belong a joy and pain depending on whether this life
or powers are used according to their specific nature and purpose.
a. Appetites
- Belongs to sentient life
- Appetition is the tendency towards the object which are considered pleasant and
away from objects considered unpleasant.
Appetition or the activity or sense appetites is properly called passion

b. Passions - are strong and barely controllable emotion.

- is a feeling of intense enthusiasm towards or compelling desire for someone or
something. Passion can range from eager interest in or admiration for an idea,
proposal, or cause; to enthusiastic enjoyment of an interest or activity; to strong
attraction, excitement, or emotion towards a person. 

c. Locomotion is the movement towards sentient being loves or desires or movement

away from what he hates or aversion to. The power of locomotion is implanted
onto the sentient being in order to answer to a need brought about by the passion.

Eleven Passions of Man

Passion Description
Love – tendency towards a pleasant and desirable object
- a feeling of strong or constant affection for a person attraction
that includes sexual desire the strong affection felt by people who
have a romantic relationship.
Desire – the tendency to acquire the pleasant or desirable object
- a strong feeling of wanting to have something or wishing for
something to happen
Joy – result from the acquisition of the desired object
- a feeling of great pleasure and happiness.
Sorrow the failure to acquire that object feeling of deep distress 
Hatred - the repugnance towards undesirable object
- intense dislike or ill will.
Aversion – repulsion towards the same object
- a strong dislike or disinclination.
Hope – is experienced
- is an optimistic state of mind that is based on an expectation of
positive outcomes with respect to events and circumstances in
one's life or the world at large
Despair – the complete loss or absence of hope.
Courage – the ability to do something that frightens one.
Fear – feeling induced by perceived danger or threat
Anger – revulsion, dissatisfaction over the non- acquisition of desired
 goods or failure to evade undesirable objects

Assessment and Evaluation

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dFb7Hxva5rg (Lao Tzu)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C9AoZj_FPzU (Buddha)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_BSw3utLVS0 (Buddha)

References
https://www.quora.com/What-is-ethical-standard
http://www.spirithome.com/bible-as-norm.html

https://sevenpillarsinstitute.org/glossary/moral-standard/

Prepared: Checked : Approved :

C.Pormison Jr. ____________________ ____________________
Department Head Dean