M

Mackerel See Fish: Introduction; Catching and Handling; Fish as Food; Demersal Species of Temperate
Climates; Pelagic Species of Temperate Climates; Tuna and Tuna-like Fish of Tropical Climates; Demersal Species
of Tropical Climates; Pelagic Species of Tropical Climates; Important Elasmobranch Species; Processing;
Miscellaneous Fish Products; Spoilage of Seafood; Dietary Importance of Fish and Shellfish; Fish Farming; Fish
Meal

MACROBIOTIC DIETS
J Dwyer, Jean Mayer US Department of Agriculture, some popularity. The final stage of an elaborate
Human Nutrition Research Center on Aging at Tufts 10-stage dietary regimen consisted of brown rice,
University, Boston, MA, USA salt, and fluids such as herbal teas, and was viewed
Copyright 2003, Elsevier Science Ltd. All Rights Reserved. as bringing not only health but also spiritual enlight-
enment. Michio Kushi revised the Ohsawa diet and
emphasized less extreme patterns in the 1970s. The
Definition macrobiotic diet, as currently practiced, although it
may have nutritional deficiencies, is less restrictive.
0001 Macrobiotics is a philosophical system that was Nevertheless, for individuals who are ill, especially
founded by a Japanese named Georges Ohsawa and with diseases such as cancers of the gastrointestinal
popularized in the USA by Mishio Kushi. Macrobiotics tract, such a high bulk diet may cause, rather than
advocates a diet that is virtually devoid of animal foods alleviate, symptoms. Macrobiotic leaders often com-
because of the belief that foods biologically far away plain that there is a bias in the scientific literature
from humans are better for them, and that these foods against macrobiotics. However, evidence that the
should form the basis of the diet to prolong life and macrobiotic diet has a place in the treatment of
health. Animal foods, if they are used at all, are used in cancers is not available. Moreover, the proponents
very small amounts as condiments rather than in main of macrobiotic diets claim that the negative health
course portions. Ohsawa believed that all disease effects that were associated with the diet in the past
could be cured by a proper therapy that consisted of are no longer present. However, population-based
balancing the forces of Yin and Yang. The optimal studies are available that indicate ill effects in infants
macrobiotic diet is viewed by practitioners as one and young children, and similar studies refuting them
that balances Yin and Yang foods, as defined by their are not available, testifying that this is no longer the
activity characteristics in the universe, supposedly op- case. This is surprising, since several individuals
posing and complementing each other. This dualistic trained at the doctoral level in nutritional sciences
Yin–Yang classification does not correspond to food are adherents to these regimens.
grouping systems based on nutrient composition. Ex-
tensive chewing of food is recommended to enhance
the strengthening Yang properties of the diet. It is Composition of Diet
important to recognize that macrobiotics is a life view The macrobiotic diet is similar nutritionally to a 0003
and philosophy that involves far more than diet alone. vegan–vegetarian regime with additional prohibitions
The philosophy views disease as resulting from Yin– against sugar, alcohol, and processed foods. Most
Yang imbalances that can be restored by an ideal diet. of the energy comes from cereal staples, including
rice, soy, and aduke and other beans. This basic
diet is supplemented by soybeans, vegetables, some
History
fruits, nuts, seeds, and very small amounts of fish.
0002 In the 1960s and early 1970s, an extreme form of the The diets prescribed in writings by the various author-
macrobiotic diet, the Zen macrobiotic diet, gained ities and that are actually eaten probably vary a good
 3632 MACROBIOTIC DIETS

deal from eater to eater, however. (See Vegetarian It is difficult to make the diet nutritionally adequate
Diets.) and follow the pronouncements of macrobiotic
0004 Dietary planning and menu selection are based on leaders. Use of at least 20–25 g of dietary fat, and at
combinations of foods that are thought to be philo- least 100–150 g of fatty fishes, which are good
sophically appropriate according to macrobiotic sources of vitamin D and also provide some vitamin
criteria but may not be so from the nutritional stand- B12, improve the diets of weanlings in more favorable
point. Certain food groups, such as dairy and meats, directions. At least 150–250 g of milk and milk prod-
are avoided. Milk and milk products are major ucts per day are advised to assure adequate intakes of
sources in American diets of calcium, phosphorus, calcium in early childhood. Alternatively, soy milk
magnesium, vitamin D, riboflavin, and high-quality that is fortified with vitamins B12 and D and calcium,
protein. Meat, fish, poultry, eggs, and beans are good highly fortified cereals, or vitamin mineral supple-
sources of high-quality protein, ion, zinc, copper, and ments may be used as sources of nutrients rich in
many of the B-complex vitamins. Without careful the milk group. During later infancy and weaning,
planning, when these food groups are avoided, it is iron intakes may also be unsatisfactory, and iron-
difficult to meet recommended levels of energy, vita- deficiency anemia may result. Iron-fortified cereals,
mins B12 and D, iron, calcium, zinc, and riboflavin. plant foods high in iron such as iron-fortified soy
Dietary deficiencies result when appropriate substitu- formula, and iron-fortified cereals eaten with ascor-
tions of other foods rich in these nutrients are not bic acid-rich foods enhance iron bioavailabiliy and
made. The extent to which dietary deficiencies arise decrease the risks of iron-deficiency anemia. The
varies by life stage, type of diet adopted, and the macrobiotic diet also increases the risks of dietary
eater’s health status. deficiencies at other times of life when nutrient
needs are particularly high. Similar adaptations of
the diet to increase intakes of essential nutrients are
Lifestyles of Macrobiotic Practitioners
also prudent during pregnancy and lactation, at
0005 Macrobiotic beliefs affect ways of living that influ- adolescence, and during recovery from illness. During
ence health and go beyond diet. Macrobiotics practi- pregnancy, vegan-vegetarians and some macrobiotics
tioners have some lifestyle habits that promote who eat virtually no animal foods at all may have
health, such as abstinence or moderation in the use very low stores of DHA and EPA, and of vitamin B12.
of alcohol, nonuse of illicit drugs, and a physically Weight gain during pregnancy may not be satisfactory
active life with adequate rest. However, some macro- either, increasing the risks of low birth weight.
biotics smoke, and others eschew anticipatory During the past 25 years, adherents to the macro- 0007

guidance from conventional health professionals, biotic philosophy have had a higher prevalence of
avoid or delay the use of preventive measures such as dietary deficiency disease than other vegetarians.
immunizations, and refuse to use vitamin mineral sup- The reasons for this are probably several, and include
plements and prescription drugs. Some delay seeking the restrictions on consumption and sources of nutri-
medical treatment for some illnesses until they are ents (prohibitions against vitamin mineral supple-
quite ill, thus increasing the risks of secondary malnu- ments and fortified foods, other processed foods)
trition. These attitudes are at variance with vegetar- over and above those involving a vegan diet, attitudes
ians of other types. (See Malnutrition: Malnutrition in toward health and use of conventional medical care,
Developed Countries; Vegetarian Diets.) and the difficulties of fitting recommendations based
on philosophical considerations with nutrient intakes
based on modern knowledge of nutrition.
Health Effects of Macrobiotic Diets over
Most of the positive aspects of macrobiotic diets 0008
the Life Cycle
associated with health benefits are because they are
0006 Acceptable and appropriate diets must fulfill the diet- not excessive. Among them are modest caloric intakes,
ary reference intakes and the recommendations of very low intakes of saturated fat, cholesterol, alcohol,
other expert groups on dietary balance, variety, and and caffeine, relatively low intakes of refined carbo-
moderation. Finally, they must be developmentally hydrates, and high intakes of dietary fiber. The health
appropriate. Table 1 presents a summary of the risks advantages associated with the macrobiotic diet
and benefits of macrobiotic diets. Generally, macro- are due only in part to dietary composition. Other
biotics breast-feed their children through the first positive lifestyle characteristics of the macrobiotic
year of life and introduce some complementary feed- lifestyle are also health-promoting. Macrobiotics
ing after 6 months. However, macrobiotic diets are generally are lean rather than obese, tend to eschew
very bulky for weanlings. In addition, a source of alcohol and illicit drugs, and lead orderly lives. The
vitamin D should be provided after 6 months of age. macrobiotic dietary pattern provides no unique
 MACROBIOTIC DIETS 3633

tbl0001 Table 1 Risks and benefits of macrobiotic diets

Infancy Infancy Weaning Preschool School Adolescent Adult Pregnancy Lactation Illness
< 6 months > 6 months

Risks
Emaciation, protein-calorie



malnutrition
Slowed growth










Low stores/intakes of DHA,





EPA
Iron-deficiency anemia










Anemia due to vitamin B12










deficiency
Low intakes of folic acid


Vitamin D deficiency rickets




Osteomalacia


Low dietary calcium intake










Low intakes of zinc, B6










Benefits
Long lactation and breast-




feeding
Decreased obesity





Decreased alcohol abuse






Low serum lipids



Low blood pressure



Good laxation






Decreased incidence of type 2





diabetes
Decreased incidence of



diverticular disease
Decreased incidence colon


cancer
Decreased incidence of


breast and prostate cancer
Decreased incidence of


endometrial cancer
Decreased incidence of
cervical cancer

health advantages over those accruing to other vege- Nutritional Value of Macrobiotic Diets
tarian or vegan patterns, however.
Energy
0009 Environmental factors are the major reasons why
the nutritional status of macrobiotics differs from that Macrobiotics urges moderation in consumption. The 0010

of other vegetarians or omnivores. However, macro- regimen is low in fat, high in bulk, and high in fiber,
biotics are not exempt from genetic disorders that and thus it tends to be low in energy. Macrobiotic
require nutritional treatment either, such as vitamin practitioners are usually lean, in part because their
D-dependent rickets, or polymorphisms in the vitamin energy intakes are low and in part because they lead
D receptor that are associated with differences in bone physically active lives. Some malabsorption may
mineral density and perhaps calcium absorption. occur. The risks of low energy intakes are most evi-
They are also affected by more subtle variations in dent among macrobiotic infants who are not breast-
genetic endowment that contribute to the variability fed weanlings, and young children. The practice of
in nutrient requirements. For example, a genetic feeding a very-low-fat-cereal-based infant food to
polymorphism has been found that adversely affects infants, called ‘kohkoh’, is no longer common; it
homocysteine concentrations in individuals with a was associated with frank protein calorie malnutri-
relatively poor float status. Macrobiotics with such tion in many infants. Macrobiotic children are
polymorphisms may be the individuals who fall ill first usually smaller, lighter, and leaner than their peers.
when diets are inadequate (See Table 1). Some catch-up growth usually occurs in the preschool
 3634 MACROBIOTIC DIETS

and school years. (See Energy: Measurement of Food body if eaten in sufficient amounts. Mixtures of
Energy.) grains, milk or eggs, and legumes with seeds or nuts
also complement each other well. Most nuts and
Protein
seeds are high in cystine, methionine, and tryptophan,
0011 Human beings require nine essential amino acids that and low in lysine and isoleucine. The only exception
they cannot synthesize, the nonessential amino acids, is peanuts, which are low in both methionine and
and additional nitrogen to fulfill their protein needs. threonine. Other plant proteins are low in these
The amino acid composition of protein, the amount amino acids, whereas they are relatively high in lysine
of protein, the bioavailability of protein and the avail- and tryptophan. Thus, nuts, seeds, and legumes com-
ability of the protein for building tissue instead of plement other plant proteins well, as do grains and
being burned for energy are therefore all important. legumes. Small amounts of animal foods such as sea-
(See Amino Acids: Metabolism; Protein: Require- food, milk products, and eggs also complement the
ments; Quality.) amino acid profile of plant proteins well. Therefore,
0012 A major concern is that the individual be in energy when a variety of complementary plant proteins are
balance rather than in a hypocaloric state, since, consumed in sufficient quantity, and energy is pro-
under such circumstances, protein will be used for vided in sufficient amounts, there is little reason for
energy. The macrobiotic regimen potentially poses concern. However, on the most rigorous macrobiotic
both protein quality and quantity problems. On all diets, at least in the past, energy intakes were some-
but the most severe macrobiotic regimes, enough pro- times inadequate, and when only one or two plant
tein is present to be adequate if sufficient energy is protein sources were relied upon exclusively, protein
provided. With regard to protein quality, legumes are calorie malnutrition sometimes ensued. These prob-
moderately high in protein quality. When they are lems were reported more commonly in the 1960s and
consumed along with rice and other plant proteins, 1970s than later. Practices may have changed, but
the biological value of the protein is adequate. recent rigorous surveys of the nutritional status of
Animal proteins lack fewer amino acids than do macrobiotics are not available. Caution is warranted
plant proteins, but macrobiotic diets are virtually for the ill, who often consume hypocaloric diets, for
devoid of animal flesh, eggs, milk, and poultry, all young infants who are growing rapidly and have been
of which provide relatively complete proteins and all weaned from the breast who may not be able to
the amino acids needed for building bodily protein. consume sufficient energy on exclusively plant diets,
Fish and seafood are consumed by macrobiotics in and for pregnant women and others who have espe-
small amounts, and these proteins are relatively com- cially high protein needs for growth. (See Protein:
plete. Plant tissues are somewhat more variable in the Digestion and Absorption of Protein and Nitrogen
extent to which the nitrogen present in them is found Balance; Deficiency.)
in protein, ranging from a high of about 95% in seeds
Fat and Cholesterol
down to 50% in roots such as potatoes, carrots, and
cassava. The nonprotein nitrogen is in the form of Macrobiotic diets are low in fat (e.g., < 25% of energy, 0013

peptides and free amino acids. The amino acid com- and often as little as 15%), and especially saturated
position of different plant proteins can complement fat and cholesterol. Those who consume such diets
each other, making up their various deficits. Thus, the often have low total and low-density lipoprotein
aggregate of individual plant proteins provides a cholesterol levels, with decreased dietary risks of
mixture that matches body needs. The lack of most coronary artery disease. Macrobiotics’ high intakes
animal protein does not necessarily mean that protein of soluble fiber and their relatively low weights also
nutritional status must be compromised. Macrobiot- cause low serum cholesterol levels and lower the risk
ics consume legumes such as soya beans and aduke of coronary artery disease.
beans, which are high in the essential amino acids When diets are below approximately 15% of food 0014

lysine and threonine, and soya beans are also high in energy, special care must be taken to ensure that
tryptophan. However legumes are limited in methio- intakes of essential fatty acids are met. At least 3%
nine, cystine, and (except for soya beans) tryptophan. of energy should be from o-6 fatty acids and 2% from
Grain proteins are high in methionine, cystine and o-3 fatty acids. Both of the essential fatty acids, lino-
tryptophan (with the exception of cornmeal and rye, leic acid, an o-6 fatty acid, and a-linolenic acid, an o-3
which are low in tryptophan). Moreover, grains are fatty acid, are required by human beings. Linoleic acid
low in the essential amino acids lysine and isoleucine, is found in seeds, nuts and grains. a-Linolenic
although these are high in legumes. Thus, combin- acid is found in the green leaves of plants, and in
ations of grains and legumes complement each other phytoplankton and algae, in certain seeds, nuts and
and together provide for the amino acid needs of the legumes, such as flax, canola, walnuts, hazelnuts, and
 MACROBIOTIC DIETS 3635

soy. These can be converted into more highly unsatur- lower in fiber increases energy intakes and decreases
ated fatty acids, with linoleic acid producing arachi- bulk in feeding infants.
donic acid, and a-linolenic acid being converted to Macrobiotics’ intakes of refined sugar are very low, 0016

eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic but other fermentable carbohydrates, such as sugars
acid (DHA). Arachidonic acid is found in animal found in fruits and starches, are consumed, so the risk
foods such as meat, poultry, and eggs. EPA and of dental caries is still present, especially if these are
DHA are largely found in fish and seafood. Arachi- consumed in forms that are retained in the oral cavity,
donic acid and EPA serve as precursors for the and oral hygiene is poor. (See Carbohydrates: Re-
eicosanoids. Recommended intakes for these poly- quirements and Dietary Importance; Glucose: Glu-
unsaturated fatty acids range from 3 to 10% of total cose Tolerance and the Glycemic (Glycaemic) Index.)
energy intakes. Vegan vegetarians have no direct
Vitamins
sources of long-chain o-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA
in their diets, and thus must convert a-linolenic acid Vitamins B12 and D may be in particularly short 0017

to them. There is concern that pregnant women who supply in macrobiotic diets fed to rapidly growing
are vegan-vegetarians, or macrobiotics who consume infants and children.
little or no fish or other animal foods, may not obtain
enough of these fatty acids, especially during preg- Vitamin B12 Reliable plant sources of vitamin B12 0018

nancy and in early infancy, especially if the infants are vitamin B12-fortified soyamilk and formulas,
are premature, and their conversion capacity of a- yeast grown on, and mixed with, vitamin B12-
linolenic acid to DHA is very limited. Such individ- enriched media, highly fortified breakfast cereals,
uals may need DHA supplements, either from fish oils and vitamin B12 supplements. Vitamin B12-containing
or from cultured microalgae. However, they should foods that are sometimes acceptable to those who
only be dispensed under a physician’s direction, since practice macrobiotics include fish such as sardines,
they are also anticoagulants. o-3 fatty acids are rich in pilchard, mackerel, herring, salmon, and tuna. In
flaxseeds and flaxseed oil, hemp seed oil, purslane, a amounts of about an ounce a day, they may be suffi-
dark green leafy vegetable, canola, walnut, and soy cient to avoid deficiencies in young children.
oil. Flaxseed oil is also rich in a-linolenic acid. Animal foods have a high content of vitamin B12 0019

because they ingest vitamin B12-containing micro-

Carbohydrate and Fiber
organisms or because the microflora in their guts
0015 Raw fruits, especially berries, vegetables, legumes synthesize the vitamin. The richest sources of vitamin
such as beans and peas, nuts, seeds, whole-grain B12 provide over 19 mg per 100 g. They are lamb or
products, and seaweed provide relatively high beef organ meats such as kidney and liver, bivalves
amounts of dietary fiber in the macrobiotic diet, such as clams and oysters, which extract many micro-
helping to promote laxation and perhaps lessening organisms containing vitamin B12 from sea water,
symptoms of asymptomatic diverticular disease. It is soyamilk that is fortified with vitamin B12, and vita-
possible, but not yet proven, that high intakes of min supplements. Other types of red meats, eggs, and
dietary fiber reduce the risks of colon cancer; there milk products are also good sources. Macrobiotics
is no evidence that macrobiotic diets are especially rarely eat large amounts of any of these products on
efficacious in these respects. The macrobiotic diet is a regular basis. Therefore, inadequate intakes of vita-
high in soluble sources of dietary fiber, such as min B12 may be a problem. Moderately good sources,
legumes, whole grain rice, barley, oats, and raw fruits providing 3–10 mg per 100 g of vitamin B12 include
and vegetables. Soluble fiber may enhance glycemic seafood, such as lobster, scallops, haddock, tuna,
control and also lower serum cholesterol, contribut- swordfish, and flounder, and egg yolks, fermented
ing the low total and low-density-lipoprotein choles- cheeses, such as Camembert or Limburger, and non-
terol levels often evident in macrobiotics. Fiber fat milk solids. Most other red meats and fish provide
increases the dietary bulk and lowers the energy less than this amount. Grains, fruits, and vegetables
density per gram of food consumed. The ill effects are virtually devoid of B12, except for tiny amounts
of dietary fiber arise if very large amounts are fed to present in root nodules of some legumes. Seaweed is
young infants and weanlings under 2 years of age. sometimes contaminated by plankton rich in vitamin
Macrobiotics sieve cereals, pulses, and vegetables B12, but these are unreliable sources of the vitamin.
that are fed to infants to increase their digestibility, ‘Sea vegetables’ such as wakame, arame, and kombu
but fiber intakes and bulk may still be rather high, and a seaweed known as spirulina contain very few
and the nutrient density of such feeds may still be corrinoids that are available to humans. Other plant
quite low. The partial replacement of whole-grain foods such as certain fermented soya products like
cereals with more highly refined cereals that are miso (which is often served as a soup) and tempeh
 3636 MACROBIOTIC DIETS

have not been tested for the bioavailablity of their absorption of calcium from spinach, kale, collards,
corrinoids to humans, although they may test positive and Swiss chard is inhibited by the presence of oxal-
in microbiological assays for the vitamin. They ates that bind with calcium during digestion to form
cannot be relied upon to provide sufficient amounts insoluble calcium oxalate, which cannot be absorbed.
of vitamin B12. Small amounts of vitamin B12 may Whole grains contain phytates, substances that inter-
also be present in some plant foods, owing to contam- fere with calcium and zinc. However, some of the
ination of food with insects or feces. calcium is available. Foods that may be acceptable
0020 The major risks of vitamin B12 deficiency are in to macrobiotics that contain calcium include bony
pregnant women, growing infants, and children of fish such as sardines and foods fortified with calcium
mothers who have followed a macrobiotic diet for (fortified soy milk, fortified rice beverage, fortified
many years. Infants may be born with low stores of juices, highly fortified breakfast cereals, and tofu
the vitamin, are reported to exhibit biochemical in- precipitated with calcium sulfate), and these provide
dices of vitamin B12 deficiency, even when they are considerable amounts of calcium.
suckling, and are at risk of deficiency after they have
been weaned from the breast to vegan-like diets. Iron Macrobiotics exclude all heme iron sources, 0024

(See Cobalamins: Physiology; Food Fortification.) because they do not eat meat. Even lacto-ovovegetar-
ians have a very much lower iron absorption than do
0021 Vitamin D Humans can synthesize vitamin D endo- omnivores. The bioavailabiliy is probably about 10%
genously when the skin is exposed to ultraviolet compared with about twice that in omnivores, so this
irradiation, but those who live in northern latitudes, is a potential risk factor. However, many other factors
use sunscreen, or are confined indoors by illness may affect iron absorption, and in many studies, iron
not receive enough stimulation to meet their needs. status does not seem to be adversely affected. It is
Supplies of the vitamin may pose problems for macro- possible to estimate bioavailabiliy in the diet of
biotics. The naturally occurring food sources rich in dietary iron. The amount of ascorbic acid and
vitamin D are human milk, which provides low but presence of other iron absorption enhancers as well
adequate amounts of the vitamin for human infants in as the presence of inhibitors must be measured. Foods
the first few months of life, egg yolks, liver, and some high in iron include peas, beans, and highly iron-
fatty fish such as eel, herring, sardines, and salmon. fortified breakfast cereals. During pregnancy, iron
In the USA, milk and milk products are fortified supplements are required, because the iron needs are
with vitamin D at approximately 0.5 IU g1 (0–0.01 so high.
mg g1) wet weight, and margarine at about 5 IU g1
(or 0.10 mg g1), so that food products containing Zinc The macrobiotic diet is low in meat and low in 0025

them will also contain some vitamin D. Vitamin D- other foods that are high in zinc. Milk products are a
fortified milk products are also available in many good source of zinc for those who consume them.
other Western countries. In the USA, highly fortified Zinc absorption from plant foods is poor when the
cereals are sometimes fortified with vitamin D, often foods contain phytate and oxalate inhibitors. Macro-
at levels of 1.2 IU g1 (0.02–0.04 mg) dry weight, as biotic diets are high in foods high in the zinc inhibitor
packaged. Cod liver oil and menhaden oil macrobiot- phytic acid (e.g., soy products, beans, lentils, peas,
ics refuse to eat liver, egg yolk, butter, fluid milk, and nuts, and whole grains). Good plant sources of zinc
dried skim milk powder. The natural sources of vita- are zinc-fortified cereals, and yeast-fermented foods
min D they may be willing to eat are margarine and that reduce the phytic acid content of whole-grain
fatty fish, and vitamin D-fortified soyamilk and other breads, rather than refined white bread. Zinc supple-
plant foods. Vitamin D supplements are also available ments are also good sources of zinc that may be
without prescription in the USA at levels not acceptable to some macrobiotics. Fermented soy-
exceeding 5 mg (the current adequate intake) per cap- foods, like tempeh and miso, and sprouted legumes
sule, or at higher levels by prescription. may have more bioavailable zinc than unfermented
foods like tofu and soymilk.
Minerals

0022 Certain mineral elements in the macrobiotic diet are

Conclusion
also sometimes limited.
Many of the aspects of the macrobiotic diet that 0026

0023 Calcium Macrobiotics rarely include foods from convey risks to health can be easily corrected without
the dairy group in their usual diets. Some plants losing the positive aspects of the regimen or violating
including kale, collards, dried peas, and beans philosophical principles. Vegetarian or vegan diets
provide considerable amounts of calcium. However, that are carefully planned to include modern scientific
 MACROBIOTIC DIETS 3637

knowledge of nutrition are associated with good Haddad E, Berk LS, Kettering JD, Hubbard RW and Peters
health. This is also possible for macrobiotic diets, WR (1999) Dietary intake and biochemical, hemato-
although, in reality, it does not always occur. logic, and immune status of vegans compared with non-
vegetarians. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 70:
586S–593S.
See also: Amino Acids: Metabolism; Carbohydrates: Hallberg L and Huthen L (2000) Prediction of dietary iron
Requirements and Dietary Importance; Cobalamins: absorption: an algorithm for calculating absorption and
Physiology; Energy: Measurement of Food Energy; Food bioavailability of dietary iron. American Journal of
Fortification; Glucose: Glucose Tolerance and the Clinical Nutrition 71: 1147–1160.
Glycemic (Glycaemic) Index; Malnutrition: Malnutrition Harland B and Oberleas D (1987) Phytate in foods. World
in Developed Countries; Protein: Requirements; Quality; Review Nutrition and Dietetics 52: 235–259.
Digestion and Absorption of Protein and Nitrogen Hunt J, Gallagher SK, Johnson LK and Lykken GI (1995)
Balance; Deficiency; Vegetarian Diets High versus low meat diets: effects on zinc absorption,
iron status, and calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, man-
ganese, nitrogen, phosphorus, and zinc balance in post-
Further Reading
menopausal women. American Journal of Clinical
Abrams HL (2000) Vegetarianism: Another view. In: Kiple Nutrition 62: 621–632.
KF and Connee K (eds) The Cambridge World History Hun J, Matthys LA and Johnson LK (1998) Zinc absorp-
of Food, vol. 2, pp. 1564–1573. Cambridge: Cambridge tion, mineral balance, and blood lipids in women con-
University Press. suming controlled lacto-ovovegetarian and omnivorous
Alexander DB and Mann J (1994) Nutrient intake and diets for 8 wk. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
haematological status of vegetarians and age sex 67: 421–430.
matched omnivores. European Journal of Clinical Nu- Hunt J and Roughhead ZK (1999) Nonheme iron absorp-
trition 48: 538–546. tion, fecal ferritin excretion, and blood indexes of iron
Anderson B, Gibson RS and Sabry JH (1981) The iron and status in women consuming controlled lactoovovegetar-
zinc status of long-term vegetarian women. American ian diets for 8 wk. American Journal of Clinical Nutri-
Journal of Clinical Nutrition 34: 1042–1048. tion 69: 944–952.
Coulston A (1999) The role of dietary fats in plant based Jacques P, Bostom AG, Williams RR et al. (1996) Relation
diets. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 70: 512S– between folate status, a common mutation in methylene-
515S. tetrahydrofolate reductase, and plasma homocystine
Crane M, Register D and Lukens R (1999) Cobalamin concentrations. Circulation 93: 7–9.
studies on 2 total vegetarian (vegan) families. American Key T, Fraser GE, Thorogood M et al. (1999) Mortality
Journal of Clinical Nutrition 70: 626S–627S. in vegetarians and nonvegetarians: detailed findings
Dagnelie P (1991) Vitamin B-12 from algae appears not to from a collaborative analysis of 5 prospective studies.
be bioavailable. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 70:
53: 695–697. 516S–524S.
Dagnelie P (1994) Macrobiotic nutrition and child health: Kushi L, Meyer KA and Jacobs DR (1999) Cereals, legumes
results of a population based, mixed longitudinal cohort and chronic disease risk reduction: evidence from epide-
study in The Netherlands. American Journal of Clinical miologic studies. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
Nutrition 59: 1187S–1196S. 70: 451S–458S.
Dagnelie P, Vergote FJVRA, Van Staveren WA et al. (1990) Ladizesky M, Lu Z, Oliveri B et al. (1995) Solar ultraviolet
High prevalence of rickets in infants on macrobiotic B radiation and photoproduction of vitamin D3 in cen-
diets. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 51: tral and southern areas of Argentina. Journal of Bone
202–208. and Research 10: 545–549.
Donovan U and Givson RS (1995) Iron and zinc status of Latta D and Liebman M (1984) The iron and zinc status of
young women aged 14 to 19 years consuming vegetarian longterm vegetarian women. American Journal of Clin-
and omnivorous diets. Journal of the American College ical Nutrition 34: 1042–1048.
of Nutrition 14: 463–472. Mann J, Appleby PN, Key TJ and Thorogood M (1997)
Dwyer J and Jacobs C (1988) Vegetarian children: appro- Dietary determinants of ischaemic heart disease in
priate and inappropriate diets. American Journal of health conscious individuals. Heart 78: 450–455.
Clinical Nutrition 48: 811S–818S. Matsuoka L, Ide L, Wortsman J, MacLaughlin JA and
Dwyer J and Lowe F (1994) Nutritional risks of vegan diets Holick MF (1987) Sunscreens suppress cutaneous vita-
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MADEIRA AND RELATED PRODUCTS

R W Goswell, Stoke Bishop, Bristol, UK or less), at altitudes of between 100 and 700 m, and
This article is reproduced from Encyclopaedia of Food Science,
southerly aspects are preferred.
Food Technology and Nutrition, Copyright 1993, Academic Press. The climate is temperate, humid, and often misty. 0004

Definition Planting, Training, and Pruning

0001 Madeira is the name given to a number of related Vines are trained on very low trellises or low wires. 0005

types of dessert wine originally developed in the Planting density is high (7000 vines per ha). A variety
islands of Madeira and Porto Santo. It owes much of virus-free rootstocks, including R99, 1103P,
of its characteristic flavor to a period of maturation at and R110, are available to suit the various soils and
a relatively elevated temperature. Similar products climatic conditions.
are produced elsewhere under other names. Now- The Guyot pruning system is most often used, leaving 0006

adays, the designation ‘Madeira’ is rarely used for many buds and cropping heavily to give 10–15 t ha1.
wines not produced on the island.
Grape Varieties
Legal Definition Historically, the important (noble) varieties in 0007

0002 The Madeira wine region is one of the oldest demar- Madeira were Sercial, Verdelho, Boal, and Malvasia;
cated areas of Portugal. Since April 1979, the method their origin is not known for certain, but except
of production of Madeira has been controlled by the for Malvasia, they probably originated in Portugal.
newly created Madeira Wine Institute. There seem to have been several different types of
Malvasia; the desirable version is the Malvasia Can-
dida, which is thought to be of Greek origin. Less
Vineyards
important ‘noble’ varieties, also capable of producing
0003 The soil is volcanic, of acid pH, and with a high superior wine, are Terrantez, Bastardo, and Listrao.
organic content. Vineyards are typically small (2 ha Because of the humid climate, the viticulture was