A G G R E G AT E

V I G N E S H R A J U R R
B H A R AT H U N I V E R S I T Y
CONCRETE AGGREGATES
 binding medium
(mortar)

Portland Cement Concrete

relatively inert

filler materials (aggregates)

In concrete mixtures the proportions of cement paste & aggregates is controlled by the
following factors:
1) Suitable workability & placeability of fresh mass.
2) Adequate strength & durability of hardened product.
3) Minimum cost of the final product
 The aggregate occupies ~70-75% of the volume of concrete, so its
quality is of great importance.

 Aggregates may affect the following properties of concrete:

– Strength
– Durability
– Structural Performance
– Economy
 Aggregates have 3 main functions in
concrete:
1) To provide a mass of particles which are
suitable to resist the action of applied loads &
show better durability then cement paste
alone.
2) To provide a relatively cheap filler for the
cementing material.
3) To reduce volume changes resulting from
setting & hardening process & from moisture
changes during drying.
 The properties of concrete are affected by
the properties of aggregate:
1. The mineral character of aggregate affects
the strength, durability, elasticity of concrete.
2. The surface characteristics of aggregate
affects the workability of fresh mass & the
bond between the aggregate & cement paste
in hardened concrete. If it is rough,
workability decreases & bond increases.
3. The grading of aggregate affects the
workability, density & economy.
4. The amount of aggregate in unit volume of
concrete
 Higher aggregate amount/unit volume of
concrete
– Results in less volume changes during setting
& hardening or moisture changes. (increase in
volume stability)
– Increase in strength & durability
– Decrease in cost

 It is a common practice to use as much

aggregate as possible in concrete
 However, all aggregates are not inert:
– The physical action: swelling & shrinkage
– The chemical action: alkali-agg. Reaction
– The thermal action: expansion & contraction

 Like the other ingredients of concrete,

aggregates must also be chosen with
certain care to end up with a satisfactory
concrete.
 CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATES

 According to Source:
1. Natural aggregate: Native deposits with no
change in their natural state other than
washing, crushing & grading. (sand, gravel,
crush stone)
2. Artificial aggregates: They are obtained either
as a by-product or by a special manufacturing
process such as heating. (blast furnace slag,
expanded perlite)
 According to Petrological Characteristics:
1. Igneous rocks: are formed by solidification of
molten lava. (granite)
2. Sedimentary rocks: are obtained by
deposition of weathered & transported pre-
existing rocks or solutions. (limestone)
3. Metamorphic rocks: are formed under high
heat & pressure alteration of either igneous
& sedimentary rocks (marble).
 According to Unit Weight:
1. Heavy weight agg.: Hematite, Magnetite
Specific Gravity, Gs > 2.8
2. Normal weight agg.:Gravel, sand, crushed stone
2.8 < Gs < 2.4
3. Light weight agg.:Expanded perlite, burned clay
Gs < 2.4
 Normal-Weight Aggregate
ASTM C 33
Most common aggregates
 Sand
 Gravel
 Crushed stone

Produce normal-weight concrete 2200 to 2400 kg/m3

Lightweight Aggregate (1)
ASTM C 330

Expanded
– Shale
– Clay
– Slate
– Slag

Produce structural lightweight concrete

1350 to 1850 kg/m3
 Lightweight Aggregate (2)
ASTM C 330
 Pumice
 Scoria
 Perlite
 Vermiculite
 Diatomite
Produce lightweight insulating concrete—
250 to 1450 kg/m3
 Heavyweight Aggregate
ASTM C 637, C 638 (Radiation Shielding)
 Barite  Hematite
 Limonite  Iron
 Magnetite  Steel punchings or shot
 Ilmenite

Produce high-density concrete up to 6400 kg/m3

 According to Size:
1. Fine aggregate: d ≤ 5 mm
2. Coarse aggregate: d > 5 mm

 Aggregates containing a whole range of

particles are named as “all-in” or “pit-run”
aggregates.
 Fine Aggregate
 Sand and/or
crushed stone

 < 5 mm

 F.A. content usually

35% to 45% by
mass or volume of
total aggregate
 Coarse Aggregate

 Gravel and
crushed stone
  5 mm
 typically
between 9.5
and 37.5 mm
Aggregate Characteristics and Tests
Characteristic Test
ASTM C 131 (AASHTO T 96), ASTM C 535,
Abrasion resistance
ASTM C 779
ASTM C 666 (AASHTO T 161), ASTM C 682,
Freeze-thaw resistance
AASHTO T 103
Sulfate resistance ASTM C 88 (AASHTO T 104)
Particle shape and
ASTM C 295, ASTM D 3398
surface texture

ASTM C 117 (AASHTO T 11), ASTM C 136

Grading
(AASHTO T 27)

Fine aggregate
ASTM C 1137
degradation

Void content ASTM C 1252 (AASHTO T 304)

Bulk density ASTM C 29 (AASHTO T 19)
Aggregate Characteristics and Tests
Characteristic Test
ASTM C 127 (AASHTO T 85)—fine aggregate
Relative density
ASTM C 128 (AASHTO T 84)—coarse aggregate
ASTM C 70, ASTM C 127 (AASHTO T 85), ASTM
Absorption and surface
C 128 (AASHTO T 84), ASTM C 566 (AASHTO T
moisture
255)
ASTM C 39 (AASHTO T 22), ASTM C 78
Strength
(AASHTO T 97)
Def. of constituents ASTM C 125, ASTM C 294
ASTM C 40 (AASHTO T 21), ASTM C 87
(AASHTO T 71), ASTM C 117 (AASHTO T 11),
Aggregate constituents ASTM C 123 (AASHTO T 113), ASTM C 142
(AASHTO T 112), ASTM C 295
ASTM C 227, ASTM C 289, ASTM C 295, ASTM C
Alkali Resistance 342, ASTM C 586, ASTM C 1260 (AASHTO T 303),
ASTM C 1293
 SAMPLING

 Tests in the lab is carried out on the samples.

So, certain precautions in obtaining a sample
must be taken to obtain “representative
sample”.

 The main sample is made up of portions

drawn from different points. The minimum
number of portions, increment, is 10 & they
should add up to a weight not less than:
 Max. Particle Min. Weight of Sample
Size (kg)

> 25 mm 50

25-5 mm 25

< 5 mm 13

* Details are provided in ASTM D 75 & TS 707

 Methods of reducing the amount of sample:
1) Quartering:
 Mix the field sample over three times on a level surface.
 Shovel the sample to a conical shape.
 Press the apex & flatten the conical shape.
 Divide them into four equal quarters.
 Discard two diagonally opposite quarters & use the
remainder.
 If this remainder is still too large follow the same path.

Side Top Side Top

2) Splitting:
 Use the “sample splitter” to divide the
aggregate sample into two.
 Sample splitter is a box with an even #
of chutes alternately discharging to two
sides.
 The width of each chute should be
greater than 1.5 times the size of the
largest aggregate size.
 If the remainder is still too large follow
the same path.
 PARTICLE SHAPE & SURFACE
TEXTURE
 In addition to petrological character, the
external characteristics, i.e. The shape &
surface texture of aggregates are of
importance.
Particle Shape
 Rounded: Completely water worn & fully
shaped by attrition. (River Gravel)

 Irregular: Partly shaped by attrition so it

contains some rounded edges. (Land
Gravel)
 Angular: Has sharp corners, show little
evidence of wear. (Crushed Stone)

 Flaky: Thickness is relatively small with

respect to two other dimensions. (Laminated
Rocks)

 Elongated: Have lengths considerably larger

than two other dimensions
L

t w
 FLAT ELONGATED

ANGULAR ROUND
 Rounded aggregates are suitable to use in
concrete because flaky & elongated
particles reduce workability, increase
water demand & reduce strength.

 In the case of angular particles, the bond

between agg. Particles is higher due to
interlocking but due to higher surface
area, angular particles increase water
demand & therefore reduce workability. As
a result, for the same cement content &
same workability rounded agg. Give higher
strength. ?
 Surface Texture
 This affects the bond to the cement paste
& also influences the water demand of the
mix.
Smooth: Bond b/w cement paste & agg is weak.

Rough: Bond b/w cement paste & agg. is strong.

 Surface texture is not a very important

property from compressive strength point
of view but agg. Having rough surface
texture perform better under flexural &
tensile stresses.
SMOOTH ROUGH
 Grading of Aggregates
―Grading is the particle-size distribution of
an aggregate as determined by a sieve
analysis using wire mesh sieves with
square openings.

ASTM C 33
Fine aggregate―7 standard sieves with
openings from 150 μm to 9.5 mm
Coarse aggregate―13 sieves with openings
from 1.18 mm to 100 mm
 125 mm
100 mm
125 mm 90 mm
90 mm 75 mm (3")
63 mm 63 mm
31.5 mm 50 mm (2")
16 mm 37.5 mm (1-1/2")
TS 706 8 mm 25 mm (1")
4 mm ASTM C 33 12.5 mm (1/2")
2 mm 9.5 mm (3/8")
1 mm 4.75 mm (#4)
0.5 mm 2.38 mm (#8)
0.25 mm 1.19 mm (#16)
0.595 mm (#30)
0.297 mm (#50)
0.149 mm (#100)
 The particle size distribution in an aggregate
sample is known as “gradation”.

 Strength development of concrete depends on

degree of compaction & workability together
with many other factors. So, a satisfactory
concrete should be compacted to max density
with a reasonable work.

 On the other hand, in good concrete all

aggregate particles must be covered by cement
paste.
 The grading of aggregate must be so that
the workability, density & volume stability of
concrete may not be adversely affected by it.

 Fine Particles → higher cost

 Coarse Particles → less workability

 A reasonable combination of fine & coarse

aggregate must be used. This can be
expressed by maximum density or minimum
voids concept.
Reduction of Voids
 Factors Affecting a Desired Grading
1) Surface area of the Aggregate
The lower the surface area, the lesser is
the paste requirement.
2) Relative Volume of Agg. in Concrete
Higher volume of agg.:
→economical
→higher strength, higher volume stability
→less workability !
3) Workability: The ease with which a concrete
mixture can be mixed, transported, placed in
theform & compacted without any segregation.
Workability increases as the amount of paste b/w
fine agg. part increases. It also increases as the
amount of mortar b/w coarse agg. particles
increases.

4) Segregation: Seperation of the particles

with different sizes & specific gravities.
The requirements of workability and absence of
segregation tend to oppose each other. Thus,
these two factors are interrelated. The major of
these is workability which, in turn, affects most of
the properties of concrete.
MOISTURE CONDITION OF
AGGREGATES
MOISTURE CONDITION OF
AGGREGATES
SOUNDNESS OF AGGREGATES

 Soundness is the ability of agg to resist

volume changes to environmental effects.
– Freezing & Thawing
– Alternate Wetting & Drying
– Temperature Changes
SOUNDNESS OF AGGREGATES

 Aggs are said to be unsound when volume

changes induced by the above, results in
deterioration of concrete. This effect may
be:
– Local scaling
– Extensive surface cracking
– Disintegration over a considerable depth
SOUNDNESS OF AGGREGATES

To detect unsound particles, aggs are treated

with Na2SO4 or MgSO4 solutions.
– 18 hours of immersion
– Dry at 105°C+5°C to constant weight
– After 5 cycles determine the loss in weight of the
agg.
Uses of aggregate in building construction
• Aggregates are the most mined material in the world.
• Construction aggregate is a broad category of granular raw material of
different sizes (sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, recycled concrete
etc) used in construction.
• Uses of aggregate in civil engineering include the following:
Uses of Aggregate
• Aggregate can be used in a number of ways in construction. In roads
and railway ballast the aggregates are used to resist the overall (static
as well as dynamic) load, to distribute the load properly to the
supporting ground and to drain the water off the surface. In concrete
the aggregate is used for economy, reduce shrinkage and cracks and
to strengthen the structure. They are also used in water filtration and
sewage treatment processes. The uses of aggregates can be
summarized in to the following three categories:
• As a Load Bearing Material.
• As a Filling Material.
• As an Infiltrating Material
Uses of Aggregate in concrete
• Aggregate is an essential ingredient of concrete. The uses of aggregates in concrete is:
• Increases the volume of concrete, thus reduces the cost. Aggregates account for 60-75%
of the volume of concrete and 79-85% weight of PCC.
• To provide a rigid structure.
• To reduce the shrinkage and cracking.
• Concrete aggregate is used in many structures and substructures e.g. different elements
of a Building, bridges, foundations.
• The smaller the aggregate size the greater its surface area and the more binding material
(cement) will be required, resulting in a higher cost.
• The greater the aggregate size the larger will be the voids, resulting in wastage of binding
material (cement).
• Hence a mixture of coarse and fine aggregate is used in concrete to avoid both these
problems.
Uses of Aggregate in roads
• Aggregates are used as the base, subbase, and/or surface of roads in
several forms:
• Stabilized using cementitious materials (blends of cement, fly ash,
slag, lime).
• Stabilized with bituminous materials (bitumen or tar).
• Stabilized with other materials (resins, fibers, geosynthetics, etc.).
• Recycled aggregate.
• In roads, it is also used to help distribute the load and assist in ground
water running off the road.
Uses of Aggregate in Railway Ballast
• Properties of aggregate used in railway ballast are very
different from those used in roads. The uses of aggregates in
railway ballast include:
• A fully loaded train weighs in thousands of tons. To avoid
damage to the rails, ground and other nearby structures a
very tough aggregate is needed not only to support this high
weight but also to distribute and transfer it properly to the
ground.
• Railway ballast generally consists of a tough igneous rock
(crushed), such as granite, with a larger diameter varying
between 30mm to 50mm. Particles finer than this diameter
in higher proportion will reduce its drainage properties.
While a higher proportion of larger particles result in the
load on the ties being distributed improperly.
• Other uses include fills, backfills, and drainage and filtration
applications.
Life Cycle Assessment is an objective process to evaluate the environmental
burdens associated with a product, process, or activity by identifying energy
and materials used and wastes released to the environment, and to evaluate
and implement opportunities to affect environmental improvements. As such,
it is an excellent tool that can be used to evaluate environmental performance
and support decision-making in the whole value chain starting from raw
materials extraction to processing, component fabrication, assembly, delivery,
use, recycling and disposal. Figure 1 illustrates the four interrelated phases in
an LCA study
 Goal of the study

The objective of the current study was to develop a Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) and Assessment (LCA) Model for aggregates
including the extraction and processing of primary resources through to the point of their dispatch as aggregates. The
aggregates extraction subsystem developed includes overburden stripping, drilling and Life Cycle Assessment of
Aggregates 11
blasting, and restoration of the site, while the processing subsystem includes washing, classifying, crushing and screening of
primary aggregates as well as the processing of equivalent recycled aggregates (conventional screening and crushing and
washing processes that enable the further processing of fines and other aggregate sizes).
The grades of aggregate that the LCI encompasses include aggregates for unbound applications; aggregates for concrete and
aggregates for asphalt from:
igneous rocks;
sedimentary rocks;
sand and gravel deposits (land and marine);
recycled unbound inert waste;
recycled concrete; and
recycled asphalt.

The Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) developed includes all resource inputs (materials, energy etc.), all waste (e.g. overburden waste,
fines etc.) and emission streams (e.g. all gaseous emissions including CO2, Particulate Matter etc.) throughout the system and
enable the user of the LCA Model to ascertain and quantify the relevant environmental impacts at each phase in the product life
cycle.
The LCI system developed also provides the facility to consider the relative proximity of sources of primary aggregates and
recycled aggregates to the market place as well as disposal options for inert construction and demolition wastes.
 Goal of the study

The primary aggregates system comprises three life cycle phases:

Extraction, The specific processing operations vary greatly as they
Processing and Waste Management/Restoration. are influenced by a large number of parameters, such as
The extraction phase includes three sub-phases, namely overburden the aggregate properties, potential waste products,
removal, primary fragmentation, loading and hauling. operating criteria, methods of stockpiling, storage and
In the case of sand and gravel primary aggregates system, the second
sub-phase is referred to as the excavation sub-phase. These operations
shipping, space availability and safety (Barksdale, 1996).
are considered to include all the necessary elements representative of
the primary aggregates extraction processes (Smith, 2001). In addition, processing plants could be either fixed or
mobile.
The Processing life cycle phase is composed of five sub-phases for the Restoration in most sand and gravel operations is
hard rock primary aggregates: progressive. On the other hand, restoration of crushed
primary crushing, rock quarries is often carried out after a major production
scalping screening,
secondary crushing,
phase is completed.
tertiary crushing, The soil/overburden is usually replaced in the disturbed
quaternary crushing areas of the operation surrounding the quarry to help
final screening. restoring vegetation, making these areas ready for a
The processing phase of the land won sand and gravel primary previously agreed purpose.
aggregates includes nine sub-phases: This may be for landfilling, agriculture, wildlife or as a
preprocessing storage, new public amenity Life Cycle Assessment of
scalping screening,
crushing,
Aggregates 12
sizing screening,
washing-scrubbing,
wet classification,
dewatering,
grinding and
product storage.
 The marine aggregates system The recycled aggregates system

The recycled aggregates system comprises one main life

The marine aggregates system comprises two life cycle cycle phase dealing with the processing of the recycled
phases: Extraction and Processing. aggregates. Transportation to the recycling plant (if
The extraction phase is formed by two sub-phases, the applicable) and distribution to the market are dealt with
marine aggregates loading followed by the marine by the product distribution system, outside the recycled
aggregates discharge. aggregates system. Demolition of buildings for the
The processing life cycle phase has the same nine sub- provision of recycled aggregates is excluded from the
phases as that of the land won sand and gravel primary study on the basis that it is the same process for recycling
aggregates system. and for destruction.
In LCA terms, the function of the primary aggregates There are nine sub-phases in the recycled aggregates
system is to supply a given mass of aggregates produced system, namely, waste reception, pre-screening,
from naturally occurring mineral sources extracted by screening, crushing, conveying and magnetic separation,
physical means and for the sole purpose of being used as washing, secondary screening, secondary crushing, and
aggregates for the first time. material transport and storage.
The function of the recycled aggregates system is to
supply a given mass of aggregates produced by recycling
construction and demolition waste and asphalt.
 Impact assessment The Aggregates Industry Life Cycle Assessment Model
This section describes the Aggregates Industry Life Cycle Assessment
The Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) carried out for each case study includes the
Model (hereinafter referred to as the LCA Model) developed; its features,
following mandatory elements:
Selection of impact categories, category indicators and characterisation models;
functions and limitations.
Assignment of LCI results to the selected impact categories (classification); The LCA Model is a generic term used to describe five dedicated LCA
Calculation of category indicator results (characterisation).
tools that make up the complete LCA Model for primary and recycled
For each impact category the necessary components of the LCIA process are: aggregates production. These tools are:
Identification of category endpoints; 1. The Crushed Rock Tool
Identification of appropriate LCI results that can be assigned to the impact category, 2. The Land-won Sand and Gravel Tool
taking into account the chosen category indicator and identified category endpoint(s); 3. The Marine Aggregates Tool
and 4. The Recycled Aggregates Tool
Identification of the characterisation model and the characterisation factors.
5. The Product Distribution Tool
Optional elements of LCIA (normalisation, grouping, weighting and data quality
analysis) have also been included in the tools developed and the West Europe 1995
(Huijbregts, 1999) normalisation method was used in the primary and recycled
aggregates LCA tools. These are the most recent set of normalisation factors available
and they were used to illustrate the magnitude and the relative significance of the LCA
impacts calculated for each case study.

Life cycle interpretation

The life cycle interpretation for each of the case studies comprises:
Identification of significant issues based on the results of the LCI and LCIA
phases;
An evaluation that considers completeness, sensitivity and consistency
checks; Conclusions, limitations and recommendations.
Figure 2 illustrates the sub-phases included in each phase. The aggregates
production phases that the model includes under each of the tools are
shown in Table 3.

Aggregates LCA system, individual phases and

corresponding unit processes
Phases included in the Aggregates Industry LCA model and corresponding tools
References and bibliography

Bauer C., Dubreuil A. and Gaillard G., 2007. Key Elements in a Framework for Land Use Impact Assessment in LCA.
The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 12(1): 2-4.
DEFRA, 2008. Environmental reporting Greenhouse gas (GHG) conversion factors for company reporting
http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/workbook/pubs/workbook2006.pdf
Dubreuil A., Gaillard G. and Müller-Wenk R., 2007. Key Elements in a Framework for Land Use Impact Assessment
Within LCA (11 pp). The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 12(1): 5-15.
Huijbregts M.A.J. 2000. Priority assessment of toxic substances in the frame of LCA. Calculation of toxicity potentials
for ethylene oxide and hydrogen fluoride. University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Landfield A.H. and Karra V., 2000. Life cycle assessment of a rock crusher. Resources Conservation and Recycling,
28(3-4): 207-217.
Udo de Haes H., 2006a. How to approach land use in LCIA or, how to avoid the Cinderella effect? The International
Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 11(4): 219-221.
Udo de Haes H., 2006b. Sustainable Management of Natural Resources in an Life-cycle Perspective (Issue Editor:
Helias A. Udo de Haes). The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 11(1): 2-2.