Lectures Slides- 3 rd Part

Slow-Frequency Hopping
▪ An individual FH/MFSK tone of shortest duration is called a chip;
this terminology should not be confused with that used in DS/BPSK.
▪ The chip rate, Rc, for an FH/MFSK system is defined by
Rc = max( Rh ,Rs )
where Rh is the hop rate, and Rs is the symbol rate.
▪ A slow FH/MFSK signal is characterized by having multiple
symbols transmitted per hop.
▪ Hence, each symbol of a slow FH/MFSK signal is a chip.
▪ Correspondingly, in a slow FH/MFSK system:
Rb
Rc = Rs =  Rh , where K = log2 M
K
where Rb is the bit rate and Rh is the hop rate.
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▪ Assuming that the jammer decides to spread its average power J
over the entire frequency-hopped spectrum, the jammer’s effect is
equivalent to an AWGN with power spectral density N0/2, where N0
= J/Wc, and Wc is the FH bandwidth.
▪ Signal energy E = P/Rs, where P is the average signal power, the
spread spectrum system is thus characterized by the symbol energy-
to-noise spectral density ratio: E  PW 
= c 
N 0  R s J 
J PG
▪ Using the definition of processing gain PG we may write: =
P E / N0
▪ where the ratio J/P is the jamming margin.
▪ The processing gain (PG) of the slow FH/MFSK system is defined
by: Wc
PG = = 2k
Rs
k = length of the PN segment employed to select a frequency hop.
▪ The PG can also be expressed in decibels: 10 log10 2 = 3k dB
k
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 Example
▪ Consider a slow FH/MFSK signal with the following parameters:
Number of bits per MFSK symbol K=2
Number of MFSK tones: M = 2K = 4
Length of PN segment per hop: k=3
Total number of frequency hops: 2k = 8

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 2 symbols (4 bits) transmitted per hop
(Symbol rate Rs > Hopping rate Rh)
Rs = 2 Rh

Only 3 of out of 8
possible frequencies
are utilized by the PN
sequence.

Slow-frequency hopping. (a) Frequency variation for FH- 4FSK

(b) Frequency variation for 4FSK (dehopped). 9
 Fast-Frequency Hopping
▪ A fast FH/MFSK system differs from a slow FH/MFSK system in that there
are multiple hops per M-ary symbol.
▪ Hence, in a fast FH/MFSK system, each hop is a chip.
▪ In general, fast-frequency hopping is used to defeat a smart jammer's tactic
that involves two functions:
▪ measurement of the spectral content of the transmitted signal, and
▪ retuning of the interfering signal to that portion of the frequency band.
▪ Thus, to overcome the jammer, the transmitted signal must be hopped to a new
carrier frequency before the jammer is able to complete the processing of these
two functions.
▪ For data recovery at the receiver, noncoherent detection is used.
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 Example
▪ Consider a fast FH/MFSK signal with the following parameters:
Number of bits per MFSK symbol K=2
Number of MFSK tones: M = 2K = 4
Length of PN segment per hop: k=3
Total number of frequency hops: 2k = 8
▪ See the next slide for the hopping pattern.

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 2 hops per 1 symbol (2 bits) transmitted
(Hopping rate Rh > Symbol rate Rs)
(Rc = Rh = Rb= 2Rs)

Fast-frequency hopping. (a) Frequency variation for FH- 4FSK

(b) Frequency variation for 4FSK (dehopped). 12
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum in Details
▪ In DS-SS, let {bk} denote a binary data sequence, and {ck} denote a
pseudo-noise (PN) sequence.
▪ Let the waveforms b(t) and c(t) denote their respective polar
representations as 1.
▪ b(t) is the data signal whereas c(t) is the PN signal.
▪ The desired modulation is achieved by applying the data signal b(t)
and the PN signal c(t) to a multiplier (spreading):

Baseband spread-spectrum transmitter

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▪ Due to the spreading process, each information bit is “chopped” up
into a number of small time increments called chips.

Spreading
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▪ For base band transmission, the product signal m(t) represents the
transmitted signal:
m(t ) = c(t )b(t )
▪ The received signal r(t) consists of the transmitted signal m(t) plus
an additive interference denoted by i(t).

▪ Hence
r (t ) = m(t ) + i (t ) = c(t )b(t ) + i (t )
▪ To recover the original message signal b(t), the received signal r(t)
is applied to a demodulator that consists of a multiplier followed
by an integrator, and a decision device (see next slide).
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 Baseband spread-spectrum receiver

▪ The multiplier is supplied with a PN sequence that is exactly the

same as that used in the transmitter.
▪ The PN sequences at the transmitter and the receiver need to be
synchronously aligned.
▪ The multiplier output in the receiver is therefore given by
z (t ) = c(t )r (t ) = c 2 (t )b(t ) + c(t )i(t )

▪ Note that the data signal b(t) is multiplied twice by the PN signal
c(t), whereas the unwanted signal i(t) is multiplied only once.
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▪ The PN signal c(t) alternates between the levels -1 and +1, and the
alternation is destroyed when it is squared. Hence,
c 2 (t ) = 1, for all t
▪ Therefore:
z (t ) = c 2 (t )b(t ) + c(t )i (t ) = b(t ) + c(t )i (t )
▪ Thus the data signal b(t) is reproduced at the multiplier output in the
receiver, except for the effect of the interference term c(t)i(t).
▪ Multiplication of the interference i(t) by the PN signal c(t) is
equivalent to spreading the interference at the receiver.
▪ Now that the data component b(t) is narrowband, whereas the
spurious component c(t)i(t) is wideband.
▪ By using a LPF at the multiplier output with a bandwidth just large
enough to recovery of the data b(t), most of the power in the
spurious component c(t)i(t) is filtered out.
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▪ The LPF is actually performed by the integrator (matched filter)
that evaluates the area under the signal at its input.

Integrate-and-dump
▪ The integration is carried out over the bit interval 0  t  Tb,
providing the sample value v.
▪ Finally, a decision is made by the receiver: If v > 0, the receiver says
that binary 1 was sent, and if v < 0, the receiver says that symbol 0
was sent; if v = 0, the receiver makes a random guess.
▪ The price we have to pay for the improved protection against
interference is increased transmission bandwidth, system
complexity, and processing delay.
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 + i (t )
t )b (t ) z (t ) = c 2 (t )b(t ) + c(t )i (t ) = b
= c (
+ i (t )
(t )
(t ) = m
r

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