Introduction to Space Missions

INTRODUCTION TO SPACE MISSIONS

Space Missions
Types of missions: some examples
Which orbit for which mission?
Launchers
Frequencies: fuel for communications mission
Space environment
Ground segment
Actors in the Space System value chain
Conclusion
INTRODUCTION TO SPACE MISSIONS
Space Mission: why do we send satellites to Space, why do we go to Space?
Space Missions: what are the motivations?
Overview of Space Missions
Some important steps in the Space development history
From Sputnik to large telecommunications satellites
Korea and Space
What are the elements of a Space Mission?
 Space Mission: why do we send satellites to Space, why do we go to Space?

It is risky, costly, long to develop, with limited life duration,

• But Man has always wanted to go beyond the known frontier, and

Space offers unique features:

• Escape from Earth to discover new worlds  exploration
• Global Earth view  observation and telecommunication
• Absence of gravity  research
• Ability to go round the Earth in approximately one hour  observation, global
communication
 Space Missions: what are the motivations?

Instrument of Public Policy:

• National Sovereignty: independence from other countries for communication and
observation
• Defense and Security: secured communications, monitoring of treaties
• Environment policy: resource management, pollution control, climate monitoring
• Research and Exploration: national prestige, inspiration for youth, education
• Government services: e-government, mapping

Economic development and commercial use of Space:

• Services for all: tele-medecine, e-education, development aid
• Meteo, exploitation of resources
• Telecommunications (TV, telephone, VSAT, internet)
• Navigation
• Space tourism
 Overview of Space Missions

Earth Observation: Navigation

• Optical Imaging • Positioning
• Radar imaging • Mobility planning
• Meteorology Services
Science missions: • Refuelling
• Earth science • Repair in orbit
• Solar System Others
• Deep Space exploration • Early Warning
• Man in Space • SIGINT, ELINT
Telecommunications • M2M/IoT
• Broadcast • AIS
• Mobile • Tourism
• Broadband (internet)
• Secure Communications
 Some important steps in the Space development history

• 1957: launch of Sputnik, first artificial satellite

• 1960’s: Man in Space, Man on the Moon. Start of telecom and observation missions,
scientific observation
• 1970’s-1980’s: Russian Space Station (Mir), Space Shuttle, scientific exploration
• 1990’s: International Space Station, constellations for navigation (GPS and GLONASS),
telephony (Iridium and Globalstar)
• Around 2000’s: development of telecom missions, privatisation of Telecom operators,
creation of regional operators, numerous Earth observation systems, manned flights,
exploration and science
• 2010 ’s: emergence of « New Space », new actors, such as OneWeb, SpaceX, Blue
Origin, new budget/financing
• December 2017:ArianeGroup starts the production of Ariane 6
• February 2018:lauch of Falcon Heavy
From Sputnik to large telecommunications satellites

60 years between those two pictures!

 Korea and Space:
Koreasat (Mugunghwa) 1 and 2 built by Martin Marietta and Matra Marconi Space,
launched respectively in 1995 and 1996
 Khalifasat for EIAST/MBRSC

KOMPSAT6: Radar payload for

Koreasat-1: international design team Korea
What are the elements of a Space Mission?
 Space System design
Satellite design is an optimisation process which involves many components, resources and
constraints

Environment Programmatics
Launcher, vacuum, Budget, planning,
radiations industrial cooperation

Regulations
Frequencies, Space
Satellite design law
Mission • Payload: antennas, repeater,
Payload performances instrument
Orbit, lifetime, … • Platform: mechanical,
thermal, avionics, power,
propulsion
Infrastructure
Ground segment,
Control and Users
What are the elements of a Space Mission?
Types of missions
Earth Observation
LEO observation, Meteo
Science and Exploration
Columbus and Rosetta
Telecommunications
Broadcasting, Broadband, MSS, Secure Communications, IFC
Navigation
Services
ATV, debris removal, servicing
Other types of mission
Early warning, SIGINT, ELINT
M2M/IoT
Space System architecture: Earth observation system
 Observing the Earth: Principles in Low Earth Orbit (LEO)
Sun Synchronous Orbit:
• All Earth can be imaged, with stable sun/scene/satellite angle,
from a “short” distance
• Pass-by on scenes is NOT continuous…
Optical imaging: mostly Push broom
• No snapshot principle, but “combing” the surface in harvesting
data.
Radar missions: active sensing
• Illumination of scene, capturing reflection
Ideal balance : coverage vs resolution

Pléiades
20 x 20 km

Pléiades
Pléiades : Very High Resolution over 20km swath

SPOT 6
60 km swath

SPOT 6

SPOT 6 : High Resolution over 60km swath

Radar vs. Optical
Mission and Satellite Key Features - System engineering

Video (EO System, Orbit, Resolution)

 GOCI (07: 16 UTC 26 Jan. 2011)

Earth observation: Meteo instrument

The GOCI instrument, flying on the Korean COMS satellite is

offering, since June 2010, unprecedented real time imaging
of the water composition and aerosols data

GOCI image: Sinmo volcano in Japan

GOCI image: Yellow

dust over the East
China Sea before
hitting Korea (Nov. 12,
2010)

GOCI under testing

 GOCI image: Chlorophyll
=> Detection of biological weak variation
 Science and Exploration

• Earth / sun science

• Astronomy
• Solar System exploration
Juice

Solar Obiter

Gaia Rosetta Bepi Colombo

Columbus: celebrating 10 years for the European laboratory
 Title

Contents
 Rosetta: long voyage to comet encounter

Rosetta programme
Rosetta (total cost: 1100 M€)
• ESA : project authority
• CNES : responsible for the French part of the payload
Philae (total cost: 250 M€) :
• CNES : sub-system provider, provider of the Science Operations and Navigation Center
Mission
Better knowledge of the material of the primitive solar system and its formation
Checking if :
• Comets have provided an important part of Earth oceans water
• Comets have provided compounds required for the birth of life on Earth (complex organic
molecules)
 Rosetta: long voyage to comet encounter

And a selfie from space!

Telecommunications missions

Broadcast and fixed services Mobile

Broadband Secure communications

 Broadcasting satellites
One way services

Wide coverage – Hot Bird superbeam

ARABSAT BADR-6
Broadcasting coverage
 Broadband: Example of Ka-Sat

Eutelsat Tooway service

• 100% European coverage for broadband
User access
• 20 Mbps (homes)
• 50 Mbps (businesses)

Ka-Sat satellite
• Eurostar E3000 satellite providing
bidirectional access in Ka-band
• Four-colour scheme for efficient frequency
re-use
• 90 Gbps throughput satellite
• In service since 2012
Couverture à quatre couleurs
 Mobile Satellite Services (MSS)

• Inmarsat-4 cellular network at global

scale with three multibeam geo • Alphasat
satellites
 Secured communications

• Global and steerable spot beams

• Skynet 5 system
coverage
• Four satellites
launched from 2007 to
2012
Secure Communications
Secure Communications: « on the pause »
Secure Communications: « on the move »
 A new market for telecom satellites: In-Flight Connectivity

Provides connectivity via satellite to aircraft

• Cockpit data
• Entertainment for passenger

The system must be capable to follow air

routes distribution with high flexibility:
• Daily basis
• New routes
 Navigation systems
GPS, Galileo, Beidou, Glonass, Gagan, and augmentation Systems (SBAS): WAAS, EGNOS
 Services: exemples of ATV, removedebris, servicing missions

ATV (5 models have flown):

• Supply the ISS with liquids, gas and cargo
• Provides Delta-V to ISS for orbit raising
• Performs avoidance maneuvers
• Bring back ISS garbage and burn it
• Video

Servicer:
• What type of services can we imagine for an in-orbit servicer?

Removedebris mission:
• Video
 Other type of missions: M2M/IoT (for connected objects), AIS

Market projections: billions of connected objects in the next years

 LEO constellations for Communications
Several constellations have been developed in LEO, to take advantage of low latency, easier access to
space, smaller satellites
MobileTelephony: interconnection at global level with handheld terminals
• Iridium: 66 satellites at 780 km altitude, in operation since 2002, with a new generation (Iridium
Next) being deployed
• Globalstar: 48 satellites at 1400 km altitude, in operation since 2000, and a new generation of 24
since 2013
Messaging: Machine to Machine interconnection with low cost terminals
• OrbComm: 35 satellites at 720 km altitude, in operation since
1995, and a new generation of 24 satellites since 2015
 LEO constellations for Communications: Iridium

Iridium:
• 66 satellites at 780 km altitude (and not 77)
• 1.5 kW, 860 kg
 LEO constellations for Communications: OneWeb

OneWeb constellation
• Fleet of LEO microsatellites to deliver Internet globally with
low latency
• Initial constellation: 648 satellites + spares = 900 satellites
to be built, reduced to 600
• 150 kg satellites, 1,200-kilometer orbit
• Very high production rate
What are the elements of a Space Mission?
Which orbit for which mission?
Where to send the satellites: trajectories in Space

Orbit parameters

Different types of orbit

Which orbit for which mission?

The case of 2 special orbits

2 interesting points: the Lagrangian points L1 and L2

 Where to send the satellites: trajectories in Space

General case: one body is attracting the satellite

This is the general case for Earth orbits
The ideal satellite trajectory is defined by theory
The real trajectory takes into accounts several
disturbing elements:
• Earth is not « perfect »
• Atmospheric drag (mainly in LEO)
• solar wind (radiation pressure)

Specific cases: two or more attracting bodies

It is the case of a System with Earth and Sun, or Moon
This leads to complex trajectories, which are mission specific
• Interesting property of Lagrange libration points, where the attraction of the two
bodies are equal and opposite: sun observation (SOHO), parking for interplanetary
mission
 S'
Orbit parameters
S (satellite)

r
E v
Apogee Perigee

rp

a MAT 9178

a3
orbit period: T = 2


(µ = 3.986 x 1014 m3 s-2)

 Different types of orbit

Orbit LEO MEO GEO HEO

Orbital plan Equatorial, inclined Equatorial, inclined Equatorial Molnia type:

or near polar or near polar Inclination:
63.4°

Altitude 200 – 800 km Around 2000 35786 km 1000 – 40000 km

or 25000 km

Access time to 15 – 20 mn 45 – 240 mn Continuous > 6h

satellite

Pros and Cons . Short signal delay Intermediate . Large Specific

. Small path loss between LEO and signal delay utilisation for
. Low launch cost MEO for signal (latency) northern regions
per delay, path loss . Large path loss with 8 satellites
satellite, but many and launch cost . Large launch cost in 4 Molnia
satellites for per satellite per satellite orbits
continuous access But 1 satellite covers
1/3 of Earth
Which orbit for which mission?
 Which orbit for which mission? The case of 2 special orbits

Geostationnary orbit
« Invented » by Arthur C. Clarke in 1945
Using the property of angular velocity for a point on the equator and a satellite at
#36000km altitude: the satellite « does not move when seen from Earth »
Application for telecommunications : 3 satellites cover the whole Earth
 Which orbit for which mission? The case of 2 special orbits

Polar or near-polar orbits

The satellite goes over the poles at each orbit, and sees a different slice of the Earth at
each orbit
Generally located around 700 km
 2 interesting points: the Lagrangian points L1 and L2

• At L1 and L2 Lagrangian point, the attraction of Earth and Sun are in

equilibrium
• L1 and L2 are used for astronomical observation missions
• Example of SOHO, launched in 1995,
• embarking 12 experiments
• ESA/NASA cooperation
A very special trajectory: rendez-vous with a comet

Video
What are the elements of a Space Missions?
Launch segment
The launch segment: selection of launch sites

Launching environment: impact on the satellites

Launcher selection criteria

 The launch segment: selection of launch sites

There are a few launch sites over the Earth. The following selection criteria are use to determine the
location:
• Large area for assembly halls and launch pads
• Free zone under the early trajectory
• No constraints towards East (for launches to Geo Stationnary)
• As close as possible from Equator (Earth rotation effect)
• Accessibility (land, sea, air)
• Political situation (unrest, export)
 Launching environment: impact on the satellites

During the launch, the satellite has to withstand several types of constraints,
which will drive its design:
Mechanical and acoustic:
• Acoustic noise of the launcher engines (mainly on large surfaces)
• Mechanical vibration on structural parts (primary and secondary structures)
• Shocks when the fairing is separated in 2 parts
• Shocks at spacecraft separation

Thermal:
• Aerothermal drag during ascent, due to launcher speed
• Thermal environment when the launcher is above atmosphere
(Sun orientation)

Depressurization/ venting during launch

• going from ambient pressure on earth to vacuum when in space
 Launcher selection criteria
Technical:
• Launcher performances (delta-V, orbit parameter at separation)
• Launcher environment (vibration, shocks, noise, thermal)
• Physical compatibility between the spacecraft and the fairing
• Reliability (mission success)
• Telecom satellites are generally designed to be compatible with all “heavy
launchers”, such as Ariane 5, Proton M, Falcon 9, Falcon Heavy, Ariane 6 (to come)
Financial:
• Price
• Including insurance (linked to reliability)
• And induced costs: transport, launch campaign
Programmatics:
• Availability for the required launch date, with sufficient margin
• Flexibility
• Alternative launcher
Political and strategic:
• Export issues
• Sovereignty
What are the elements of a Space Mission?
Frequencies:
Fuel for communications mission

Frequency bands used in Space:

Need for coordination

Overall coordination process: a 3-step process for GEO satellites

 Frequencies: fuel for communications mission

Spectrum is a scarce resource: Access to spectrum is key for Telecom mission

implementation
Spectrum is shared amongst various services, such as:
• Fixed Satellite Service (FSS)
• Mobile Satellite Service
• Broadcasting Satellite Service (BSS)
• Earth exploration satellite service
• Space research service
• Amateur satellite service
• Inter-satellite service
 Frequencies: fuel for communications mission

Radio frequency spectrum

• Limited natural resource that must be used and shared equitably, rationally, efficiently and
economically.
• Common resource (United Nations non-appropriation treaty - 1967).
• To be regulated at international level: the Radio Regulations managed by the ITU - International
Telecommunication Union.
• the international regulations are complemented by national regulations (sovereign right of each
State to regulate its telecommunication (ITU Constitution).

ITU - International Telecommunication Union

• United Nations specialized agency, headquartered in Geneva (Switzerland) and responsible for
regulations of Telecommunications.
• Organization within which governments and the private sector coordinate global telecom
networks and services through International Regulations.
Frequency bands used in Space:
• Limited bandwidth
• Cheaper terminals
• Good foliage penetration
• Good support for mobiles
• Wide beamwidths, so frequency re-use
difficult
• Easy to intercept and jam

• More Bandwidth
• Absorption losses increase
• Narrow beams allow frequency re-use
• Better spot beam support for small
terminals
• Robust protection
• Better pointing accuracy needed
• = (more complex/more expensive
terminals)
 A perfect world

Frequencies: need for coordination

Purpose of coordination:
• Guarantee a minimum signal to noise ratio
• Minimize interference level from other networks

Techniques:
• Frequency isolation The real world
• Polarization isolation
• Coverage isolation
• User terminal antenna diameter increase, to reduce
gain towards adjacent satellite
 Overall coordination process: a 3-step process for GEO satellites

Advance Publication Information

• Outline of Administration intention to use frequency and orbital resources in the future
• Opportunity for discussion with other interested administrations
Request for Coordination
• Technical information about future satellite network based on Appendix
• Negotiations to co-ordinate with other networks
• Framework for negotiations detailed by RR
• Advantage to first-comers who often have large staff dedicated to co-ordination activities
Notification
• Occurs after successful completion of coordination and demonstration of acceptance levels of
interference
• Bring into Use, 3-year suspension
What are the elements of a Space Mission?
Space environment

Natural space environment

Micrometeorids

From 1957 to 2015: orbital debris are generated by the activity of man in space

The space environment interacts with the satellite

 Natural space environment
Coronal mass ejections:
• huge bubbles of gas ejected from the Sun
Solar flares:
• huge explosions on the surface of the Sun. Flares are very fast processes
with time scales of only a few minutes. They only occur during
maximum solar activity period (11-year cycle).
Solar wind:
• Flux of particles (electrons, protons, Helium) escaping from the Sun
The geomagnetic field:
• The geomagnetic field acts as a shield. It protects the earth from certain particles. On the other
hand, it creates the radiation belts by trapping the electrons and protons.
 Micrometeorids

Micrometeroids

X
• The micrometeoroids are of natural origins (comets, asteroids, etc.).
• The meteoroids arriving on Earth generally come from the asteroids
(99.4%). The meteoroids coming from comets are less fragile and do
not cross the atmosphere. They are seen as shooting stars (Perseides,
in August).

• Some 15 000/20 000 tonnes / year penetrate into the atmosphere

(6 tonnes arrive on Earth)

Meteoroids smaller than 0.1mm are called micrometeoroids.

• Their speed is 11 to 72 km/s, with an average of 20 km/s.
• Order of magnitude: a particle of 1 mm radius at 70 km/s has as much energy as a bowling bowl of
4kg at 130 km/h….
 From 1957 to 2018: orbital debris are generated by the activity of man in space.
• Satellites (4700 of which 1800 in use) and stages of rockets, products from explosion, collision, operational
debris (tools, separation belts, bolts, instrument covers, propulsion products )
• 20 000 objects > 10 cm,
• More than 700 000 objects from 1 to 10 cm,
• 100 000 000 objects from 1 mm to 1 cm.
US Surveillance network (radars + telescope) operated by NORAD tracks objects above 10 cm in LEO and objects
above 1 m in GEO.
Europe is currently implementing some means of space surveillance = Radar Graves (France) that fills a database of
2000 objects (operational and non-operational).
 From 1957 to 2018: orbital debris are generated by the activity of man in space.
• Satellites (4700 of which 1800 in use) and stages of rockets, products from explosion, collision, operational
debris (tools, separation belts, bolts, instrument covers, propulsion products )
• 20 000 objects > 10 cm,
 The space environment interacts with the satellite

Atmosphere:
• Drag, disturbing torque
• Erosion
Charged particles (electrons, protons, heavy ions):
• electrostatic discharge
• Degradation of electronic components, SEE
• Degradation external materials, optical instruments due
to cumulated dose
• Degradation of solar cells, opto-electronic components…
Magnetic field:
• satellite / magneto-coupler coupling
Solar radiation:
• Thermal effects
• Solar pressure
Micrometeorids / Debris:
• physical damage
What are the elements of a Space Missions?
Ground Segment
Control segment
Spacecraft configuration
Payload and platform health monitoring

Mission segment
Mission preparation and management
Payload configuration
Gateway

User Segment
Data processing, archiving, distribution
User terminals: TV reception, VSAT, mobile phones, military terminals
Space System architecture: Earth observation system
Space System architecture: Telecommunications system
What are the elements of a Space Missions?
 Space Law

Space Liability: the 1967 Outer Space Treaty (107 rat., 23 sig.)
Provides basic legal framework for International Governance of Outer Space
• Benefit to all the peoples, peaceful use of space
Provides legal framework for international liability of States party to the Treaty
Space Liability: the 1972 Liability Convention (92 rat., 21 have sign.)
Expands on the liability rules created in the 1967 Outer Space Treaty
• Introduction of the term “Launching State”: a State which launches or procures the launching of a
space object, or from where it is launched
• Introduction of the liability regimes applicable to Launching States: Absolute liability for damage
caused on the surface of the earth or to an aircraft in flight, Liability for fault for damage caused
elsewhere than on the surface of the earth
The 1975 Convention of Registration of space objects (64 rat.)
• Mandatory central registration of objects launched into outer space
• Launching States shall provide all information to Secretary General of the UN
Actors in the Space System value chain

Manufacturers
Telecom main players: Airbus, SSL, Boeing, TAS, Lockheed Martin, Orbital ATK
Telecom challengers: CAST, Melco, ISS Reshetnev, OHB
Observation main players: Airbus, IAI, Satrec Initiative, TAS, NEC
Observation challengers: CAST, Elecnor, Lockheed Martin, Ball Aerospace
And a lot of new entrants
Telecom operators, Space Agencies
Global (Intelsat, Eutelsat, SES, Telesat) and regional operators (KT, Arabsat, Nilesat,
ABS, Turksat), with fleets from 1 to 50 satellites
National Agencies: NASA, ESA, ROSCOSMOS, CNSA, JAXA, CNES, DLR, ASI, BNSC, ISRO,
CSA, South Korea (KARI), Netherlands, Ukrain, Israel, Brasil, North Korea, Taiwan,
Iran, Algeria,…United Arab Emirates
Dedicated Agencies: Eumetsat, NOAA
New Space
GAFA, SpaceX: entrepreneurs, huge investment capacity, privately funded
programmes, dreams and ambitions. They can be in any place of the value chain
 Conclusion

Through this module, we have seen all the types of Mission that can be fulfilled by a
Space System , and all the elements that have to be taken into account for designing it

In the next module, we will see how the mission drives the System and Subsytem design,
at Platform and Payload level, how this design can be validated before launch, by focusing
on Telecommunications Satellites.