Seminar Report on

HYDROGEN POWERED CARS

Submitted by

ABHIRAM SATHYAN (NCE18ME004)

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the

degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY in Mechanical

Engineering

Guide

Dr. GEORGE JOB

Professor and Head
Department of Mechanical Engineering

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

NEHRU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH CENTRE
THRISSUR–680597

JANUARY 2022
 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

NEHRU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH CENTRE

THRISSUR–680597

Certificate

This is to certify that this report entitled “HYDROGEN POWERED CARS” is a bonafide record
of the seminar presented by ABHIRAM SATHYAN (NCE18ME004) towards the partial
fulfillment for the award of Degree of Bachelor of Technology in Mechanical Engineering under
APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University, Kerala, during the year 2022.

Guided By Head of the Department

Dr. George Job K Dr. George Job K

(Professor) and Head (Professor) and Head
Dept .of Mechanical Dept. of Mechanical
Engineering Engineering
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

It is a great pleasure for me to acknowledge all those who have advised and supported me to lead
my seminar to success. First of all, I would like to thank GOD Almighty for blessing me with his grace
and taking me Endeavor to successful culmination. I submit this seminar work at the lotus feet of
beloved chairman, Late Dr. P. K. Das, founder chairman, Nehru Group of Institutions and seek his
blessings.IamextremelythankfultomostrespectedAdv.Dr.P.Krishnadas, Chairman and Managing
Trustee, and Dr. P. Krishnakumar, CEO and secretary of Nehru Group of Institution for all helps
extended to me. I’m very grateful to Dr. Ambikadevi Amma T, Principal of our institute for her
valuable advice, kind encouragement, creative suggestions and supports for the completion of this
seminar work. Next, I would like to show my sincere gratitude to Prof. Dr. George Job K, Head of the
Department of Mechanical Engineering, who helped me in every possible way. I would like to express
my sincere heartfelt thanks to my seminar coordinator Mr. Sabarish C S and my guide Prof. Dr.
George Job K, Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering for his creative suggestions and
immense advice which helped to overcome all obstacles successfully. I thank all my faculty members
and staff of our college for the helps they have extended. I finally thank my parents and friends for their
moral support.

ABHIRAM SATHYAN
(NCE18ME004)

i
 ABSTRACT

The hazardous effects pollutants from conventional fuel vehicles have caused the scientific
world to move towards environmentally friendly energy sources. Though we have various renewable
energy sources, the perfect one to use for vehicles is hydrogen. It can be used in two different ways.
One is an IC engine that runs on hydrogen fuel and the other one is a fuel cell involving
electrochemical reactions to produce electricity which in turn powers the motor. In both, the storage
of hydrogen is an important factor while designing a hydrogen powered car. In future, manufacturers
may opt hydrogen powered vehicles for transportation instead of their shorter refueling time and
longer driving range.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter No: Title Page no:
Acknowledgement i
Abstract ii
List of figures iv
1 Introduction 1
2 Hydrogen energy 2
Production 2
Storage 4
Infrastructure 4
3 Types of hydrogen powered cars 5
Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle 5
Hydrogen fuel cell 5
4 Difference between a hydrogen powered vehicle and a 7
conventional engine
5 Working principle of fuel cell vehicle 8
6 Types of fuel cell 9
Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell 9
Phosphoric acid fuel cell 9
Solid acid fuel cell 10
Alkaline fuel cell 10
Solid oxide fuel cell 10
Molten-carbonate fuel cell 11
7 Advantages of hydrogen powered cars 12
8 Disadvantages of hydrogen powered cars 13
9 Conclusion 14
Reference 15

iii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Title Page No:

no:
01 Production of Hydrogen 3

02 Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicle 6

03 Block diagram of Fuel Cell 6

04 Working Principle of Fuel Cell 8

iv
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SEMINAR REPORT HYDROGEN POWERED CARS

CHAPTER NO: 1
INTRODUCTION

The current urban transport systems meet many problems, which according to the principles of
sustainable development, should be solved as soon as possible for the good of society and the
environment. One of these kinds of problems is too much pollution produced by vehicles with the
conventional drive. Current fossil-fuel burning vehicles emit all sorts of pollutants such as carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrous oxide, ozone and microscopic particulate matter. There are many
types of options that can be considered as a solution to achieve higher level of urban transportation
sustainability. Hybrids and other green cars address these issues to a large extent but only hydrogen
cars and electric cars hold the promise of zero emission of pollutants. The Environmental Protection
Agency estimates that fossil-fuel automobiles emit 1 ½ billion tons of greenhouse gases into the
atmosphere each year and going to hydrogen and electric based transportation would all but eliminate
this.
Despite of great effort in the field of research and development of electric mobility, the prices of
electric vehicles, their range and current infrastructure for charging is not entirely in their favor.
However, this situation can change in near future, because every year brings new types of electric or
plug-in hybrid vehicles, new technologies are being developed. Unlike many of the hybrid and electric
cars currently on the market, hydrogen cars offer the promise of zero emission technology, where the
only by product from the cars is water vapour.
The benefits of hydrogen technology are fast refueling time (comparable to gasoline) and long driving
range on a single tank. The drawbacks of hydrogen use are high carbon emissions when hydrogen is
produced from natural gas, capital cost burden, low energy content per unit volume at ambient
conditions, production and compression of hydrogen, the investment required to build filling
stations around the world to dispense hydrogen, transportation of hydrogen to filling stations, and lack
of ability to produce or dispense hydrogen at home. Hydrogen has been hailed as a promising energy
carrier for decades. The companies and others are looking to develop the technology as an emission-
free solution to power heavy commercial and military vehicles, with refueling taking place at
centralized locations.

DEPT. OF MECHANICAL ENGG. 1 NCERC, PAMPADY

 CHAPTER NO: 2
HYDROGEN ENERGY
Hydrogen is the simplest and the most plentiful element in the universe. It’s always combined
with other elements. Hydrogen is high in energy, yet an engine that burns hydrogen produces almost
no pollution. NASA has used liquid hydrogen since the 1970s to propel the space shuttle and other
rockets into orbit.
Hydrogen does not exist in convenient reservoirs or deposits like fossil fuels or helium. It is produced
from feed stocks such as natural gas and biomass or electrolyzed from water. A suggested benefit of
large-scale deployment of hydrogen vehicles is that it could lead to decreased emissions of greenhouse
gases and ozone precursors. However, as of 2014, 95% of hydrogen is made from methane. It can be
produced by thermo chemical or pyrolitic means using renewable feed stocks, but that is an expensive
process. Renewable electricity can however be used to power the conversion of water into hydrogen:
Integrated wind-to-hydrogen (power to gas) plants, using electrolysis of water, are exploring
technologies to deliver costs low enough, and quantities great enough, to compete with traditional
energy sources.

According to Ford Motor Company, a hydrogen fuel-cell vehicle would generate only three-fifths as
much carbon dioxide as a comparable vehicle running on gasoline blended to 10 percent
ethanol. Although methods of hydrogen production that do not use fossil fuel would be more
sustainable, currently renewable energy represents only a small percentage of energy generated, and
power produced from renewable sources can be used more efficiently in electric vehicles and for non-
vehicle applications.The challenges facing the use of hydrogen in vehicles include chiefly its storage on
board the vehicle. While the well-to-wheel efficiency for hydrogen from the least efficient manner of
producing it (electrolysis) is less than 25 percent, it still exceeds that of vehicles based on internal
combustion engines.

2.1 Production
The molecular hydrogen needed as an onboard fuel for hydrogen vehicles can be obtained
through many thermochemical methods utilizing natural gas, coal (by a process known as coal
gasification), liquefied petroleum gas, biomass (biomass gasification), by a process called thermolysis,
or as a microbial waste product called biohydrogen or Biological hydrogen production.
 95% of hydrogen is produced using natural gas, and 85% of hydrogen produced is used to
remove sulfur from gasoline. Hydrogen can also be produced from water by electrolysis at working
efficiencies of 65–70%. Hydrogen can also be made by chemical reduction using chemical hydrides or
aluminum. Current technologies for manufacturing hydrogen use energy in various forms, totaling
between 25 and 50 percent of the higher heating value of the hydrogen fuel, used to produce, compress
or liquefy, and transmit the hydrogen by pipeline or truck.
Environmental consequences of the production of hydrogen from fossil energy resources include the
emission of greenhouse gasses, a consequence that would also result from the on-board reforming of
methanol into hydrogen. Analyses comparing the environmental consequences of hydrogen production
and use in fuel-cell vehicles to the refining of petroleum and combustion in conventional automobile
engines do not agree on whether a net reduction of ozone and greenhouse gasses would result.
Hydrogen production using renewable energy resources would not create such emissions, but the scale
of renewable energy production would need to be expanded to be used in producing hydrogen for a
significant part of transportation needs. As of 2016, 14.9 percent of U.S. electricity was produced from
renewable sources. In a few countries, renewable sources are being used more widely to produce
energy and hydrogen.

Fig 1: Production of hydrogen

 2.2 Storage
Compressed hydrogen in hydrogen tanks at 350 bar (5,000 psi) and 700 bar (10,000 psi) is used
for hydrogen tank systems in vehicles, based on type IV carbon-composite technology.
Hydrogen has a very low volumetric energy density at ambient conditions, compared with gasoline and
other vehicle fuels. It must be stored in a vehicle either as a super-cooled liquid or as highly
compressed gas, which require additional energy to accomplish. In 2018, researchers at CSIRO in
Australia powered a Toyota Mirai and Hyundai Nexo with hydrogen separated from ammonia using a
membrane technology. Ammonia is easier to transport safely in tankers than pure hydrogen.

2.3 Infrastructure
The hydrogen infrastructure consists of hydrogen-equipped filling stations, which are supplied
with hydrogen via compressed hydrogen tube trailers, liquid hydrogen tank trucks or dedicated onsite
production, and some industrial hydrogen pipeline transport. The distribution of hydrogen fuel for
vehicles throughout the U.S. would require new hydrogen stations that would cost between 20 billion
dollars in the US, (4.6 billion in the EU).and half trillion dollars in the US.
 CHAPTER NO: 3
TYPES OF HYDROGEN POWERED CARS

Hydrogen can be used to drive cars in two ways. It can be used as a fuel in a traditional engine, which is
combusted in a chamber, or used in fuel cells to generate energy that drives an electric motor.

3.1 Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle:

A hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle (HICEV) is a type of hydrogen vehicle using
an internal combustion engine. These hydrogen engines burn fuel in the same manner that gasoline
engines do; the main difference is the exhaust product.Hydrogen internal combustion engine
development has been receiving more interest recently, particularly for heavy duty commercial
vehicles. Part of the motivation for this is as a bridging technology to meet future climate
CO2 emission goals, and as technology more compatible with existing automotive knowledge and
manufacturing.

In May 2021, Toyota Corolla Sport, which is equipped with hydrogen engine entered the Super Taikyu
Series race round 3 "NAPAC Fuji Super TEC 24 Hours", and completed the 24 hours race.. In
November 2021, five automotive manufacturers in Japan (Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Subaru,
Toyota, Mazda and Yamaha Motor) jointly announced that they will take on the challenge of
expanding fuel options through the use of internal combustion engines to achieve carbon neutrality, at
the (three-hour) Super Taikyu race Round 6 held at Okayama International Circuit. Their common
view is that the enemy is not internal combustion engines, and we need diverse solutions toward
challenging carbon neutrality.

3.2 Hydrogen fuel cell:

A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy of a fuel
(often hydrogen) and an oxidizing agent (often oxygen) into electricity through a pair
of redox reactions. Fuel cells are different from most batteries in requiring a continuous source of fuel
and oxygen (usually from air) to sustain the chemical reaction, whereas in a battery the chemical
energy usually comes from metals and their ions or oxides that are commonly already present in the
battery, except in flow batteries. Fuel cells can produce electricity continuously for as long as fuel and
oxygen are supplied.
Fig 2: Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicle

Fig 3: Block diagram of Fuel Cell

 CHAPTER NO: 4
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A HYDROGEN POWERED
VEHICLE AND A CONVENTIONAL GASOLINE ENGINE

The differences between a hydrogen ICE and a traditional gasoline engine include
hardened valves and valve seats, stronger connecting rods, non-platinum tipped spark plugs, a higher
voltage ignition coil, fuel injectors designed for a gas instead of a liquid, larger crankshaft damper,
stronger head gasket material, modified (for supercharger) intake manifold, positive pressure
supercharger, and high temperature engine oil. All modifications would amount to about one point five
times (1.5) the current cost of a gasoline engine. .

The theoretical maximum power output from a hydrogen engine depends on the air/fuel ratio and fuel
injection method used. The stoichiometric air/fuel ratio for hydrogen is 34:1. At this air/fuel ratio,
hydrogen will displace 29% of the combustion chamber leaving only 71% for the air. As a result, the
energy content of this mixture will be less than it would be if the fuel were gasoline. Since both
the carbureted and port injection methods mix the fuel and air prior to it entering the combustion
chamber, these systems limit the maximum theoretical power obtainable to approximately 85% of that
of gasoline engines. For direct injection systems, which mix the fuel with the air after the intake valve
has closed (and thus the combustion chamber has 100% air), the maximum output of the engine can be
approximately 15% higher than that for gasoline engines.

Therefore, depending on how the fuel is metered, the maximum output for a hydrogen engine can be
either 15% higher or 15% less than that of gasoline if a stoichiometric air/fuel ratio is used. However,
at a stoichiometric air/fuel ratio, the combustion temperature is very high and as a result it will form a
large amount of nitrogen oxides (NOx), which is a criteria pollutant. Since one of the reasons for using
hydrogen is low exhaust emissions, hydrogen engines are not normally designed to run at a
stoichiometric air/fuel ratio. Typically hydrogen engines are designed to use about twice as much air as
theoretically required for complete combustion. At this air/fuel ratio, the formation of NO  x  is reduced
to near zero. Unfortunately, this also reduces the power output to about half that of a similarly sized
gasoline engine. To make up for the power loss, hydrogen engines are usually larger than gasoline
engines, and/or are equipped with turbochargers or superchargers.
 CHAPTER NO: 5
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF FUEL CELL VEHICLE

There are many types of fuel cells, but they all consist of an anode, a cathode, and
an electrolyte that allows ions, often positively charged hydrogen ions (protons), to move between the
two sides of the fuel cell. At the anode a catalyst causes the fuel to undergo oxidation reactions that
generate ions (often positively charged hydrogen ions) and electrons. The ions move from the anode to
the cathode through the electrolyte. At the same time, electrons flow from the anode to the cathode
through an external circuit, producing direct current electricity. At the cathode, another catalyst causes
ions, electrons, and oxygen to react, forming water and possibly other products. Fuel cells are classified
by the type of electrolyte they use and by the difference in startup time ranging from 1 second
for proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEM fuel cells, or PEMFC) to 10 minutes for solid oxide fuel
cells (SOFC). A related technology is flow batteries, in which the fuel can be regenerated by recharging.
Individual fuel cells produce relatively small electrical potentials, about 0.7 volts, so cells are "stacked",
or placed in series, to create sufficient voltage to meet an application's requirements. In addition to
electricity, fuel cells produce water, heat and, depending on the fuel source, very small amounts
of nitrogen dioxide and other emissions.

Fig 4: Working Principle of Fuel Cell

 CHAPTER NO: 6
TYPES OF FUEL
CELL

Fuel cells come in many varieties; however, they all work in the same general manner. They are
made up of three adjacent segments: the anode, the electrolyte, and the cathode. Two chemical reactions
occur at the interfaces of the three different segments. The net result of the two reactions is that fuel is
consumed, water or carbon dioxide is created, and an electric current is created, which can be used to
power electrical devices.
Various types of fuel cell are :

6.1 Proton-exchange membrane fuel cells:

In the archetypical hydrogen–oxide proton-exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) design, a

proton-conducting polymer membrane (typically nafion) contains the electrolyte solution that separates
the anode and cathode sides. On the anode side, hydrogen diffuses to the anode catalyst where it later
dissociates into protons and electrons. These protons often react with oxidants causing them to become
what are commonly referred to as multi-facilitated proton membranes. The protons are conducted
through the membrane to the cathode, but the electrons are forced to travel in an external circuit
(supplying power) because the membrane is electrically insulating. On the cathode catalyst,
oxygen molecules react with the electrons (which have traveled through the external circuit) and protons
to form water.

6.2 Phosphoric acid fuel cell:

In these cells phosphoric acid is used as a non-conductive electrolyte to pass positive hydrogen
ions from the anode to the cathode. These cells commonly work in temperatures of 150 to 200 degrees
Celsius. This high temperature will cause heat and energy loss if the heat is not removed and used
properly. This heat can be used to produce steam for air conditioning systems or any other thermal
energy consuming system. Using this heat in cogeneration can enhance the efficiency of phosphoric acid
fuel cells from 40 to 50% to about 80%. Phosphoric acid, the electrolyte used in PAFCs, is a non-
conductive liquid acid which forces electrons to travel from anode to cathode through an external
`
SEMINAR REPORT HYDROGEN POWERED CARS
electrical circuit. Since the hydrogen ion production rate on the anode is small, platinum is used as

catalyst to increase this ionization rate.A key disadvantage of these cells is the use of an acidic
electrolyte. This increases the corrosion or oxidation of components exposed to phosphoric acid.

6.3 Solid acid fuel cell:

Solid acid fuel cells (SAFCs) are characterized by the use of a solid acid material as the
electrolyte. At low temperatures, solid acids have an ordered molecular structure like most salts. At
warmer temperatures (between 140 and 150 °C for CsHSO4), some solid acids undergo a phase
transition to become highly disordered "superprotonic" structures, which increases conductivity by
several orders of magnitude. The first proof-of-concept SAFCs were developed in 2000 using cesium
hydrogen sulfate (CsHSO4). Current SAFC systems use cesium dihydrogen phosphate (CsH 2PO4) and
have demonstrated lifetimes in the thousands of hours.

6.4 Alkaline fuel cell:

The alkaline fuel cell (AFC) or hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell was designed and first demonstrated
publicly by Francis Thomas Bacon in 1959. It was used as a primary source of electrical energy in the
Apollo space program. The cell consists of two porous carbon electrodes impregnated with a suitable
catalyst such as Pt, Ag, CoO, etc. The space between the two electrodes is filled with a concentrated
solution of KOH or NaOH which serves as an electrolyte. H2 gas and O2 gas are bubbled into the
electrolyte through the porous carbon electrodes. Thus the overall reaction involves the combination of
hydrogen gas and oxygen gas to form water. The cell runs continuously until the reactant's supply is
exhausted. This type of cell operates efficiently in the temperature range 343–413 K and provides a
potential of about 0.9 V. Alkaline anion exchange membrane fuel cell (AAEMFC) is a type of AFC
which employs a solid polymer electrolyte instead of aqueous potassium hydroxide (KOH) and it is
superior to aqueous AFC.

6.5 Solid oxide fuel cell:

Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) use a solid material, most commonly a ceramic material
called yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ), as the electrolyte. Because SOFCs are made entirely of solid
materials, they are not limited to the flat plane configuration of other types of fuel cells and are often
designed as rolled tubes.
DEPT. OF MECHANICAL ENGG. 11 NCERC, PAMPADY
`
SEMINAR REPORT HYDROGEN POWERED CARS

They require high operating temperatures (800–1000 °C) and can be run on a variety of fuels including
natural gas. SOFCs are unique since in those, negatively charged oxygen ions travel from
the cathode (positive side of the fuel cell) to the anode (negative side of the fuel cell) instead of
positively charged hydrogen ions travelling from the anode to the cathode, as is the case in all other
types of fuel cells. Oxygen gas is fed through the cathode, where it absorbs electrons to create oxygen
ions. The oxygen ions then travel through the electrolyte to react with hydrogen gas at the anode. The
reaction at the anode produces electricity and water as by-products. Carbon dioxide may also be a by-
product depending on the fuel, but the carbon emissions from an SOFC system are less than those from
a fossil fuel combustion plant.

6.6 Molten-carbonate fuel cell:

Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) require a high operating temperature, 650 °C (1,200 °F),
similar to SOFCs. MCFCs use lithium potassium carbonate salt as an electrolyte, and this salt liquefies
at high temperatures, allowing for the movement of charge within the cell – in this case, negative
carbonate ions.
Like SOFCs, MCFCs are capable of converting fossil fuel to a hydrogen-rich gas in the anode,
eliminating the need to produce hydrogen externally. The reforming process creates CO 2 emissions.
MCFC-compatible fuels include natural gas, biogas and gas produced from coal. The hydrogen in the
gas reacts with carbonate ions from the electrolyte to produce water, carbon dioxide, electrons and small
amounts of other chemicals. The electrons travel through an external circuit creating electricity and
return to the cathode. There, oxygen from the air and carbon dioxide recycled from the anode react with
the electrons to form carbonate ions that replenish the electrolyte, completing the circuit.

DEPT. OF MECHANICAL ENGG. 12 NCERC, PAMPADY

 CHAPTER NO: 7

ADVANTAGES OF HYDROGEN POWERED CARS

 Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the Universe, which makes up about 3/4 of all matter.
Anywhere there is water (H2O) you have hydrogen and oxygen.

 Energy content of hydrogen is the highest per unit of weight of any fuel. Therefore it offers the
most “bang for the buck”. When water is broken down into HHO, otherwise known as
oxyhydrogen or Brown’s Gas, it becomes a very, very efficient fuel.

 Unlike conventional petrol and diesel cars, which discharge harmful emission into the air,
including carbon dioxide, hydrogen fuel cell cars only emit heat and water, meaning they create
no pollution when they’re driven.

 Hydrogen is very plentiful. The trick is to break the water molecules down to release it.

 It will greatly reduce the import of highly expensive oil demands of our country.

 Hydrogen cars also have a longer driving range.

 It is no secret that conventional cars are loud. This is essentially because there are many moving
parts in the engine which contributes to conventional cars being loud. Hydrogen fuel cell cars are
quiet, and have very few moving parts.
 CHAPTER NO: 8
DISADVANTAGES OF HYDROGEN POWRED CARS

 Hydrogen is currently very expensive, not because it is rare (it’s the most common element in the
universe!) but because it’s difficult to generate, handle, and store, requiring bulky and heavy tanks
like those for compressed natural gas (CNG) or complex insulating bottles if stored as a cryogenic
(super-cold) liquid like liquefied natural gas (LNG).

 It can also be stored at moderate temperatures and pressures in a tank containing a metal hydride
absorber or carbon absorber, though these are currently very expensive.

 Investment required in filling stations to dispense hydrogen.

 Transportation of hydrogen to filling stations.

 High cost of buying a car.

 The fear associated with the danger of the technology and treated hydrogen vehicles as a similarity
to the hydrogen bomb.
 CHAPTER NO: 8
CONCLUSION

In the next hundred years, the world as we know it will undergo dramatic changes. As the
world’s supply of fossil fuels begins to reach total depletion, the leaders of government, industry and
science scramble to find answers to the inevitable energy crisis. Focusing on and developing renewable
energy resources will not only dramatically affect the air quality and the environment, but it will also
level the playing field in the global political arena. Implementing clean energy technology over the
next century could save money, create jobs, reduce greenhouse emissions and sharply reduce air and
water pollution. Clearly renewable energy is the key to sustainable development. Hydrogen powered
cars can be used as an alternative for conventional cars. It offers great efficiency, long driving range
and almost produces zero carbon emissions. But due to the lack of infrastructure in producing
hydrogen and the difficulties in transportation of hydrogen, it is still in talks. Though many
manufacturers have taken the paths of electrification, there are some manufacturers like Toyota,
Hyundai still doing researches on hydrogen powered cars and still believe that hydrogen has an
important role in future.
 REFERENCES
1. Hydrogen-powered vehicles in urban transport systems – current state and development
journal (2019) by Katarzyna Turon.
2. Hydrogen Power Focus Shifts from Cars to Heavy Vehicles (2020) by Chris Palmer.
3. Electric and hydrogen buses: Shifting from conventionally fuelled cars in the UK (2020) by
Kathryn G Logan, John D Nelson and Astley Hasting.
4. Advances in alternative fuel vehicles (2020) by Xinkai Wu, Xiaozheng He and Jason Cao.
5. Status of hydrogen fuel cell electric buses worldwide (2014) by Thanh Hua, Rajesh
Ahluwalia, Leslie Eudy, Gregg Singer, Boris Jermer, Nick Asselin-Miller, Silvia
Wessel, Timothy Patterson and Jason Marcinkoski.
6. Comparative life cycle assessment of hydrogen-fuelled passenger cars (2021) by Daniele
Candelaresi, Antonio Valente, Diego Iribarren, Javier Dufour, Giuseppe Spazzafumo.
7. Operation principles for hydrogen spark ignited direct injection engines for passenger car
applications (2021) by Marcus Fischer, Stefan Sterlepper, Stefan Pischinger, Jörg Seibel,
Ulrich Kramer, Thomas Lorenz.