INDEX

S.No Description Page No

1 Definition of an Orbit and Trajectory 2

2 Orbiting satellites-Basic Principles 2

3 Orbital parameters 5

4 Injection velocity and resulting satellite trajectories 12

5 5Orbital Perturbations 15

6 Satellite stabilization 20

7 Orbital effects on satellite performance 22

8 Eclipse 24

9 Antenna Look angles 27

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1.1Definition of an Orbit and Trajectory

 Trajectory is a path traced by a moving body. Example for trajectory is an orbit of

satellite which is periodically repeated.
 The path followed by the motion of the artificial satellite around the earth is an orbit.
 The path followed by a launch vehicle is a trajectory called the launch trajectory.
 The term trajectory on other hand is the path followed by the rocket on its way to right
position for a satellite launch.

1.2 Orbiting satellites-Basic Principles

1.21Launch Sequence
 The satellite heading for Geo stationary orbit will enter first in to transfer orbit is shown
in the Fig1.21 The transfer orbit is elliptical in shape with its perigee at an altitude of
between 200KM and 300KM.where as its apogee will be at GEO stationary altitude.
 The satellite heading for Geo stationary orbit will enter first in to LEO orbit and then to
the transfer orbit is shown in the Fig1.22 .Here also The transfer orbit is elliptical in
shape with its perigee at an altitude of between 200KM and 300KM.where as its apogee
will be at GEO stationary altitude.

Fig1.21 Example of Trajectory: Possible GEO stationary launch Sequence

Fig1.22 Example of Trajectory Another possible GEO stationary Launch sequence

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Kepler’s Law’s

Kepler’s laws apply to any body in space which interact’s through gravitation.

Kepler’s first law:

 It states that the path followed by a satellite around the primary will be an ellipse. An
ellipse has two focal points F1 and F2 is shown in the fig1.23
Fig1.23- the foci F1 and F2, the semimajor axis’a’ and semiminor axis’b’

 The centre of mass of two body system termed as barry centre is always centered on one
of the foci.
 Because of enormous difference between the mass of earth and the satellite, the centre of
the mass coincides with the centre of the earth which is therefore at one of the foci.
 The semi major axis of the ellipse is denoted by ‘a’ and semi minor axis is by ‘b’.
 The eccentricity is given by
a2−b2
e= √
a

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 The eccentricity and the semi major axis are two of the orbital parameters specified for
satellites.
 For an elliptical orbit, 0≤e≤1, when e=0, the orbit becomes circular.

Kepler’s second law:

 For equal time intervals, satellite will sweep out equal areas in its orbital plane, focused
at its barry centre is shown in the fig 1.24

Fig1.24- The areas A1 and A2 swept out in unit time are equal

 If the satellite travels distances ‘s1’and ‘s2’ meters in one second, then the areas A1 and A2
will also be equal.
 The average velocity in each case is ‘s1’and ‘s2’ meters per second and because of the
equal area law, it follows that the velocity at s2 is lesser than at s1 (i.e.)the satellite will
take longer time to travel a given distance when it is farther from earth.

Kepler’s third law:

 It states that the square of the periodic time of the orbit is proportional to the cube of the
mean distance between the two bodies.
 The mean distance is equal to the semi major axis ‘a’

i.e. a3=µ/n2 where µ= 3.986005*1014m2/s2 eq1

 The eq1 applies only to ideal situation of a satellite orbiting a perfectly spherical earth
of uniform mass.
 With ‘n’ in radians per second, the orbital period in seconds is given by

P=2π/n eq2

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Problems:

Calculate the radius of a circular orbit for which period is 1day.

Solution:

1hour= 60minutes
1minute =60 seconds
Therefore one hour=60*60= 3600 seconds.
Therefore The orbital period of one day=24*3600 seconds
=86,400 seconds.
The periodic time of orbit is ‘n’ given in radians per second is given by n=2π/P
=2* π/86,400

Therefore n =7.272*10-5rads/sec. The mean

distance is given by a=[µ/n2]1/3
On substituting the values for ‘n’ and ‘µ’, the value of ‘a’ is found, i.e. 42,241KM.
Since the orbit is circular, the semi major axis is also the radius of earth.

1.3Orbital parameters

1.31 Orbit:

When a body ’A’ revolves around another body ’B’. The body’ A’ is called satellite of the body
’B’. The body ’B’ is called primary body.

1.32 Orbit Path: The path followed by an orbiting body is called path of the orbit. The orbital
path is further classified in to two types

 Elliptical Path
 Circular path

1.33 Elliptical path:

The satellite revolves with a certain angular velocity ‘W’ around the primary body. If ‘W’ varies
path tends to become elliptical.

1.34 Circular orbit:

When the angular velocity is constant, the path of the orbit is circular.

1.35 Radius of the Orbit:

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In a circular orbit, the primary body lays at the centre of the circular path and the satellites on the
circumference of the circle, hence the radius of the circle is called radius of the Orbit.

In elliptical orbit, the radius is variable.

1.36 Orbit plane:

The plane in which the satellite orbits is called the plane of the orbit. The man made satellite can
lie on any one of the plane depending upon the application.

Polar plane
Equatorial plane
Inclined plane

1.37 Polar plane:

It is a plane assumed to be cut along the poles of the earth.

1.38 Equatorial plane:

It is a plane assumed to be cut along the equator. A satellite revolving in this plane is called
equatorial satellite.

1.39 Inclined plane:

The plane of orbit, which is at an angle to both polar plane and equatorial plane is called inclined
plane.

1.310 Prograde:

When the satellite orbits in the same direction as the direction of revolution of earth, the orbit is
called Prograde orbit Is shown in Fig1.21

1.311 Retrograde:

When the satellite orbits in the opposite direction as the direction of revolution of earth, the orbit
is called Retro grade orbit is shown in Fig1.21

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Fig1.21-Prograde and Retro grade orbit

1.312 Geosynchronous:

 A satellite which moves with the same angular velocity, ‘s’ that of the revolution of
Earth around its axis of rotation is called geosynchronous.
 A geosynchronous satellite has an orbital period of 24 hours.

1.313 Geostationary Orbit:

 A satellite which is geosynchronous in the equatorial plane and additionally has

prograde orbit is said to be Geo stationary.
 The minimum radius of orbit to achieve this condition is 42,000KM.

1.314 Subsatellite point:

The imaginary point S´ created on the earth's surface created by a normal from the centre of
the satellite to the centre of the earth is called sub satellite point.

1.315 Azimuth:

 The angle made eastward from a geographical north by an earth station to satellite
along the horizontal plane is called Azimuth angle. As the sub satellite point is

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directly below the satellite on the horizontal plane, Azimuth can also be defined as
the angle from the earth station eastwards to sub satellite point.

1.316 Elevation Angle:

The angle subtended by an antenna looking at the satellite from the horizontal plane in the
vertical direction is called elevation angle. It is also called earth’s satellite angle.

1.317 Look Angle:

The angle subtended and determined by Azimuth and Elevation angle

1.318 Slant angle:

The line of sight distance from a particular point on the earth to satellite is called slant range.

1.319 Height of the satellite:

 It is the height ‘h’ or altitude of satellite from the sub satellite point on the surface of
the earth to the satellite.
 In elliptical orbit it varies where as in circular orbit, this seems to be constant.

1.320 Radius of the orbit:

 Sum of height and radius of the earth. (re+h).

1.321 Ascending node:

 During each orbit, a satellite crosses the equatorial plane, once going from south to
north and other travelling from north to south.
 The point of interaction of orbit path with equatorial plane while travelling from
south to north is called Ascending node is shown in the fig 1.22

1.322 Descending node:

 The point of interaction of orbit path with equatorial plane while travelling from north
to south is called descending node is shown in the fig 1.22

1.323 Perigee:

 In an equatorial orbit, the distance of the satellite from the primary body varies, hence
a point in orbit, where the satellite is nearest to the earth is called perigee. The perigee
depends upon the eccentricity and is equal to a(1-e) where a is the major axis of the
satellite and e is the eccentricity is given in Fig1.22

1.324 Apogee:

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 It is a point in orbit, where the satellite is farthest from the earth is called Apogee.
The Apogee height is given by a(1+e). is given in Fig1.22


1.325 Inclination:

 The angle ‘I’ between orbital plane and earth’s equatorial plane is called angle of
inclination is given in Fig1.22

Fig1.22- Sub satellite path, Equatorial plane, Inclination angle’I’, Perigee’h p’,
Apogee’ha’, Ascending node, Descending Node

1.326 Satellite Axis:

 The satellite being in space, to keep the space craft in proper position, it is necessary
to define the axis that control the spacecraft. The three axis of control are Roll
axis, Pitch axis and yaw axis.

1.327 Argument of perigee:

 The angle from ascending node to perigee measured in orbital plane at the earth’s
centre in the direction of satellite motion. It is represented as ‘Ѡ’ is shown in fig1.23

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1.328 Right ascension of ascending node:

 To define completely, the position of orbit in space, the position of ascending node is
specified .Since the earth spins while the orbit plane remains stationary, the longitude
of the ascending node is not fixed and it cannot be used as reference is shown in
fig1.23
 For absolute measurement, a fixed reference in space is required. The reference
chosen is the first point of Aeries..
 The Aeries occurs when the sun crosses the equator going from north to south and an
imaginary line drawn from this crossing through the centre of the sun to the first point
of Aeries. This is called Line of Aeries.
 The right ascension of ascending node is then the angle measured eastward in the
equatorial plane from ‘γ’ line to the ascending node is shown as Ὡ’

Fig1.23-Argument of perigee and Right ascension of ascending node

1.329 Mean Anamoly:

 This gives an average value of angular position of satellite reference to perigee.

1.330 True Anamoly:

 This is the angle from perigee to the satellite position measured at earth’s centre.

1.4 Injection velocity and resulting satellite trajectories

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 The horizontal velocity with which a satellite is injected in to space by launch vehicle
with the intention of imparting a specific trajectory to the satellite has direct bearing on
satellite trajectory.
 The general expression for the velocity of a satellite at the perigee point (Vp) assuming an
elliptical orbit is given by

µ µ
Vp=√(2 )- (2 ) Eq1
P 2+ P

A-Apogee distance
P-Perigee distance
µ-Constant
 The first cosmic velocity Vi is the one at which apogee and perigee distances are equal.
(i.e.) when A=P the orbit is circular.
 The above expression reduces to

µ
Vi=√ Eq2
P

 Thus irrespective of the distance ‘p’ of the satellite from the centre of the earth, if the
injection velocity is equal to first cosmic velocity, the satellite follows a circular path &
µ
moves with a uniform velocity equal to √ is shown in the fig1.41
P

Fig1.41 Satellites path where the Injection velocity is equal to the First Orbital velocity

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 A simple calculation is that for satellite at 35,786Km above the surface of earth, the
cosmic velocity turns to be 3.075KM/S and the orbital period is 23 hours 56minutes
which is equal to time period of one sidereal day.
 If the injection velocity happens to be less than first cosmic velocity, the satellite follows
a ballistic trajectory and falls back to earth. Intact in this case, the orbit is elliptical and
the injection point is at apogee and not at perigee is shown in the fig 1.42 below.
Fig1.42- Satellites path where the Injection velocity is greater to the First Orbital
velocity

 If the perigee lies in the atmosphere or exists below the surface of the earth, the satellite
accomplishes a ballistic flight and falls back to earth.

For injection velocity greater than first cosmic velocity and less than second cosmic velocity.
(i.e.)

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µ 2µ
V >√ and V˂√ , then the orbit is elliptical and eccentric. The orbit eccentricity lies
P P
between zero and one.

 The injection velocity is perigee and apogee distance attained in the resultant elliptical
orbit depends upon the injection velocity. The higher the injection velocity, the greater is
apogee distance.
 The apogee distance can be calculated from the known value of injection velocity.(i.e)the
velocity at perigee point is also the starting point.

µ µ Vdcos ʏ
Vp=√(2 )- (2 )= Eq3
P 2+ P P

V- Velocity at any point of orbit.

d- Distance d from the centre of the earth.

µ
 When the injection velocity equals (2 ), the apogee distance ‘A’ becomes infinite and
P
the orbit takes the shape of parabola and orbit eccentricity becomes one. This is second
cosmic velocity V2 at which satellite escapes out of gravitational pull is shown in the fig
1.43
 If the injection velocity is increased further, a stage is reached where the satellite
succeeds in escaping from the solar system. This is known as third cosmic velocity.

V3=√ ¿ ) -Vγ (3-2√ 2)] Eq4

Vγ- is the speed of earth’s revolution around the sun.

 In fact, for a given perigee distance P, it can be proved that that the injection velocities
and corresponding apogee distances are related by

(V2/V1)2= (1+P/A1)/ (1+ P/A2) Eq5

Fig1.43 Satellites path where the Injection velocity is greater to the second Orbital velocity

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1.5Orbital Perturbations

 The keplerian orbit described so far is ideal in the sense that it assumes that the earth is
uniform spherical mass & that force acting is the centrifugal force resulting from satellite
motion balancing the gravitational pull of the earth.
 But in practical, the other forces acting are
 Gravitation force of sun
 Gravitation force of moon
 Atmospheric drag

 The gravitational force of sun and gravitation force of moon are negligible in case
of LEO satellites. But have considerable effect on GEO stationary satellites.
 The atmospheric drag has low effect on GEO stationary satellites where as it
creates considerable effect on LEO satellites.
1.51 Effects of non spherical earth:
 For a spherical earth of uniform mass, Kepler’s third law gives the normal mean
motion n0 as
n0= õ/a3
 ‘0’ subscript is included as a reminder that this result applies for the spherical
earth of uniform mass.
 In earth, there occurs an equatorial bulge & flattening at the poles described as an
oblate spheroid.
 When the earths oblateness is taken in to account, the mean motion denoted by
symbol ‘n’ is modified in to
n=n0 [1+(k1{1-1.5sin2i})/(a2(1-e2)1.5)]
where k1=constant=66,0631.1704km2
 The earth’s oblateness has negligible effect on semi major axis and if semi major
axis ‘a’ is known, the mean motion is readily calculated.

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 The orbital period taking earth’s oblateness ‘m’ also in to account is termed as
Anomalistic period.
 The Animalistic period is given as
PA=2π/n
Where ’n’ is in radians per second.
Therefore [n= n0 [1+(k1{1-1.5sin2i})/(a2(1-e2)1.5)]]
It can be written as
[n= √ µ /¿ a3 ¿ [1+(k1{1-1.5sin2i})/(a2(1-e2)1.5)]
 Hence
n- √ µ /¿ a3 ¿ [1+(k1{1-1.5sin2i})/(a2(1-e2)1.5)]=0

Problem1
A satellite is orbiting in the equatorial plane with a period from perigee to perigee of
12h.Given that the eccentricity is 0.002.calculate the semi majoraxis .The earth’s
equatorial radius is 6378.1414km.Give data are e=0.002, i=0°,P=12h,
k1=66063.1704KM2
aE=6378.1414KM, µ=3.988005*1014m3/s2.

The mean motion is

We know
n=2π/P
=2π/12h
=1.454*10-4S-1
According to kepler’s third law
a= (µ/n2)1/3
On substitution of values, we get
a =26,610KM.

 The oblateness of the earth also produces two rotations of the orbital plane. They
are
 Regression of nodes
 Rotation of Apsides in the Orbital plane

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1.52Regression of nodes:

 It is where the nodes appear to slide along the equator.

 In effect, the line of nodes which is in the equatorial plane rotates about the
centre of earth.
 Thus Ὡ’ the Right ascension of ascending node shifts it position.
 If the orbit is prograde, the nodes slide westwards and if retrograde, lie
eastwards.
 The node therefore moves in a direction opposite to the direction of satellite
motion, hence the term called as regression of nodes.
 For polar orbit(i=90°), the regression is zero.
 The second effect is rotation of apsides in the orbital plane

K=(nk1)/a2(1-e2)2

Where ‘k’ is in radians per day or degrees/ day as per the unit of ‘n’.

 The rate of change of ‘Ὡ’ with respect to time is

dὩ
=-K cosi
dt

 The other major effect provided by the equatorial bulge is rotation of line of
apsides.
 The line rotates in the orbital plane resulting in the argument of perigee
changing with time
 The rate of change is given by

dѠ
=k (2-2,5sin2i)
dt

 Denoting the epoch time t0, the right ascension of ascending node by Ὡ0 and
the argument of perigee w0 at epoch gives the new values of Ὡ and Ѡ at
time t is

dὩ
Ὡ= Ὡ0+ ¿t-t0)
dt

dѠ
Ѡ = Ѡ 0+ (t-to)
dt

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Problem2
Determine the rate of regression of nodes and the rate of rotation of apsides for the given
satellite parameters.
i=98.6328°,
e=.00011501,
NN=14.22304826day-1,
A=7192.335KM
K1=66063.1704KM2
Converting ‘n’ in to radians per second
N=2πNN
=2π*14.22304826day-1,
=0.00104rad/s
We know
K=nK1/a2(1-e2)2
=6.544deg/day
Therefore
We know

dὩ
=-K cosi
dt

On substitution k=6.544deg/day and i=98.6328° in the above formula

dὩ
= 0.981 deg/day
dt

We know

dѠ
= k(2-2,5sin2i)
dt

On substitution k=6.544deg/day and i=98.6328° in the above formula

dѠ
=-2.904deg/day.
dt

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Problem3

Calculate for the satellite in above problem, the new values for Ѡ and Ὡ one period after
epoch.

NN=14.22304826day-1,
Ѡ0=113.5534°
Ὡ0=251.5324°
The Anomalistic period is
PA=1/NN
=0.070259day
(I.e.) PA is also the time difference (t-t0) since the satellite has completed one revolution
from perigee to perigee
Hence
dὩ
Ὡ=Ὡ0 + (t-t0)
dt
=251.5324+0.981(0.070259)
=251.601°
dѠ
Ѡ=Ѡ0+ (t-t0)
dt
=113.5534+(-2.903)(0.070259)
=113.349°

1.53 Atmospheric Drag

 For near Earth satellites below 1000KM, the effect of atmosphere drag is significant.
 Since the drag is greatest at perigee, the drag acts to reduce the velocity at this point.
Hence the satellite could not reach the apogee height on successive revolutions.
 As a result, semi major axis ‘a’ and the eccentricity ‘e’ are both reduced.
 Therefore

A=a0 [n0/{ n0+ n01(t-t0)}]2/3

 Where ‘0’ subscript denote values at the reference time t0 and n0I is the first derivative of
mean motion.
 The mean anomaly is also changed

δM=n0I/2(t-t0)2

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1.6 Satellite stabilization

 The commonly used techniques for satellite communication are

 Spin stabilization
 Three axis or Body stabilization

1.61 Spin stabilization:

 In a spin stabilized satellite, the satellite body spun at a rate between 30 to
100rpm about an axis perpendicular to orbital plane is shown in the Fig1.61
 Like a spinning top, the rotating body offers inertial stiffness, which prevents the
satellite from its desired orientation.
 Spin stabilized satellites are generally cylindrical in nature.
 For stability, the satellite should spun about its major axis having maximum
moment of inertia.
 To maintain stability, moment of inertia about the desired spin axis should be
atleast 10% above the moment of inertia about the transverse axis.
Fig1.61 Spin stabilized satellite

1.611 Spin satellite stabilization:

 There are two types of spinning configurations employed in spin stabilized
satellites.They are Simple spinner configuration and Dual spinner configuration.
 In simple spinner configuration, the satellite payload and other subsystems are
placed in spinning sections where as the antenna and the feed are placed in de-

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spun platform.The de-spun platform platform spuns in a direction opposite to that

of spinning satellite body.
 In Dual spinner configuration, the entire payload along with antenna and feed is
kept on Dual spinner platform and other subsystems are located on the spinning
body.
Example:
 Intelsat-1 to 4 and TIROS-1 are some of the examples of spinning satellites.

1.62 Three axis or Body stabilization

 Here the stabilization is achieved by controlling the movement of satellite along
three axis called Yaw axis, pitch axis and Roll axis is shown in the Fig1.62
below
 The system uses reaction wheels or momentum wheels to correct orbit perturb
rations.
 The stability of the three axis system is provided by active control system, which
applies small corrective force on the wheels to correct the undesirable changes in
the satellite orbit.
 Yaw axis is directed towards earths centre, pitch axis is seen normal to the orbital
plane and the pitch axis is perpendicular to yaw and pitch axis.
 The basic control technique used here is to speed up or slow down the momentum
wheel depending upon the direction in which satellite is perturbed,
 The satellite rotates in a direction opposite to that of the speed change of wheel
(i.e.) an increase in speed of wheel in the clockwise direction will make the
satellite to
rotate in counterclockwise direction. The momentum will rotate in one direction
and
Can be twisted by glimbal mirror to provide the required force on satellite.
 An alternative approach is to use reaction wheels. Three wheels are used one for
Pitch axis, one for yaw axis and one for Roll axis. They can be rotated in either
direction depending upon action correction force.

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Fig1.62 Three Axis Stabilization

1.63 Comparison between Spin satellite stabilization satellite and three axis or Body
stabilization satellite

S.N Spin satellite stabilization satellite Three axis or Body stabilization

o satellite

1.
Less power generation capacity More power generation capacity
2. Less mounting area available for More mounting area available for
complex antenna structures complex antenna structures
3. Simpler in design and less expensive Complex in design and less expensive

4. No provisions for extra solar panels provisions for extra solar panels

5. It is not durable for long time It is durable for long time’

The only disadvantage is that extended
solar arrays are unable to provide power
when the satellite is in transfer orbitas
the arrays are still stopped inside the
satellite during this time.

1.64 Station keeping

 It is the process of maintenance of satellites against different factors that cause temporal
drift.
 The orbital adjustments are made by releasing jets of gas or by firing small rockets tied to
the body of the satellite.

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 In case of spin stabilization satellites, station keeping in the north south direction is
maintained by firing thrusters parallel to the spin axis in a continuous mode.
 The east west station keeping is obtained by firing thruster’s perpendicular to the spin
axis.
 In case of three axis stabilization, station keeping is achieved by firing thrusters either in
east -west direction or north- south direction.

1.7 Orbital effects on satellite performance

 The various effects are

 Doppler effect
 Effect due to variation in orbital distance
 Effect of Solar Eclipse
 Sun transit Outrage

1.71 Doppler Shift:

 The GEO stationary satellites appears stationary with respect to earth’s terminal
where as in the case of LEO satellites, the satellite is in relative motion with respect
to terminal.
 in the case of GEO stationary satellites, the frequency of the satellite transmitter
varies with respect to the Receiver on the earth’s station terminal.
 If the frequency transmitted by the satellite is fR, then the received frequency is given
by

[ (fR-fT )/fT]= (∆F/fT)=(VT/Vp)

VT- Satellite transmitter velocity vector directed towards the earth station.
Vp- Phase velocity of light in free space
fT- Transmitted frequency
FR-Received frequency

1.72 Effect due to variation in orbital distance:

 Variation in the orbital distance results in the range between the satellite and earth
station terminal.
 If TDMA scheme is employed by the satellite and earth station terminal, the timing of
frames with in TDMA bursts should be carefully worned out such that the user terminals
receive correct data at correct time.

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1.73 Solar Eclipse:

 There are some time when the satellites do not receive sun light due to obstruction from
celestial body.
 During these periods the satellites operate from batteries available onboard. The battery
capacity has been calculated such that it could return necessary power during eclipse
period.

1.74 Sun transit Outrage

 This is the time when the satellite directly passes between sun and the earth is shown in
the Fig1.71
 During this period, the earth station antenna receives signals from satellite as well as the
 Since the sun emits radiation from 6000°K to 11,000°K depending upon the time of 11
year sunspot cycle, this might cause temporary outrage if the magnitude of solar radiation
exceeds the fade margin of the receiver.
Fig1.71 Sun Outrage Conditions microwave radiation emitted by sun.

1.8 Eclipse

The eclipse can be classified in to two types as

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 Solar eclipse
 Lunar eclipse
 Eclipse due to earth for GEO stationary satellites
 Sun Transit Outrage

1.81 Solar Eclipse:

 It occurs if the earth’s equatorial plane coincides with the plane of earth’s orbit
around the sun is shown in the fig1.81
 Since the equatorial plane is tilted at an angle of 23.4° to the ecliptic plane, it
keeps the satellite in full view of the sun for most of the days.
 During spring and autumn equinoxes, when the sun crosses the equator, the
satellite does pass in to earth’s shadow at certain periods. This period being the
eclipse is shown in the fig1.82
 Eclipses begins 23 days before Equinox and end 23 days after Equinox is shown
in the fig1.83
 The eclipse period would extend up to 72 minutes at full eclipse.
 During the eclipse period, the solar cells do not function and operating power
must be supplied from batteries.

Fig1.81- Solar Eclipse

Fig1.82 Position of GEO stationary satellites during Equinoxes and Solstices

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Fig1.83 Duration of Eclipse before and after Equinoxes

1.82 Lunar eclipse:

 The lunar eclipse occurs when the moons shadow passes across the satellite. This
occurs once in 29 years is shown in the fig1.84

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 During the eclipse period, the satellite is depleted of its electrical power capacity
as the sunlight fails to reach it.

Fig1.84 Lunar Eclipse

1.83 Eclipse due to earth for GEO stationary satellites:

 The GEO stationary satellites would be eclipsed by the earth once in a day.
 The satellite east of Earth station enters eclipse during day light and early evening hours
at the earth station.
 The satellite west of Earth station enters eclipse during night time and early morning
hours at the earth station.
 Thus satellites longitudes which are west rather than the east of earth station is mostly
preferred.

1.84 Sun Transit Outrage:

 Some time the satellite passes directly between the sun and the earth.
 During this period, the earth station antenna receives signals from satellite as well as the
microwave radiation emitted by sun.

1.9 Antenna Look Angles

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 A satellite in a Geo stationary orbit appears to be stationary with respect to the earth ,
hence the name stationary.
 Three conditions are required for an orbit to be Geo stationary.
 The satellite should travel eastwards at the same rotational speed as earth.
 The orbit must be circular.
 The inclination of the orbit must be zero.

aGSO=(µP/4π2)1/3 eq1

 The period ‘P’ for the Geostationary satellite is 23H, 56Minutes and 4 seconds mean
solar time.

Hence aGSO= 42,164 KM eq2

And hence the Geostationary height is

hGSO= aGSO- aE eq3

=42164KM-6378KM

=35786KM

 The look angles for the ground station antenna are the Azimuth and Elevation angles
required at the antenna so that it points directly at the satellite.
 The look angles were determined and in case of elliptical orbit, the angles had to be
changed in order to track the satellite.
 The three parameters that are needed to determine the look angles for GEO satellites
are
 The earth station latitude denoted by’ λE’
 The earth station longitude denoted by ‘φE’
 The longitude of subsatellite point denoted by φSS’
 The latitude north will be taken as positive angles and latitude south will be taken as
negative angles.
 The longitude east of Greenwich meridian is taken as positive angles and longitudes west
of Greenwich meridian is taken as negative angles.
 Example: Latitude of 40°S(south) is specified as -40° and longitude of 35°W(west) is
considered as negative.
 For GEO satellites the variation in earth radius is considered to be negligible. So it is
taken as

R=6371KM

Fig1.91 The geometry used in locating Look angles

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Fig1.92 The spherical Geometry related to Fig1.91

Fig1.93-The plane triangle obtained from Fig1.91

 The Geometry involving these quantities is mentioned below

 There are two triangles involved in this geometry are shown in fig1.92 and fig 1.93

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 Consider the spherical triangle in fig1.92 in which sides are all arcs of great circles and
these sides are defined by angles subtended by them at the centre of the earth.
 Side ‘a’ is the angle between the radius to the North Pole and the radius to the sub
satellite point, it is seemed to be 90°.
 Angle ‘b’ is the angle between the radius to the earth station and the radius to sub satellite
point.
 Angle ‘c’ is the angle between the radius to earth station and the radius to North Pole.

(i.e) c=90°-λE

 There are six angles availed in the spherical triangle.

 The three angles ‘A’, ‘B’ and ‘C’ are the angles between planes ‘
 Angle ‘A’ is the angle between the plane containing ‘c’ and plane containing ‘b’.
 Angle ‘B’ is angle between the plane containing ‘c’ and the plane containing ‘a’.
 B=φE-φSS(It will be shown that the angle between that the maximum value of ‘B’ is 81.3°.
 Angle ‘C’ is the angle between the plane containing ‘b’ and the plane containing ‘a’.
 On summarization, from spherical triangle
 a=90°
 c=90°-λc
 B=φE-φSS
 When the earth station is west of the subsatellite point, ‘B’ is negative and when east’B’
is positive.
 When the earth station latitude is north ‘c’ is less the 90° and when the earth station
latitude is south, ‘c’ is greater than ‘90°’.
 Special rules known as Napier rules are used to solve the spherical triangle.
 The Napier rule gives angle ‘b’ as
 b=arc cos [cos (B) cos (λc)] and eq5
 Angle ‘A’ is given as
 A=arc sin[sin(sin|B| )/sin(b)] eq6
 The Azimuth angles related to ‘A’ is given in the following diagram Fig1.94 and
from the Table 1.91
 Two values will satisfy eq6, ‘A’ and ‘180°-A’ and determined by inspection of the
Fig1.94.
 First Condition:
When Angle λE ˂90° and ‘B’˂90° then AZ=A
 Second condition:
When Angle λE ˂90° and ‘B’>90° then AZ=360°-A
 Third condition:
When Angle λE >90° and ‘B’˂90° then AZ=180°-A
 Fourth condition:
When Angle λE >90° and ‘B’>90° then AZ=180°+A

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Fig1.94 Azimuth angles related to angle ‘A’

Table 1.91-Azimuth angles Az from fig 1.94

Fig 5-8 λE B AZ degrees

Fig5 ¿0 ¿0 A
Fig6 ¿0 ¿0 360°-A
Fig7 ¿0 ¿0 180°-A
Fig8 ¿0 ¿0 180°+A

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