Orbits and Launching Methods

Introduction
Satellites (spacecraft) orbiting the earth follow the same laws that
govern the motion of the planets around the sun. From early times
much has been learned about planetary motion through careful
observations.
Johannes Kepler derived empirically three laws describing
planetary motion. Later Sir Isaac Newton derived Kepler’s laws from
his own laws of mechanics and theory of gravitation.
Kepler’s laws apply quite generally to any two bodies in space
which interact through gravitation. The more massive of the two
bodies is referred to as the primary, the other, the secondary or
satellite.

Kepler’s three laws of planetary motion

Kepler’s laws apply to any two bodies interacting in space
through gravitation, the more massive of the two being the primary
and the other the secondary or the satellite.
KepIer’s First Law
Keplers first law states that the path followed by a satellite
around the primary will be an ellipse.

• An ellipse has two focal points shown as F1 and F2 in Fig. 2.1.

The center of mass of the two-body system, termed as barycenter is
always centered on one of the foci.

• ln our specific case, because of the enormous difference between

the masses of the earth and the satellite, the center of mass coincides
with the center of the earth, which is therefore always at one of the
foci.

• The semimajor axis of the ellipse is denoted by a, and the

semiminor axis, by b. The eccentricity e is given by
• Two of the orbital parameters specified for satellites (spacecraft) orbiting
the earth are the eccentricity e and the semimajor axis, a . For an elliptical orbit,
0 <e< 1. When e = 0, the orbit becomes circular.

Kepler’s Second Law

Kepler’s second law states that, for equal time intervals, a satellite
will sweep out equal areas in its orbital plane, focused at the
barycenter.

• Assume the satellite travels distances S1 and S2 meters in 1 s,

then the areas A1 and A2 will be equal.
• The average velocity in each case is S1 and S2 m/s, and
because of the equal area law, it follows that the velocity at S2 is less
than that at S1.
• An important consequence of this is that the satellite takes longer to
travel a given distance when it is farther away from earth. This property can be
made use to increase the length of time a satellite can be seen from particular
geographic regions of the earth.
Kepler’s Third Law

Kepler’s third law states that the square of the periodic time of
orbit is proportional to the cube of the mean distance between the
two bodies.
• The orbital period in seconds is P and the mean distance is
equal to the semimajor axis a.

• The orbital period P is defined as the time, the orbiting body takes to
return to the same reference point in space with respect to the inertial space.
• P can be written as
• where n is the mean motion of the satellite in radians per
second.
• Then or
• For the artificial satellites orbiting the earth, Kepler’s third law can be
written in the form
where n is the mean motion of the satellite in radians per second and
is the earth’s geocentric gravitational constant or Kepler's constant.
Its value is
• This equation applies only to the ideal situation of a satellite orbiting a
perfectly spherical earth of uniform mass, with no perturbing forces acting, such
as atmospheric drag
• The importance of Kepler’s third law is that it shows there
is a fixed relationship between period and semimajor axis. One very
important orbit , known as the geostationary orbit, is determined by
the rotational period of the earth
• another importance of this law is that it is used to find the
period of the orbit of any satellite and is used in GPS receivers to
calculate positions of GPS satellite.

Explain the three features the orbit of a satellite needs to have to be perfectly
geostationary.
• It must be exactly circular (ie e=0)
• it must be at the correct altitude (ie have the correct period)
• it must be in the plane of equator (ie have a zero inclination with respect
to the equator).
If the inclination is note zero and/ or if the eccentricity is not zero, but the
orbital period is correct then the satellite will be in geosynchronous orbit.

Definitions of Terms for Earth-Orbiting Satellites

OR

Terms used to describe the position of the orbit with respect to the earth.

1. Subsatellite path. This is the path traced out on the earth’s

surface
directly below the satellite.

2. Apogee. The point farthest from earth. Apogee height is shown as

ha
in Fig. 2.3.
3. Perigee. The point of closest approach to earth. The perigee height
is shown as hp in Fig. 2.3.

4. Line of apsides. The line joining the perigee and apogee through
the
center of the earth.
5. Ascending node. The point where the orbit crosses the equatorial
plane going from south to north.

6. Descending node. The point where the orbit crosses the

equatorial plane going from north to south.

7. Line of nodes. The line joining the ascending and descending

nodes through the center of the earth.

8. Inclination. The angle between the orbital plane and the earth’s
equatorial plane. It is measured at the ascending node from the
equator to the orbit, going from east to north. The inclination is
shown as i in Fig. 2.3. It will be seen that the greatest latitude, north
or south, reached by the subsatellite path is equal to the inclination.
9. Prograde orbit. An orbit in which the satellite moves in the same
direction as the earth’s rotation, as shown in Fig. 2.4. The prograde
orbit is also known as a direct orbit. The inclination of a prograde
orbit always lies between 0° and 90°.
Most satellites are launched in a prograde orbit because the earth’s
rotational velocity provides part of the orbital velocity with a
consequent saving in launch energy.
10. Retrograde orbit. An orbit in which the satellite moves in a
direction counter to the earth’s rotation, as shown in Fig. 2.4. The
inclination of a retrograde orbit always lies between 90° and 180°

Argument of perigee. The angle from ascending node to perigee,

measured in the orbital plane at the earth’s center, in the direction of
satellite motion. The argument of perigee is shown as w in Fig. 2.5.

Right ascension of the ascending node. To define completely the

position of the orbit in space, the position of the ascending node is
specified. However, because the earth spins, while the orbital plane
remains stationary the longitude of the ascending node is not fixed,
and it cannot be used as an absolute reference. For the practical
determination of an orbit, the longitude and time of crossing of the
ascending node are frequently used. However,for an absolute
measurement, a fixed reference in space is required. The reference
chosen is the first point of Aries, otherwise known as the
vernal, or spring, equinox.
The vernal equinox occurs when the sun crosses the equator
going from south to north, and an imaginary line drawn from this
equatorial crossing through the center of the sun points to the first
point of Aries (symbol ϒ). This is the line of Aries. The right
ascension of the ascending node is then the angle measured
eastward, in the equatorial plane, from the ϒ line to the ascending
node, shown as Ω in Fig. 2.5.

Mean anomaly. Mean anomaly M gives an average value of the

angular position of the satellite with reference to the perigee. For a
circular orbit, M gives the angular position of the satellite in the
orbit. For elliptical orbit, the position is much more difficult to
calculate.
True anomaly. The true anomaly is the angle from perigee to the
satellite position, measured at the earth’s center. This gives the true
angular position of the satellite in the orbit as a function of time.
True anomaly

satellite

Orbital Elements

Earth-orbiting artificial satellites are defined by six orbital elements

referred to as the keplerian element set.
• Semimajor axis a
• Eccentricity e
a and e give the shape of the ellipse.
• Mean anomaly M0, gives the position of the satellite in its orbit
at a reference time known as the epoch.
• Argument of perigee w, gives the rotation of the orbit’s perigee
point relative to the orbit’s line of nodes in the earth’s equatorial
plane. It is shown in figure 2.5.
• Inclination i
• Right ascension of the ascending node Ω
i and Ω relate the orbital plane’s position to the earth.
[Note: write the definition of these terms.]
Because the equatorial bulge causes slow variations in w and Ω, and
because other perturbing forces may alter the orbital elements
slightly, the values are specified for the reference time or epoch, and
thus the epoch also must be specified.

Two-line elements
Two line elements contains a great deal of general information
on polar orbiting satellites as well as weather satellites in the
geostationary orbit.
Figure 2.6 shows how to interpret the NASA (National Aeronautics
and Space Administration) two-line elements.

Apogee and Perigee Heights

Although not specified as orbital elements, the apogee height
and perigee height are often required.
The length of the radius vectors at apogee and perigee can be
obtained from the geometry of the ellipse:
ra = a(1+e)
rp = a(1-e)
In order to find the apogee and perigee heights, the radius of the
earth must be subtracted from the radii lengths.
Conic section

Orbit Perturbations
The keplerian orbit is ideal in the sense that it assumes that the
earth is a uniform spherical mass and that the only force acting is
the centrifugal force resulting from satellite motion balancing the
gravitational pull of the earth.
In practice, other forces which can be significant are
a) asymmetry of earth's gravitational fields( due to
nonsherical earth)
b)the gravitational forces of the sun and the moon
c) solar radiation pressure
• atmospheric drag.

• All these interfering forces cause the true orbit to be different

from Keplerian ellipse.
• The gravitational pulls of sun and moon have negligible effect
on low-orbiting satellites, but they do affect satellites in the
geostationary orbit.
• Atmospheric drag, on the other hand, has negligible effect on
geostationary satellites but does affect low orbiting earth satellites
below about 1000 km.
• External influences causes changes in longitude and
inclination.

a) Effects of a nonspherical earth

• The earth is neither a perfect sphere nor a perfect ellipse.
• However, there being an equatorial bulge and a flattening at
the poles, a shape described as an oblate spheroid.
• There are regions where the average density of the earth
appears to be higher. These are called as regions of mass
concentration or Mascons.
• The nonshericity of earth , the noncircularity of the equitorial
radius, and the Mascons lead to a nonuniform gravitational field
around the earth. The force on an orbiting satellite will therefore
vary with position.
• For a spherical earth of uniform mass, Kepler’s third law gives
the nominal mean motion n0 as

• The 0 subscript is included for a perfectly spherical earth of

uniform mass.
• When the earth’s oblateness is taken into account, the mean
motion, denoted as n, is modified to

• K1 is a constant which evaluates to 66,063.1704 km2.

• The earth’s oblateness has negligible effect on the semimajor
axis a, and if a is known, the mean motion is readily calculated.
• The orbital period taking into account the earth’s oblateness is
termed the anomalistic period (e.g., from perigee to perigee). Because
satellite does not return to the same point in space once per
revolution.
• The mean motion specified in the NASA bulletins is the
reciprocal of the anomalistic period.
• The anomalistic period is
• where n is in radians per second.
• Steps for finding a is
• If the known quantity is n one can solve for a, by finding the
root of the following equation:
• The oblateness of the earth also produces two rotations of the
orbital plane.
• 1. regression of the nodes,
2. rotation of line of apsides in the orbital plane
• 1. Regression of the nodes is where the nodes appear to slide
along the equator.

• In effect, the line of nodes, which is in the equatorial plane,

rotates about the center of the earth. Thus Ω, the right ascension of
the ascending node, shifts its position.
• If the orbit is prograde , the nodes slide westward, and if
retrograde, they slide eastward.
• As seen from the ascending node, a satellite in prograde orbit
moves eastward, and in a retrograde orbit, westward.
• The nodes therefore move in a direction opposite to the
direction of satellite motion, hence the term regression of the nodes.
• For a polar orbit (i = 90°), the regression is zero.

• Both effects (1 and 2) depend on the mean motion n, the

semimajor axis a, and the eccentricity e. These factors can be grouped
into one factor K given by

• K will have the same units as n. Thus, with n in rad/day, K will

be in rad/day, and with n in degrees/day, K will be in degrees/day. An
approximate expression for the rate of change of Ω with respect to
time is
• where i is the inclination. The rate of regression of the nodes
will have the same units as n.
• When the rate of change given by the above equation is
negative, the regression is westward, and when the rate is positive,
the regression is eastward. d Ω/dt => positive => eastward
d Ω/dt => negative => westward
• It will be seen, therefore that for eastward regression, i must be
greater than 90o, or the orbit must be retrograde.
Cos(0 to 90 ) is positive and cos( 90 to 180) is negative
• It is possible to choose values of a, e, and i such that the rate of
rotation is 0.9856°/day eastward. Such an orbit is said to be sun
synchronous

• 2. Rotation of line of apsides in the orbital plane,

• Line of apsides. The line joining the perigee and apogee
through the center of the earth.
• The other major effect produced by the equatorial bulge is a
rotation of the line of apsides.
• This line rotates in the orbital plane, resulting in the argument
of perigee changing with time. The rate of change is given by

• The units for the rate of rotation of the line of apsides will be
the same as those for n
• When the inclination i is equal to 63.435°, the term within the
parentheses is equal to zero, and hence no rotation takes place.

• Denoting the epoch time by t0, the right ascension of the

ascending
node by Ω0, and the argument of perigee by w0 at epoch gives the
new values for Ω and w at time t as

• The orbit is not a physical entity, and it is the forces resulting

from an oblate earth, which act on the satellite to produce the
changes in the orbital parameters.
• Thus, rather than follow a closed elliptical path in a fixed plane,
the satellite drifts as a result of the regression of the nodes, and the
latitude of the point of closest approach (the perigee) changes as a
result of the rotation of the line of apsides.
• With this in mind, it is permissible to visualize the satellite as
following a closed elliptical orbit but with the orbit itself moving
relative to the earth as a result of the changes in Ω and w.
• So, The period PA is the time required to go around the orbital
path from perigee to perigee, even though the perigee has moved
relative to the earth.
• If the inclination is 90° ,

• the regression of the nodes is zero ,

• the rate of rotation of the line of apsides is dω/dt = −K/2

• Imagine the situation where the perigee at the start of

observations is exactly over the ascending node. One period later the
perigee would be at an angle −KPA/2 relative to the ascending node
or, in other words, would be south of the equator.
•
• The time between crossings at the ascending node would be
PA (1+ K/2n), which would be the period observed from the earth.

• In addition to the equatorial bulge, the earth is not perfectly

circular
in the equatorial plane; it has a small eccentricity of the order of
10−5.
• This is referred to as the equatorial ellipticity.
• The effect of the equatorial ellipticity is to set up a gravity
gradient, which has a pronounced effect on satellites in geostationary
orbit .
• A satellite in geostationary orbit ideally should remain fixed
relative to the earth.
• The gravity gradient causes the satellites in geostationary orbit
to drift to one of two stable points, which coincide with the minor axis
of the equatorial ellipse.
• Due to the positions of mascons and equitorial bulges there are
four equilibrium points in the geostationary orbit.
• Two are stable and the other two are unstable.
• These two stable points are separated by 180° on the equator
and are at approximately 75° E longitude and 105° W longitude.
• Satellites in service are prevented from drifting to these points
through station-keeping maneuvers.
• Because old, out-of-service satellites eventually do drift to these
points, they are referred to as “satellite graveyards.”
• The effect of equatorial ellipticity is negligible on most other
satellite orbits.

d) Atmospheric drag
• For near-earth satellites, below about 1000 km, the effects of
atmospheric drag are significant.
• Because the drag is greatest at the perigee, the drag acts to
reduce the velocity at this point, with the result that the satellite
does not reach the same apogee height on successive revolutions.
• The result is that the semimajor axis and the eccentricity are
both reduced.
• Drag does not noticeably change the other orbital parameters,
including perigee height.
• In the program used for generating the orbital elements given
in the NASA bulletins, a pseudo-drag term is generated, which is
equal to one-half the rate of change of mean motion.
• An approximate expression for the change of major axis can be
derived as follows
• The change in mean motion,n is

• where the “0” subscripts denote values at the reference time t0,
and
• is the first derivative of the mean motion.
• The mean anomaly is also changed, an approximate value for
the change being:
• The changes resulting from the drag term will be significant
only for long time intervals, and for present purposes it will be
ignored.

Inclined Orbits
• The orbital elements are defined with reference to the plane of
the orbit.
• The position of the plane of the orbit is fixed (or slowly varying)
in space.
• The location of the earth station is usually given in terms of the
local geographic coordinates which rotate with the earth. And the
earth station quantities may be the azimuth and elevation angles
and range.
• In calculations of satellite position and velocity in space,
rectangular coordinate systems are generally used .
• So transformations between coordinate systems are therefore
required.
• Calculation for elliptical inclined orbits:- the first step is to find
the earth station look angles and range
• The look angles for the ground station antenna are the azimuth
and elevation angles required at the antenna so that it points directly
at the satellite.
• Elevation is measured upward from local horizontal plane

• Azimuth is measured from north eastward to the projection of

the satellite path onto the local horizontal plane

• Determination of the look angles and range:

The quantities used are
1. The orbital elements,
2. Various measures of time
3. The perifocal coordinate system, which is based on the orbital
plane
4. The geocentric-equatorial coordinate system, which is based on the
earth’s equatorial plane
5. The topocentric-horizon coordinate system, which is based on the
observer’s horizon plane.
• The satellites with inclined orbits are not geostationary, and
therefore, the required look angles and range will change with time.
• The two major coordinate transformations needed are:
• ■ The satellite position measured in the perifocal system is
transformed to the geocentric-horizon system in which the earth’s
rotation is measured, thus enabling the satellite position and the
earth station location to be coordinated.
• ■ The satellite-to-earth station position vector is transformed
to the topocentric-horizon system, which enables the look angles and
range to be calculated.

Calendars
• A calendar is a time-keeping device in which the year is divided
into months, weeks, and days.
• Calendar days are units of time based on the earth’s motion
relative to the sun.
• It is more convenient to think of the sun moving relative to the
earth.
• But this motion is not uniform, and so a fictitious sun, termed
the mean sun, is introduced.
• The mean sun does move at a uniform speed but requires the
same time as the real sun to complete one orbit of the earth.
• Ie period of mean sun = period of real sun.
• This time being the tropical year.
• A day measured relative to this mean sun is termed a mean
solar day.
• Calendar days are mean solar days.
• A tropical year contains 365.2422 days.
• In order to make the calendar year, also referred to as the civil
year, it is normally divided into 365 days.
• The extra 0.2422 of a day is significant, and for example, after
100 years, there would be a discrepancy of 24 days between the
calendar year and the tropical year.
•
• Julius Caesar made the first attempt to correct the discrepancy
by introducing the leap year, in which an extra day is added to
February whenever the year number is divisible by 4.
• This gave the Julian calendar, in which the civil year was
365.25 days on average, a reasonable approximation to the tropical
year.
• Again a difference of days per year exists.
•
• ie On every 400 years we are actually adding an extra 3 days.
• By the year 1582, an appreciable discrepancy once again
existed between the civil and tropical years. Pope Gregory XIII took
matters in hand by abolishing the days October 5 through October
14, 1582, to bring the civil and tropical years into line and by placing
an additional constraint on the leap year in that years ending in two
zeros must be divisible by 400 without remainder to be reckoned as
leap years.
• This dodge was used to miss out 3 days every 400 years.
• To see this, let the year be written as X00 where X stands for
the hundreds. For example, for 1900, X = 19. For X00 to be divisible
by 400, X must be divisible by 4. Now a succession of 400 years can
be written as X+ n, X+ (n+ 1), X + (n + 2), X + (n + 3),X + (n +
4),where n is any integer from 0 to 9. If X+ n is evenly divisible by 4,
then the adjoining three numbers are not, so these three years would
have to be omitted.
• For example let us take X= 20 and n=0; then in the years 2000,
2100,2200, 2300, 2400, 0nly 2000 and 2400 area leap year and the
remaining are not even though it is divisible by 4.
• The resulting calendar is the Gregorian calendar, which is the
one in use today.

Universal time
• Universal time coordinated (UTC) is the time used for all civil
time–keeping purposes.
• And it is the time reference which is broadcast by the National
Bureau of Standards as a standard for setting clocks.
• It is based on an atomic time-frequency standard.
• The fundamental unit for UTC is the mean solar day.
• In terms of “clock time,” the mean solar day is divided into 24 h,
an hour into 60 min, and a minute into 60 s. Thus there are 86,400
“clock seconds” in a mean solar day.
• Satellite-orbit epoch time is given in terms of UTC.
• Universal time is equivalent to Greenwich mean time (GMT),
as well as Zulu (Z) time.
• For computations, UT will be required in two forms: as a
fraction of a day and in degrees.
• Given UT in the normal form of hours, minutes, and seconds, it
is converted to fractional days as
or

• In turn, this may be converted to degrees as

Sidereal time
• Sidereal time is time measured relative to the fixed stars.

• One complete rotation of the earth relative to the fixed stars is

not a complete rotation relative to the sun.
• This is because the earth moves in its orbit around the sun.
• The sidereal day is defined as one complete rotation of the earth
relative to the fixed stars.
• One sidereal day has 24 sidereal hours, 1 sidereal hour has 60
sidereal minutes, and 1 sidereal minute has 60 sidereal seconds.
• But sidereal times and mean solar times, are different even
though both use the same basic subdivisions.
• The relationships between the two systems,
• 1 mean solar day= 1.0027379093 mean sidereal days
= 24h and (0.0027379093 x 24 )hrs
= 24 hrs 0.065709823 hrs
= 24 hrs (0. 065709823 x 60) min
= 24 hrs 3.942589392 min
= 24 hrs 3 m (0.942589392 x 60) sec
= 24 h 3 m 56.55536 s sidereal time

= 56.55536 + 3 x 60 + 24 x 60 x 60
= 86,636.55536 mean sidereal seconds

• 1 mean sidereal day = (1/1.0027379093 ) mean solar days

= 0.9972695664 mean solar days
= 23 h 56 m 04.09054 s mean solar time
= 86,164.09054 mean solar seconds
The orbital plane
or
perifocal coordinate system
• In the orbital plane, the position vector r and the velocity vector
v specify the motion of the satellite.

• Determination of position vector r : From the geometry of the

ellipse
and

• r can also be calculated using

• Determination of the true anomaly , v can be done in 2 stages

Stage 1 : Find the mean anomaly M .
Stage 2 : Solve Kepler’s equation.
• Stage 1: The mean anomaly M at time t can be found as

• Here, n is the mean motion, and Tp is the time of perigee

passage.
• For the NASA elements,

• Therefore,
• Substitute for Tp gives
• Stage 2 : Solve Kepler’s equation.
• Kepler’s equation is formulated as follows
• [.........

In satellite orbital calculations, time is often measured from the

instant of perigee passage. Denote the time of perigee passage as T
and any instant of time after perigee passage as t. Then the time
interval of significance is t - T. Let A be the area swept out in this
time interval, and let Tp be the periodic time. Then, from Kepler’s
second law,
The mean motion is n = 2π/Tp and the mean anomaly is M = n (t -
T). Combining these
Combining
c= ae is the perigee, position of earth. So area is swept for the time t-
T is A
Earlier we got the area as

combining these equations

This is the Kepler’s equation....................................]
• Kepler’s equation is

E is the eccentric anomaly.

• Once E is found, v can be found from an equation known as
Gauss’ equation, which is
• For near-circular orbits where the eccentricity is small, an
approximation for v directly in terms of M is
• r may be expressed in vector form in the perifocal coordinate
system (0r PQW frame) as r = (r cos v )P + (r sin v)Q

Local Mean Solar Time and

Sun-Synchronous Orbits
• The celestial sphere is an imaginary sphere of infinite radius,
where the points on the surface of the sphere represent stars or other
celestial objects.

• The celestial equatorial plane coincides with the earth’s

equatorial plane, and the direction of the north celestial pole
coincides with the earth’s polar axis.
• The the sun’s meridian is shown in figure .
• line of Aries is
• The angular distance along the celestial equator, measured
eastward from the point of Aries to the sun’s meridian is the right
ascension of the sun, denoted by S.
• In general, the right ascension of a point P, is the angle,
measured eastward along the celestial equator from the point of
Aries to the meridian passing through P. This is shown as P.
• The hour angle of a star is the angle measured westward along
the celestial equator from the meridian to meridian of the star. Thus
for point P the hour angle of the sun is (P − S) measured westward
• In astronomy, an object's hour angle (HA) is defined as the
difference between the current local sidereal time (LST) and the right
ascension (α) of the object.
hour angle = local sidereal time (LST) - right ascension
• 1 HA = 15 degrees
• ie right ascension of the sun → S
right ascension of a point P → P
for point P the hour angle of the sun is (P − S)
• The apparent solar time of point P is the local hour angle of the
sun, expressed in hours, plus 12 h.
Ie apparent solar time of point P =LHA of the sun+
12 h
• The 12 h is added because zero hour angle corresponds to
midday, when the P meridian coincides with the sun’s meridian.
• Because the earth’s path around the sun is elliptical rather
than circular, and also because the plane containing the path of the
earth’s orbit around the sun (the ecliptic plane) is inclined at an
angle of approximately 23.44°, the apparent solar time does not
measure out uniform intervals along the celestial equator, in other
words, the length of a solar day depends on the position of the earth
relative to the sun.
• To overcome this difficulty a fictitious mean sun is introduced,
which travels in uniform circular motion around the sun.
• The time determined in this way is the mean solar time.

• Figure shows the trace of a satellite orbit on the celestial

sphere.
• Point A corresponds to the ascending node.
• The hour angle of the sun from the ascending node of the
satellite is Ω - S measured westward.
• The hour angle of the sun from the satellite (projected to S on
the celestial sphere) is Ω - S +β .
• thus the local mean (solar) time is
since 1 degree = 1/15 HA (hour angle)
• To find β:- Consider the spherical triangle defined by the points
ASB.
• This is a right spherical triangle because the angle between the
meridian plane through S ( projection of satellite) and the equatorial
plane is a right angle.
• The triangle contains the inclination i and latitude λ
• Inclination i is the angle between the orbital plane and the
equatorial plane.
• Latitude λ is the angle measured at the center of the sphere
going north along the meridian through S.
• The solution of the right spherical triangle gives β

• The local mean (solar) time for the satellite is therefore (by substituting
the value of β)

• As the inclination i approaches 90° angle β approaches zero.

• The right ascension of the sun S can be calculated as follows,

Consider the earth completes a 360° orbit around the sun in 365.24
days.

• where Δd is the time in days from the vernal equinox (or line of
Aries , .

• For a sun-synchronous orbit the local mean time must remain

constant.
• The advantage of a sun-synchronous orbit is that the each time
the satellite passes over a given latitude, the lighting conditions will
be approximately the same.
• So it can be used for placing weather satellites and
environmental satellites.
• Eq. for tSAT shows that for a given latitude λ and fixed
inclination i , the only variables are  S and Ω.
• In effect, the angle (Ω- S ) must be constant for a constant local
mean time.
• Let Ω0 represent the right ascension of the ascending node at
the vernal equinox and Ω' the time rate of change of Ω.

• For this to be constant the coefficient of Δd must be zero, or

• The orbital elements a, e, and i
can be selected to give the required regression of 0.9856° east per
day.
• These satellites follow near-circular, near-polar orbits.