LESSON 1 – The Family, Marriage, and Kinship

LESSON INTRODUCTION
Family is considered as a very important social institution as it nurtures the most vital
element of society— the people. It is crucial for the continued survival of humanity and for
the preservation of basic societal values. In this lesson, the concept of family as a unit of
society will be analyzed together with the concepts of marriage and kinship. Further, in
this lesson, we will also discuss some of those issues about family, marriage, and kinship.

TARGET COMPETENCIES
Social observations on family structures and personal experience of family relations

OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:

1. Know the concepts of Family, Marriage, and Kinship;

2. Explain the functions of family;
3. Relate these concepts to your personal experiences; and
4. Identify issues related to these concepts

SUBJECT MATTER
FAMILY
“There is no single correct definition of what family is” (Fine, 1993). Experts on the family
studies agree that the definition of family varies on an individual’s personal outlook,
values, culture, and sexual orientation. Family, as defined in Dictionary of Social and
Cultural Anthropology, is “A group of people who have a common residence and/or
relationship, and who share economic and reproductive ties” (Morris, 2012)
The United Nations defines family as any of the following:

1. A married couple without children,

1. A married couple with one or more unmarried children,

1. A father with one or more unmarried children or

 1. A mother with one or more unmarried children.

Each of the following must consist of persons living in the same household.
Among these definitions, common themes are present:

Biological component Functional component Residential component

Presence of parents (married or Taking care of the child, Should be living in the
not) and a child economic support same household

Several Kinds of Families

Nuclear Family- families that are composed of parents and children
Extended Family- composed of a nuclear family and other relatives such as grandparents,
cousins, and nephews.
Reconstituted family- composed of spouses and their children from a previous marriage.

The family is considered as the basic unit of society. As a unit, it performs several
functions necessary for the continuation and development of the society. It is primarily a
concern for:
(1) Biological reproduction
(2) Basic agent for developing socialization of children
(3) Introduction of basic societal functions such as division of labor and observation of
respect for hierarchy in authority
(4) The nurturing of children to become responsible adults

Kinship
Kinship is defined as relations among individuals linked by blood or marriage ties. It is
important in maintaining solidarity and bond among family and clan members. This is
significant especially in countries, like the Philippines, where the close family association
can be observed. Kinship based on decent is categorized into three: Unilineal rules,
Ambilineal (Cognatic) rules, and Double decent. Descent refers to the system by which
members of a society trace kinship over generations.
Decent rules
1. Unilineal rules- The affiliation of an individual to one sex only. It can be affiliation to
either males (patrilineal descent) or females (matrilineal descent). Most societies are
patrilineal but there is a society that practices matrilineal descent. Examples are
the Nyakyusa of Tanzania and the Nayar of Kerala, India.
2. Ambilineal rules- The affiliation of an individual to either father’s side or mother’s side.
An individual can choose which side he/she wants to be affiliated with. An example of a
society that has an ambilineal rule is the Samoans of the South Pacific.
3. Double decent rules- It refers to the society where patrilineal and matrilineal descent
are both recognized. For some purposes, individual affiliates with the patrilineal side and
for other purposes to the matrilineal kinsmen. An example of this is the Afikpo of Imo,
Nigeria.
MARRIAGE
Many anthropologists generally assume that the institution of marriage is a universal
feature in human societies which is primarily linked to parenthood (Tiimer and Orbuch,
2001). This institution of marriage has different implications in different
cultures across different countries, in which anthropologists like
Malinowski and Radcliffe propose a definition of marriage in the Principle of Legitimacy or
legal authority in marriage. The understanding of the nature of marriage is vital in
understanding culture (Bell, 1997)
The concept of marriage varies according to different cultures, but in general, it is defined
as an institution in which interpersonal relationships, usually intimate and sexual, are
acknowledged. It is a socially or ritually recognized union or legal contract between two
consenting individuals that establishes rights and obligations between them, between
them and their children, and between them and their in-laws.

Anthropological studies of marriage have brought out complex marriage systems that
identify the different types of marriage.
TYPES OF MARRIAGE
1. Monogamy- It is the union of two individuals or the state of being married to one
person only at a given time.

Sexual Genetic Marital

Social monogamy Serial monogamy
monogamy monogamy monogamy

Two persons live Two persons A series of

Two persons that Marriage
together, have sex that have an relationships where
remain sexually between two
with each other, offspring with one person has only
exclusive to one individuals.
and cooperating one another. one partner at a time
another and have
with each other in and then move to
acquiring basic no outside sexual another after
resources. partners. breaking up with the
previous partner.

2. Polygamy- it is the practice of multiple marriages with two classifications: Polygyny and
Polyandry.

Polygyny Polyandry

It involves a woman having multiple husbands.

According to Gillin and Gillin (1950), it is
practiced among the Marquesan Islanders of
Polynesia, The Bahama of Africa, and tribes of
Samoa. In India, among tribes of Tiyan, Toda,
Kota, Khasa, and Ladakhi Bota it is still
prevalent.
There are two different classifications of
polyandry (as classified by Gillin and Gillin):
It refers to a man having multiple wives 1. Fraternal polyandry
or sexual partners at a time. It is different
from having a sexual partner outside the It occurs when a group of brothers marries one
marriage which is a concubine. There are woman. An example of this is fraternal
societies and religions that historically polyandry known to be practiced among groups
allow polygyny such as Mormonism and in Tibet and Nepal.
Islam.
2. Non-Fraternal polyandry
In this type, the husbands need not have any
close relationship prior to the marriage. The
wife goes to spend some time with each
husband. So long as a woman lives with one of
her husbands, the others have no claim over
her. It is prevalent among the Todas in India.

There are different rules that condition marital choices:

CULTURAL REFERENCES RULES OF MARRIAGE
1. Endogamy- it is a marriage of an individual to someone who belongs to the same
religion, age, race, social class. It is defined as a marriage within a defined social group. In
practice, an individual necessarily needs to reject marrying someone who does not fit in
with his/her social group.
2. Exogamy- it is marriage outside a particular social or cultural group. It allows marriage
to happen between two individuals even if they are different in terms of religion,
language, race, and social class.
3. Hypergamy- It is marrying someone who belongs to a higher caste than that one was
born into. It deals with women marrying someone who belongs to a higher class, with
higher education, financial status, and/or social status. It is prevalent in societies that put
importance on social class, finances, and social status.
4. Hypogamy- It deals with a man marrying a woman of higher class or status. It is
prevalent in societies where women have equal access to opportunities with men.
5. Isogamy- Biologically, it refers to a condition where sex cells, or gametes, are identical
to each other. Isogamy in relationships can mean being in a committed relationship with
the same sex.
SAME-SEX MARRIAGE
Traditionally, marriage is a union between two individuals with the opposite sex. With the
changes in society and with the recognition of LGBTQ (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transexual
and Queer) individuals, the institution of marriage is being challenged in most societies—
particularly in the west— to be inclusive and to allow same-sex marriage with equal
recognition as with traditional marriage by the state. There is still great prejudice against
the LGBTQ sector and hate crimes are prevalent but more societies are becoming open to
recognizing same-sex marriage especially developed countries in the Western region of
the world. Some of the countries that recognize same-sex marriage are the USA, Canada,
Belgium, Netherlands, Norway, South Africa, Spain, and recently Taiwan which is the first
Asian state to recognize the same-sex civil union.

DIVORCE
It is a legal process in which a court legally ends a marriage. It leaves two individuals after
the process with a status of “single.” And can marry someone again. It does not declare a
marriage null or void but rather states that the marriage was unsuccessful for a variety of
valid reasons determined by the court. A study by the National Marriage Project of
Rutgers University found out that only 63% of American children grew up with both of
their biological parents.
ANNULMENT
It is a judicial declaration that there was never a marriage between a man and a woman. It
is a cancellation of marriage as if it never happened. The grounds for annulment include
the following:

1. Absence of parental consent during the marriage;

2. Mental illness;
3. Fraud;
4. Lack of consent; and
5. Certain disease

LEGAL SEPARATION
It is a degree granted by the court allowing the husband and wife rightfully to live
separately from each other but they are not allowed by the law to acquire new marriage
to another partner.
 LESSON 2 – The Economy

LESSON INTRODUCTION
Societies have developed throughout history because of the unending contradictions
brought by the problem of scarce resources to address the unlimited human
wants. According to an American Economist Campbell McConnell, Economics as
a discipline is concern about solving the ‘economizing problem’ that is: the
unlimited human wants while resources are scarce or limited. Thus, society must also
make choices under conditions of scarcity. It's a social science that deals with the efficient
allocation of scarce resources for the satisfaction of human wants and needs. Due to
scarcity, people ascertain to compete for resources hence, economic institutions were
established to manage the proper allocation of resources to address such problems. This
lesson will cover the discussion on Economic institutions present in our society.

TARGET COMPETENCIES
Understanding and observation of various economic institutions from household to government
and international sector.

OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:

1. Understand the concept and purpose of Economics as a discipline;

2. Be familiar with various economic institutions and its functions;
3. Understand the concept of Economy and its relation to Globalization; and
4. Relate daily experiences with these institutions.

SUBJECT MATTER
ECONOMICS
As defined, is a social science that deals with the efficient allocation of scarce resources
for the satisfaction of human wants and needs.
Based on the definition, we can get four (4) significant concepts:

1. Economics as Science - Economics is considered as a Science because it is a

systematic body of knowledge. Thus, in understanding and solving economic
 issues or problems we must be guided with a scientific approach and methods
in gathering, presentation, and analysis of data.
2. Economics as a Social Science - Economics is considered as a Social Science
because we are dealing with human behavior particularly on how individuals
and society make choices and decision making.

ECONOMIZING PROBLEM:

1. Scarcity – resources are scarce (limited) then it follows that the goods and
services we produce must also be limited. Scarcity restricts options and
demands choices.
2. Human wants – are insatiable/unlimited and innumerable. They are infinite and
limited only to people’s imagination. Then it follows that we must satisfy
unlimited human wants for limited resources.

CORE PHILOSOPHY OF ECONOMICS: “There is no such thing as free lunch”

meaning in a world where resources are scarce, things we think are free are not really
free because someone has to pay for them.
The ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVE. How Economists make Economic decision:

1. Choice and Opportunity Costs – Scarcity restricts options and demands

choices. Because we “can’t have it all,” we must decide what we will have and
what we must forgo. At the core of economics is the idea that “there is no free
lunch.” You may be treated to lunch, making it “free” to you, but someone bears
a cost. Economists call such sacrifices opportunity costs: To obtain more of one
thing, society forgoes the opportunity of getting the next best thing. That
sacrifice is the opportunity cost of the choice.
2. Purposeful Rational behavior – Economics assumes that human behavior
reflects “rational self-interest.” Individuals look for and pursue opportunities to
increase their utility: pleasure, happiness, or satisfaction as they maximize it. By
weighing the costs and benefits, their decisions are “purposeful” or “rational,”
not “random” or “chaotic.” “Purposeful behavior” does not assume that people
and institutions are immune from faulty logic and therefore are perfect
decision-makers.
3. Marginalism: Comparing Cost and Benefit – The economic perspective focuses
largely on marginal analysis—comparisons of marginal benefits and marginal
costs. To economists, “marginal” means “extra,” “additional,” or “a change in.” In
making choices rationally, the decision-maker must compare those two
amounts.

ECONOMY
The economy is an institution responsible for addressing the problem regarding limited
resources. In doing such, it needs to answer basic economic questions (which corresponds
to different economic problems) of:
1. Consumption - What should (goods and services) be produced?
-Societies have to decide the best combination of goods and services to meet their
needs.
2. Production - How and how many of these products (goods and services) are going to be
produced?
- Societies also have to decide the best combination of factors to create the desired
output of goods and services.
3. Distribution - For whom should these products (goods and services) be produced?
- All societies need to decide who will get the output from the country’s economic
activity, and how much they will get.
4. Growth over time - How will the system accommodate change?
- Market systems are dynamic consumer preferences, technology, and supplies of
resources all change. Consumption, production, and distribution of benefits (income)
happen over time. Their evolution and history tell about progress and living standards.
On how society answers these questions and problems depend on the factors of
production and the level of technology available. The factors of production refer to
the economic resources needed in order to produce goods and services. These factors or
economic resources are classified by Economists into four general categories: land, labor,
capital, and entrepreneurial ability/ entrepreneurship.
Four (4) factors of production:

1. Land- to the economist land includes all-natural resources (“gifts of nature”)

used in the production process. It refers to natural resources such as soil, water,
wind, minerals, plants, and animals.
2. Labor- It refers to the human capital/resources. It consists of the physical and
mental abilities that people contribute to the production of goods and services.
3. Capital (Capital goods)- It refers to all materials (human-made resources) used
in the process of production such as tools, equipment, buildings, and
machinery, to produce goods and services. Money (financial capital) falls under
the capital, which is simply a means for purchasing capital goods.
4. Entrepreneurship- the ability to combine other factors of production (land,
labor, and capital). The human talent that combines the other resources to
produce a product, make strategic decisions, and bear risks. It also includes the
skills in maintaining the efficient production of goods and services.
There are two main contrasting points of view in answering the questions above.
According to liberal economists, who espouse capitalism, the allocation of resources
should be determined by the market. The laws and processes in the market should freely
determine the number of goods and services as well as its value in the market. Consumers
and producers are free to participate in the market. It means that the market can function
freely (laissez-faire) and there is no need for state intervention. This type of
economy (Free-market economy) puts emphasis on the idea of free competition which will
limit the greed of self-interested individuals.
For Socialists, those who advocate for a Centralized economy (State influenced economy),
they believe that the bourgeoisie— social class composed of those involved in financial
sector like bankers, industrialists and owners of corporations who largely control the
means of production— has the control over the free market economy and the only class
benefiting from it. They comprise the minority of the society hence, wealth is
concentrated to the few. They believe that the market and the state must be under the
control of the proletariat (the laborer/working class) since they comprise the majority
of the society. For Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, fathers of scientific socialism, the free-
market economy alienates the proletariats since they do not have the capital, unlike the
bourgeoisie, to compete in the market. Private property— which is concentrated in the
bourgeoisie— must be abolished and the economy must be under the supervision of the
state to promote equal distribution of scarce resources in accordance with one’s need and
not to one’s social class.
After the Great Depression in the 1930s, an English economist named John Maynard
Keynes argued that while the economy should be left free (governed by the invisible
hand), there are instances where government intervention is important to prevent market
failures. Market failure is a situation where resources are inefficiently allocated by the
market.
Types of Market failures

1. Monopoly power- the market may fail to control the existence of monopoly
and cartels which affect the law of supply and demand.
2. Missing markets- Markets may fail to meet the needs and wants of the people
such as public goods, such as defense, streetlights, public works, and highways.
3. De-merit goods- Markets may fail to regulate the manufacturing of goods and
services which are dangerous or have less merit.
4. Incomplete markets- Markets may fail to produce merit goods, such as
education and healthcare.
5. Negative externalities- Markets may fail to regulate the consumers and
producers that may have actions that are harmful to third-parties. Third-parties
are individuals, organizations, or communities directly or indirectly benefiting
or suffering from the actions of consumers and producers.
6. Information asymmetry- Markets may not provide adequate information
because, during the transaction, it may be for the interest of one party not to
disclose full information to the other party or to the public.
 7. Inequality- The market may fail to control the size of income gaps. Market
transactions reward consumers and producers with income and profits but it is
highly vulnerable to the monopoly or control of the few.
8. Unstable markets/Recession- government spending is seen as a pump-priming
mechanism to help the economy reach its optimal level.

NON-STATE ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS

1. Bank and Corporations- Bank is an institution that deals in money and its substitutes—
checkbooks, credit cards, debit cards, etc., — and provides other money-related services.
It acts as a financial intermediary in economic systems concern with the flow of money in
the system (Wilson, 2015). The two major types of banks are the central banks and
commercial banks. Central banks (ex. Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas) are public institutions
dealing with the government, commercial banks, and central banks of other countries
(Wilson, 2015). Commercial banks (ex. Bank of the Philippine Islands, Banco de Oro, China
bank, Eastwest Bank, Security Bank, Union Bank, etc.,) are privately run and profit-driven
banking institutions. A corporation is a group of people who owns resources authorized by
the state to conduct business. Corporations are large-scale systems that facilitate the
distribution and production of goods and services.
2. Cooperatives and Trade Unions- Cooperatives are firms owned and operated by a
group of users for their own benefit. Each member contributes equity capital, and shares
in the control of the firm on the basis of one-member, one-vote principle— not in
proportion to his or her equity contribution (business dictionary). Trade union and/or
Labor union is an organization made up of workers with the primary goal of protecting and
advancing the interest of its members in the workplace. Some of the concerns of trade
unions are the following:

1. Negotiate agreements on pay and working conditions;

2. Accompany members in disciplinary and grievance meetings;
3. Provide members with legal and financial advice; and
4. Facilitate collective bargaining for the members with the employer.

3. Transnational advocacy groups – Advocacy refers to the activity done by an individual

or group of individuals aiming to influence the political, economic, and social systems. It
includes a wide range of activities from media campaigns and research publications to
dialogue and mass protests. Lobbying is a form of advocacy where individuals directly
participate in legislative sessions to address the social issue/s they are carrying.
4. Development Aid Agencies- Aid agencies are organizations committed to providing aid.
Aid agencies can be government-led such as USAID, Australian Aid (AusAID), and Europe
Aid; Multilateral donors like United Nations Development Program; and as private
organizations like Action Aid, Oxfam, Christian Aid, and World Vision. Aid can be divided
into two categories: humanitarian aid and development aid. Humanitarian aid includes
relief efforts in times of calamities. Development aid includes grants or foreign aids for the
purpose of long-term development such as housing grants, infrastructure grants, and
other similar programs.
5. International Organizations- Based on the International Law Commission, it is an
organization established by a treaty or other instrument governed by international law.
Generally, international organizations such as the United Nations have stated as
members, but often other entities can also apply for membership if the organization will
allow it.

ECONOMY AND GLOBALIZATION

Globalization, in an economic standpoint, is the “process of progressive growth of
economic activities which transcends any kind of geographical border. Globalization can
be seen as the increasing movement of goods and services as well as human resources
through trades and investments among nations. Trade liberalization policy and
international trade are perceived as important ingredients of globalization” (Thai, Rahm,
and Coggburn 2007, p. 2).
The fundamental goal of economic internationalization or globalization is free trade which
started after World War II. Economic globalization is facilitated by common markets
between nation-states through free trade agreements by a supranational organization
like the International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank (WB), World Trade Organization
(WTO), North American Free Trade Agreement, Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP),
European Union, Association of Southeast Asian Nations (APEC), Asia-Pacific Economic
Cooperation (APEC), the Common Market of the South (MERCOSUR), and other bilateral
trade agreements.
However, the World Trade Organization (WTO) — established on January 1, 1995, under
the Marrakech Agreement replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trades
(GATT) — is the only global international organization dealing with the rules of trade
between nations. The goal is to help producers of goods and services, exporters, and
importers conduct their business (WTO website).
WTO promotes free trade and fair trade. Moreover, WTO is also concern about
committing its members to a variety of noble objectives: improved standards of living, full
employment, expanded production of trade and services, sustainable development, and
an enhanced share of developing countries in world trade. Furthermore, the agreement
commits its members to make these objectives attainable by having reciprocal and
mutually advantageous arrangements (substantial reduction of tariffs and barriers to
trade) and to the elimination of discriminatory treatment in international trade relations
(Narllikar, 2005).
Liberal Economists consider trade liberalization as favorable to democracy. Liberalization
accelerates growth and increases competitiveness. Growth following economic
liberalization may permit redistribution required in democracy (Pelaez and Pelaez, 2008).
But on the other side, many critics point out the negative effects of Trade Liberalization to
poor countries.
“The WTO’s greatest power lies in its dispute settlement body and its cross-retaliation
provisions, both of which enable it to force nations to comply with WTO rules. The
increasing number of controversial rulings in which the WTO dispute settlement body has
upheld corporate interests over those of people and the environment has increased public
opposition to the WTO… Globalization is reducing the power of governments to provide
what their populations require all over the world. TNCs and international capital have
become the de facto new world government. Their increasing control over the global
economy is underpinned by their free trade orthodoxy” (Hines, 200).
Who runs the world?
Another fruit of Economic globalization is the emergence of Transnational Corporations
and Multinational Corporations. These corporations have influence over national
government policies (especially economic policies) because of their ability to invest and
reinvest capital, relocate factories, and influence other similar companies in either
investing or rejecting a country.

Transnational corporations Multinational corporations

• Does not identify itself with one

national home.
• National companies with foreign
• Spread out operations in many
subsidiaries.
countries through outsourcing
• Example: Coca-Cola Company
and offshore investment.
(US), Accenture (US), Mars
• Example: General Electric (US),
chocolates (US), Telefonica
Royal Dutch Shell
(Spain), McDonald’s (US), Google
(Netherlands/UK), Exxon Mobil
(US), Microsoft (US).
(US), Toyota (Japan), Total
(France).

TNCs are a significant driving force of the globalized economy. They enable the expansion
of trade and investment flows and establish economic linkages between developed and
developing states. TNCs are important producers and transporters of goods and services.
More than being an economic unit, TNCs also function as strong cultural and political
forces. Some scholars have argued that TNCs are beneficial for developing countries
because of the transfer of technology, information, and diffusion of knowledge. They also
bring sufficient capital to developing countries to stimulate economic growth through
direct foreign investments. These investments create jobs and other solid investments
like infrastructures for the host country.
TNCs are still subject to the regulation of every national government. But their nature
(transnationality) can give them superior power over national governments. The potential
amount of capital that they can invest in a country or region is very crucial to the
economic well-being of a country or region. To ensure that economic stability, and
political stability to some extent, will be sustained, States have to compete globally for
TNC investments. TNCs benefit out of that competition.
John Madelley, one of the critics of TNCs, talked about the effects of TNC operations on
poor countries. He said “TNCs have successfully persuaded people in developing
countries to adopt products such as Coca-Cola, Seven-up, Pepsi, Kentucky Fried Chicken,
beef burgers, cigarettes and so on as part of their way of life. Such goods cost a sizeable
proportion of the poor’s earnings, with the result that traditional and usually more
nutritious foods cannot be afforded, and health suffers. By consuming inappropriate
products, the poor have less money to buy basic necessities.”
Aside from the fact that TNCs are being blamed for poverty in developing countries, they
are also being blamed for severe environmental problems due to excessive mining,
destructive logging, and other environment-insensitive activities.
Some of these are the following:

• Texaco— which transferred the operation to Chevron after being brought out
in 2001— unleashed a toxic ‘Rainforest Chernobyl’ in Ecuador by leaving over
600 unlined oil pits in pristine northern Amazon rainforest and dumping 18
billion gallons of toxic production water into rivers used by the residents for
bathing and washing.

• Nestle, considered as one of the largest buyers of cocoa from the Ivory Coast,
has issues concerning child labor and contaminated products. Nestle is aware of
the child labor taking place on farms in which it buys cocoa and together with
other chocolate manufacturers agreed to end the use of abusive child labor on
cocoa farms but until now it failed to do so. In Italy in 2005, the government
seized more than two million liters of infant formula produced by Nestle due to
contamination with isopropyl thioxanthone chemical.
• Wal-Mart, the biggest retail corporation in the world with around 1.5 million
employers worldwide, has a long track record of violating worker’s rights. In
September 2005, the International Labor Rights Fund sued Wal-Mart on behalf
of Wal-Mart supplier sweatshop workers in China, Indonesia, Bangladesh,
Nicaragua, and Swaziland. The workers involved were denied of their basic
labor rights like the minimum wage. They were also forced to work overtime
without additional compensation and without a mandated healthcare package.

Developing countries are more vulnerable to TNC's operation compared to developed

countries. It is because of the high environmental standards and more established
institutions in developed countries while developing countries suffer from low legal
standards, inefficient and ineffective law enforcement, and safety regulations. Because of
these, TNCs can easily get away from their violations.
Corporate Social Responsibility
Because of the growing pressure from anti-globalization movements, environmental
groups, and even governments, many TNCs, even local corporations, are now
implementing or exercising Corporate Social Responsibility. As defined, CSR “refers to
any activity that promotes the welfare of any stakeholder of a business corporation.
Sometimes, CSR refers to philanthropic programs targeting communities or employees.
Other times it refers to commitments to promote the welfare of suppliers. It also refers to
a variety of activities designed to enhance environmental stewardship. More generally, it
refers to a vague intention to better society (corporate citizenship)”
(Ludescher and Mahsud, 2010).
Examples of CSRs are the following:

1. Every year, employees of the General Electric Company volunteer for over 1
million hours. The GE Foundation has supported, for years, senior citizens,
children with autism and various literacy programs
2. Dell supports over 4,615 charities worldwide. Dell’s Youth Connect program
provides technology and educational facilities in 11 countries. Dell also has its
Social Innovation Challenge which provides funding and training to college
students. Dell’s CSR also extends to disaster relief operations in which it
provides holistic community assistance around the world.
3. SM Prime Holdings has various civic assistance programs as part of its
Corporate Social Responsibility. SM Cares, the one responsible for its CSR, has
programs focused on the environment and people and communities. Some of its
programs are: (1) An awareness program under its Green Retail Agenda
conducted for mall tenants, business partners, and stakeholders; (2) Top
Leaders forum, a program encouraging business leaders to promote, invest and
plan on disaster risk reduction; (3) Greenhouse Gas Emissions management; (4)
Children and Youth Development through scholarship grants; (5) elderly and
Persons with Disability care; and lastly, Women and Breastfeeding Mothers
program.
 LESSON 3 – Education and Health Institutions

LESSON INTRODUCTION
Education is a powerful agent in honing the minds of the people. It shapes one’s
consciousness and understanding about the society he/she lives in. Educational
institutions ensure that every individual is functionally-literate. Health institutions, on the
other hand, provide access to health services to ensure that individuals will have a
complete physical, mental and social well-being, and free from diseases and other treats
to holistic development. This lesson will discuss the functions, current trends, and issues
in education as well as the functions of health institutions, current trends, and issues in
contemporary society.

TARGET COMPETENCIES
Understanding and personal experiences on various agents of education and health institutions
and its effect on one’s consciousness, physical and mental health.

OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:

1. Understand the functions of Education and Health institutions;

2. Be familiar with various government agencies facilitating the Education and
Health institutions;
3. Be familiar with the current trends in Education and Health sector;
4. Be aware of the current issues in Education and Health institutions; and
5. Relate daily experiences with the trends and issues identified.

SUBJECT MATTER
EDUCATION
Education is the right of every individual and only of the few. UNESCO states that
education is a fundamental human right and essential for the exercise of all other human
rights (The right to education, 2015). Furthermore, The United Nations Universal
Declaration on Human Rights Article states:

1. Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the
elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be
compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally
 available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis
of merit.
2. Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality
and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental
freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance, and friendship among all
nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United
Nations for the maintenance peace.

Thus, every government must provide basic education and must ensure that its
citizens have access to quality education. In the Philippines, various institutions were
established to supervise the education of its people:
Department of Education- the government agency tasked to provide quality basic
education (kindergarten to senior high school) that is equitably accessible to all and lay
the foundation for life-long learning and services for the common good. The current
Secretary of DepEd is Prof. Emeritus Leonor Matolis- Briones.
Commission on Higher Education- Created under RA 7722 or the Higher Education Act
of 1994, CHED— an agency under the Office of the President— has the duty to supervise
the tertiary and graduate education in the country. The current Chairperson of CHED
is Dr. J. Prospero de Vera III.
Technical and Skills Development Authority- Created under RA 7796 or the Technical
Education and Skills Development Act of 1994, TESDA is an agency which supervises the
technical-vocational and middle-level education in the country and is also tasked to
formulate the comprehensive development plan for middle-level manpower based on the
National Technical and Skills Development Plan. The current Director-General of TESDA
(with cabinet secretary rank) is Secretary Isidro S. Lapeña.

TYPES OF EDUCATION
Formal Education
It is an educational system with organized academic and non-academic programs (subjects
and requirements), hierarchical organizational structure (faculty members and
administrators), and with a chronological arrangement of educational level (kindergarten
to tertiary level). Students attend their classes regularly. They acquire knowledge, skills,
and attitude inside an established institution like the school. The school is a formal
education system.
Non-formal/ Non-traditional Education
It is often referred to as quasi-formal education. Students under this type of education do
not regularly come to school, unlike informal education. There is also a system of methods
and procedures used by students and instructors in conducting this kind of program the
same with formal education. Students under this program often acquire knowledge, skills,
and attitudes outside the formal schooling. An example of this is the Alternative Learning
System (ALS).
The Alternative Learning System (ALS) is the Department of Education’s flagship program
offering non-formal education to out-of-school Filipino youth and adults who have failed
to complete basic education.
FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION TO SOCIETY
There are various perspectives and ideas revolving when functions of education are the
topic. Some of the leading ideas regarding the function of education in the society are the
following:
Functionalist Theory and Education
The educational system, according to functional theory will ensure the social, political, and
economic stability of the society. The functionalist perspective is very positive about
education’s role in a commercial society. Schools are seen as a “benevolent but powerful
force creating the social cohesion and unity.” that commercial society requires. (Rothstein,
1987)
Horace Mann, an American educational reformer, said that education could cure social
ills. It is a tool in giving people the knowledge and technical skills to participate in national
development. It is an institution that determines one’s future status. Thus, it is believed
that education must be based on meritocracy or merit system.
Conflict Theory and Education
Conflict theory holds that education is one of the primary ways that those in power
maintain their power. Rather than stressing the formal and informal purposes of
education in society, conflict theories see education as a tool used by the ruling classes to
perpetuate social inequality, both by controlling access to education (Ballantine, 1987)
and by training docile, discipline workers (Rothstein, 1987).
For Randall Collins, a neo-Weberian sociologist, education functions as a filter to
perpetuate credentialism. Credentialism refers to the practice of relying on someone’s
earned credentials when hiring or assigning social status rather than on actual skills.
Collins said that hiring must be based on the actual skills and not on the basis
of educational attainment, though it is necessary.
According to American economist Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis, the author of
Schooling in Capitalist America, education is a tool for capitalism to equip the workers
with the necessary skills so they can be hired and be exploited by the employers. The
school teaches its students the values necessary to become a successful worker rather
than to become an empowered individual free from ignorance.
Maslow and Education
In Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, self-actualization is on top of the needs or
development of an individual. Self-actualization refers to one’s contentment and self-
empowerment. It can only happen if an individual is free from ignorance. Education brings
forth the following:

1. The freedom to make informed choices

2. The joy of socializing with friends and classmates and by learning together
3. The experience to be moved by what you see, feel, touch, and think inside and
outside the classroom.
4. The feeling of excitement and joy in preparing for your career before and after
graduation
5. The discovery of new knowledge and disseminating it through research and
publication
6. The possibility of becoming an intelligent consumer
7. The opportunity to be creative and innovative
8. The honor of sharing your wisdom to others as a mentor, a teacher, or even as a
good friend.

TRENDS AND ISSUES IN EDUCATION

Education and Economic Development
Education is an important component of national development. It provides knowledge and
skills to citizens to improve the productivity of labor. Through educational research,
innovations and discoveries happen which are all important for continuous development
and upgrading of technologies. Thus, it is a priority for the government. In the Philippines,
the constitution specified that education should have the biggest budget allocation every
fiscal year.
In 1996, Jacques Delor reported to the International Commission on Education for the
Twenty-first Century, UNESCO through his work entitled Learning, The Treasure Within
where he suggested that countries should allocate at least 6% of its Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) to the education sector. The Philippine budget for education, though
increasing every year, is below the international standard.

Youth and Education

Based on the 2017 Annual Poverty Indicators Survey (APIS), about nine percent of the
estimated 39.2 million Filipinos aged 6 to 24 years old were out-of-school children and
youth (OSCY). OSCY refers to family members 6 to 14 years old who are not attending
formal school; and family members 15 to 24 years old who are currently out of school, not
gainfully employed, and have not finished college or post-secondary courses.
Of the 3.6 million OSCYs, 83.1%0 were 16 to 24 years old, 11.2% percent were 12 to 15
years old and 5.7% were 6 to 11 years old. The proportion of OSCYs was higher among
females (63.3%) than males (36.7%) (Table 1).
Currently, the government has various programs to provide both informal and formal
education and to ensure that education will be accessible to all. One of these programs is
the Alternative Learning System commonly known as ALS. ALS is a learning system that
provides alternative education to those who cannot access formal schooling. Currently,
there are major programs under ALS namely: Basic Literacy Program and Continuing
Education Program.
Women and Education
The United Nations Declaration and the Philippine constitution guarantee education as
everyone’s right. But until now women have always been at a disadvantage when it comes
to access to education. Various forms of disadvantages on the side of women exist. It
includes gender stereotypes in schools, gender-insensitive pedagogy, sexual harassment,
limited opportunities for promotion and professional development, and
underrepresentation of women in senior academic and administrative positions or in
higher status disciplines and prestigious institutions. According to the United Nations
Population Fund, two-thirds of illiterate adults are women.

Women Education
KEY INFORMATION
1. Girls with no education are 3 times as likely to marry by 18 as those with secondary or
higher education.
2. Over 60% of women (20-24) with no education were married before 18
3. With secondary schooling, girls are up to six times less likely to marry as children
compared to girls who have lit
Source:
www.girlsnotbrides.org
In recognition of the existing bias, discrimination, and violence against women, the
Congress passed the Republic Act no. 9710 or an Act providing for the Magna Carta of
Women in 2008. One of its concerns is the stereotypes in education:
Sec. 13. Equal Access and Elimination of Discrimination in Education, Scholarships, and
Training.

1. The state shall ensure that gender stereotypes and images in educational
materials and curricula are adequately and appropriately revised. The gender-
sensitive language shall be used at all times. Capacity-building on gender and
 development (GAD), peace and human right, education for teachers, and all
those involved in the education sector shall be pursued toward this end.
Partnerships between and among players of the education sector, including the
private sector, churches, and faith groups shall be encouraged.

Education and Globalization

Internationalization of Education
Globalization of education refers to the worldwide discussions, processes, and institutions
affecting local educational practices and policies (Spring, 2009). Various international and
regional organs, agreements, and declarations affect a country’s national or local school
systems. With the advent of technology, it seems like the world shrank into a small village
where information can transport easily from one place to another. The policies of the
United Nations (UN), Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD),
UNESCO, World Trade Organization (WTO) and the General Agreements on Tariffs and
Trades (GATT) among others serve as powerful forces in shaping and influencing the
economic and education policy of every country that is part of it.
Agreements at the international or regional level also play a significant role in the
internationalization of education. Some of these agreements are the following:

1. Bologna Process- Named after the University of Bologna where it was

proposed, the Bologna declaration is a commitment from the signatory states
to have some degree of uniformity to the higher education system while
maintaining their various approaches. It was signed by 29 Education Ministers
from European countries in line with the European Integration in 1999.
2. Washington Accord- It is an international agreement between parties
responsible for the accreditation of engineering degree programs. It recognizes
the equivalency of programs accredited by those bodies and recommends that
graduates of the programs accredited by any of the signatory bodies be
recognized by other bodies as having met the academic standards needed for
the practice of engineering.

Effects of globalization in providing education services

One of the effects of the continuous internationalization of education is the application of
neo-liberal orientation in managing an educational institution. Neo-liberal policies aim to
abolish state subsidies for social services like education and let the economy open for
foreign investments and private institutions as source of basic services. Just like how
multinational corporations function, the development of transnational universities
(i.e.______) and twinning programs between various national and international schools
make education a big business (Henry et. al, 1999), (Pratt and Pole, 2000). Universities
attract students by marketing their offered programs through various initiatives such as
having satellite campuses abroad, international partners, international accreditations,
corporate partners, and the like.
Some of the implications of applying neo-liberal orientation to schools are the following:

1. The increasing level of pressure for privatization;

2. Transformation of education institutions to a market institution; and
3. The loss of academic norms in favor of corporate rules.

The increasing level of privatization and marketization of educational institutions lead to

education being commodified and commercialized. The corporatization of education, in
part, has been the result of decreasing national government support for universities and
students.
Another effect of globalization is embracing the corporate character of profit-driven
‘managerialism’ in administering a school. ‘Managerialism’ according to Kilkauer (2013)
“rejects any plea of a fundamental difference between the operations of a hospital and the
manufacturing and marketing of soft drinks. In both cases, it is claimed, the optimal policy
is to design organizations responding directly to consumer demand, and to operate such
institutions using generic management techniques applicable to all corporations.” Many
humanist and radical educators argue that ‘managerialism’ brought by the application of
neo-liberal policies to higher education compromise the academic nature and character of
a tertiary education institution. For Robert Nisbet, the traditional role of schools (colleges
and universities) is for “the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake. Knowledge and the
processes of coming to know are good in themselves, and the university, above all
institutions, is— or used to be— devoted to them. To investigate, to find out, to organize
and contemplate knowledge, these are what universities are about” (Nisbet, 1971). With
the application of neo-liberal policies (managerialism), for some scholars, universities
become training grounds to produce skilled workers to be deployed in the market which is
far from its traditional role of being the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake. The
marketing of education results in students becoming consumers who will expect tangible
products, such as a degree and easy employment (Pratt and pole, 2000). Some scholars, in
contrast, argue that the application of these policies to educational institutions is
necessary to make the delivery of service efficient and corruption-free. Both perspectives
operate on different claims and assumptions.
Multiculturalism and Education
One of the key education policies prevalent in our education system is the idea of
standardization. The standardization of educational examinations, quality measures, and
curriculum, for some scholars, fails to address the cultural differences among learners.
This kind of policy is a reflection of the assimilationist ideology that dominated western
societies. In the assimilationist paradigm, education is used by nation-states to force
individuals to surrender their ethnicity in exchange for citizenship since nationhood is
equated to having a singular culture. Many educators, especially indigenous educators,
have challenged this approach to education. For them, the assimilationist approach has
been detrimental to the over-all scholastic performance and achievements of the
minorities. In some cases, the assimilationist approach tends to promote cultural
discrimination since most likely it is the culture of the majority which will be the standard
to follow undervaluing minority cultures. For the advocates of cultural diversity,
multicultural education must be the approach to use. James Banks (2009), considered as
the father of American multicultural education said “Multicultural education is an
inclusive concept used to describe a wide variety of school practices, programs and
materials designed to help children from diverse groups to experience educational
quality” (p. 182). Furthermore, according to Banks, “A major goal of multicultural
education is to restructure schools so that all students acquire the knowledge, attitudes,
and skills needed to function in ethnically and racially diverse communities and nations,
and in the world. Multicultural education seeks to actualize educational quality for
students from diverse groups, and to facilitate their participation as critical and reflective
citizens in an inclusive national civic culture” (p. 12). Multicultural education is not just
merely inculcating the value of respect for cultural diversity among students but also
about empowering minorities in society to solve racial and cultural prejudgments. In doing
so, teachers must be equipped with culture-responsive education. Curriculum, programs,
and teaching methods should be streamlined according to the cultural context of
learners.

HEALTH
According to the World Health Organization, health refers to the complete physical,
mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of diseases or infirmity. Health
also means the complete soundness of body and soul (Darilag et. al., 2009).
Health and healthcare as basic human rights
The right to health means everyone should have the opportunity to access the highest
attainable standard of physical and mental health. It means that everyone should have
access to medical services, sanitation, adequate and nutritious food, decent housing, a
clean environment, and safe and healthy working conditions. The right to healthcare
means that health care institutions such as hospitals, clinics, and rehabilitation centers;
medicines, and supplements as well as medical personnel such as doctors and nurses must
be accessible, available, and of good quality for everyone. They should be willing to accept
patients and should provide medicines on an equitable basis, wherever and whenever
needed.
The third goal of the 2030 Agenda or the Sustainable Development Goals launched by the
United Nations last 2016 where the Philippines is one of the signatories puts emphasis on
ensuring healthy lives and promoting well-being for all of all ages. It calls for the
improvement of maternal and child health; ending of major communicable diseases such
as HIV; reducing non-communicable diseases such as cancer; achieving universal health
coverage across all ages; and ensuring access to affordable, effective, and safe medicines
and vaccines.
TRENDS AND ISSUES IN HEALTH
Traditional Healing
Traditional healing is considered as the oldest form of structured medicine. It is the
medicine where all other forms originate such as Chinese medicine, Graeco-
Arabic medicine, and modern western medicine. Unlike other traditional medicines, it has
no philosophical base as its practice is founded on the pure knowledge of healing
accumulated though time upon the healer’s personal experiences, awareness and unity to
the natural world, and understanding of different levels of consciousness within the
human psyche. Often times traditional healing is called ‘wisdom medicine’ or ‘wizard
medicine’ and healers are referred to as ‘wise men’
Alternative Medicine
It refers to any practice that has healing effects of medicine but does not originate from
evidence gathered using the scientific methods. It is composed of wide range practices,
products, and various therapies that are either biologically plausible but not well tested or
totally contradicted by evidence and science, which are harmful. Examples of this are
homeopathy, naturopathy, chiropractic and energy medicine, various forms of
acupuncture, traditional Chinese medicine, ayurvedic medicine, and Christian faith
healing.
Alternative medicines, diagnoses, and practices are not part of medical school curriculums
because it is not considered as medicine obtained out of scientific-based testing. The
regulation and licensing of alternative medicines and alternative medicine providers vary
from country to country.

TEENAGE PREGNANCY
One of the common health concerns facing the youth today especially women is the high
number of teenage pregnancies often resulting in a poor family establishment, destruction
of education of teenagers involved, and continuity of poverty due to lack of education
resulting in underemployment and worst is unemployment.
One in ten young Filipino women age 15 to 19 is to be a mother or pregnant with first
child: Eight percent are already mothers and another two percent are pregnant. Among
young adults age 20 to 24 years old, 43 percent are already mothers while 4 percent are
pregnant with their first child. This was the result of the 2013 National Demographic and
Health Survey conducted by the Philippine Statistics Authority released last August
2014.
According to the report, early pregnancy is more common among young adult women age
15 to 24 with less education than those with higher education. 44 percent of women with
elementary education got pregnant compared to 21 percent of women with a college
education.
In initiating their first sexual activity, one in five youth age 18 to 24 years old had it before
18. The initiation of sexual activity before age 18 is more common among young adult
women with less education and those in poorer households. The survey further reveals
that 15 percent of young adult women age 20 to 24 years old had their first marriage or
live with their partner at the age of 18.

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES

Another health concern that poses a serious threat to the safety of the youth today is the
alarming number of HIV cases in the Philippines. While the number of cases in developed
countries continuously declining, the number of cases in Asia is continuously increasing
especially in the Philippines where the most significant increase was recorded all over
Southeast Asia.
In July 2019, there were 1,111 newly confirmed HIV-positive individuals reported to the
HIV/AIDS & ART Registry of the Philippines (HARP). This was 29% higher compared with
the diagnosed cases (859) in the same period last year. Eighteen percent (199) had clinical
manifestations of advanced HIV infection (WHO clinical stage 3 or 4) at the time of
diagnosis.
 LESSON 4 – Religion and Belief System

LESSON INTRODUCTION
To study culture is to study religion, as many (not necessarily incorrectly) characterizes
others through their religion while proper judgments of a fellow human being must take
into consideration one’s culture, instead of just religious orientations, given that many
belief systems in the world apply their interpretation of spiritual sources in different ways.
While culture is a broader concept indeed, an understanding of religion is necessary given
the role that world religions have played in shaping the history of humankind. This
inseparability is also especially true as most of the global population are members of a
certain religion or at least spiritual in nature, making our beliefs part of who we are in our
core.

TARGET COMPETENCIES
Open-mindedness, understanding, exposure and personal experiences regarding religion and
various belief systems

OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:

1. Understand the concepts of belief systems and religion;

2. Discuss the significant role of religion in society;
3. Be familiar with the trends and issues involving religion and belief systems;
and
4. Describe and be familiar with the concept of separation of church and state

SUBJECT MATTER
“Religion is the opium of the masses." -Karl Marx
Religion is a very powerful institution that can connect and unify human beings. It is
characterized as a system of beliefs and practices embedded in one’s consciousness which
connects the physical world to the beyond.
BELIEF SYSTEM
These are ideas we tell ourselves to define and support our personal sense of ‘reality’.
Everyone has his/her own belief system that he/she utilizes to ‘make sense’ of the world
he/she is living in.
There are two forms of belief system. A belief system can be evidence-based or faith-
based.

Evidence-based belief system Faith-based belief system

• Science is the foundation of evidence-based

belief system under the idea that the world can
• In contrast, faith-
be explained through observation, experiment,
based beliefs are
and prediction or through the use of scientific
mental constructs
methods.
that lack
• The key element of science is the recognition
evidence.
that everyone possesses individual belief hence,
• It can be based on
capable of making bias in their interpretation of
a lack of evidence
the world.
or evidence which
• Because of this, science attempts to eliminate
may be impossible
such bias by requiring strict definitions of terms
to gather.
and concepts, and evidence must be available for
independent verification by others.

Animism, Polytheism, and Monotheism

Animism— comes from the Latin word ‘anima’ which means ‘breathe, spirit, life’— is the
view that non-human creatures— such as animals and plants— possess a spiritual essence.
Animism (in the anthropology of religion) is a term referring to the belief system of some
indigenous tribal people prior to the introduction of organized religion. Animism as a
concept has drawn contrasting opinions whether it is a broad religious belief or a full-
pledged independent religion. But the currently acceptable characterization of animism
was introduced by Sir Edward Tylor in the late 19th century. Animism is the belief that
there is no separation between the spiritual and physical world, and that souls and spirits
exist, not only in humans but also in animals, plants, rocks, and all other entities of the
environment and to any materials.
Polytheism refers to the belief in multiple gods or deities along with their own religions
and rituals. In religions that practice polytheism, gods and goddesses are representations
of forces of nature and/or ancestral principles and virtues. Polytheists (the term which
refers to the person practicing polytheism) can be a henotheist, specialized in worshipping
one particular god/goddess among all gods and goddesses or kathenotheists, worshiping
different gods and goddesses at different times or problems.
Monotheism refers to the belief or worship of one god or oneness of God. Monotheism
characterizes the traditions of Babism, the Baha I’ Faith, Caodaiism, Cheondoism,
Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Rastafari, Shaivism, Shaktism, Sikhism, Zoroastrianism and
many more.

RELIGION

Collins Dictionary Oxford Dictionary Britannica Encyclopedia

This refers to the relation of human beings

Refers to belief to what they consider as holy, sacred,
and/or system of A system of faith and
absolute, spiritual, divine, or worthy of
belief in God or worship to superhuman
especial reverence. Furthermore, it has to
gods and all controlling power. This
do with the way people deal with concerns
activities related to can also mean a pursuit
about their lives and their fate after death.
such belief. or interest followed with
Prayer, meditations, and rituals are among
great devotion.
the many practices being done in relation
to one’s religious life.

TYPES OF RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATION

There are various types of religious organizations existing in different societies.
Commonly, Sociologists categorize or group these organizations based on their size and
influence (Emerson, Monahan, & Mirola, 2011). There are three main types of religious
organizations: church, sect, and cult. The Church has two subtypes: ecclesia and
denomination.
Church
It is a large, bureaucratically organized religious organization imbedded into the larger
society. The church can be an ecclesia or a denomination. Ecclesia is a large bureaucratic
religious organization formally integrated into the state where most or all of a state’s
citizens are members. It means that ecclesia is the national or state religion. Usually,
people become automatically part of the ecclesia when they are born. Examples of
ecclesiae existing in the world are the following: Islam in Saudi Arabia (Sunni Islam) and in
some other Middle Eastern states, Catholic Church in Spain, Lutheran Church in Sweden,
and Anglican Church in England. Because ecclesia and the state are so closely integrated,
some ecclesiastic societies like Middle Eastern states have religious leaders who rule the
state or have much influence over it. Denomination, the same as ecclesia, is a large,
bureaucratic religious organization integrated into the society; but unlike ecclesia, is not a
formal part of the state. Membership to a denomination is usually caused by the
membership of the parents. Membership to a denomination lasts until death whether
actively practicing or not unless they convert to another denomination.
Sect
It is a relatively small religious organization, not deeply integrated into the larger society,
and often contradicts with some societal norms and values influenced by the larger
religious organization. Commonly, sects are breakaway of the larger denomination in an
effort to preserve what members deemed as original views of the denomination. Their
worship styles can be more emotional compared to denominations where worship
services are commonly formal. Sect members actively proselytize to recruit new
members.
Cult
It is a small religious organization that contradicts most of the societal norms and values
of the larger society. Cults and sects are generally similar except in some key areas. First,
unlike sects, they did not break away from larger denominations instead originate outside
the common religious institutions. Second, they are secretive and do not actively
proselytize. Third, they much rely on charismatic leaders who have extraordinary
personal qualities.

RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS IN THE PHILIPPINES

Roman Catholic Christianity
Roman Catholic has the largest religious members in the Philippines. Catholics believe in
one God who has three forms: God the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit; known as the
Holy Trinity. There are three sacraments considered by Catholics as holy. These are
Water baptism, Confirmation, and Eucharist.
Islam
It is considered as the second-largest religion in the country. It existed in the country even
before the introduction of Christianity. Same with Christians, Muslims also believe in one
supreme God known to them as Allah. There are five principles in the Islamic belief system
that Muslims adhere to. These are (1) Shahada, declaration of faith; (2) Salat, the prayer;
(3) Zakat, almsgiving or charity; (4) Ramadan, the ritual fast; and (5) Hajj, the pilgrimage.
Evangelical Protestant Christians
Protestantism was introduced in the Philippines by American Missionaries during the
American occupation in the early 19th century. Some protestant groups are affiliated with
the Philippine Council of Evangelical Churches. This organization, though similar to other
Christian groups, emerged as a counter to Roman Catholicism. The main beliefs include
the spreading of salvation through scriptural teachings, faith in the finished work of the
cross, which is the death and resurrection of Jesus, and a personal conversion known as
being “Born-Again.”
Iglesia ni Cristo (Philippine Church of Christ)
Unlike the previously mentioned religious organizations which originated from other
nations, Iglesia ni Cristo, commonly known as INC, was established within the country in
the early 19th century. This sect believes in a supreme God and in the power of its
scriptures but rejects the doctrine of Trinitarianism. They subscribe to the doctrine of
Unitarianism, which states that God is a singular entity and not into three forms.
Buddhism
The time of introduction of this religion to the country is unknown although archeological
records point towards the 6th or 7th century due to sea trade between the Empire of
India and early occupants of Philippine islands. The primary followers of this religion are
Chinese, Filipino-Chinese, Japanese, and other groups with Asian descent residing in the
country. Their main beliefs include suffering that is inherent in human existence, the
impermanence of everything in the world, and the absence of permanent soul.
Indigenous Beliefs
Indigenous traditions are already present in the country even before the arrival of colonial
religions of Islam and Christianity. The most common among traditional beliefs is the
animism, the belief that even non-living entities have spirits. Indigenous belief is often
characterized by worship into various gods or known as Polytheistic belief system.

Share of Filipino
Rank Religious Belief
Population

1 Roman Catholic Christianity 80.6 %

2 Islam 5.6 %

3 Evangelical Protestant Christians (PCEC) 2.7 %

4 Iglesia ni Cristo (Philippine Church of Christ) 2.5 %

Buddhism,Indigenous Beliefs, other Christians, and

5 8.6 %
Atheists
 LESSON 1- The Concept and Theories of Social Stratification

LESSON INTRODUCTION
Social stratification, which positions us in certain or uncertain levels or class in society, is a
fact of life that many a movement in human history has tried to alter or scrap altogether.
For the most part, though, the more pacified, if not apathetic, members of the society have
learned to play with the cards they’ve been dealt and move the ladder (with the intention
of going up) rather than pointing out the injustice in the system. But there are reasons
these systems are in place, and this lesson tackles the theories behind how it came to be.

TARGET COMPETENCIES
Fully understand and analyze the meaning, characteristics, various contending perspectives, and
types of social stratification
    
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:

1. Demonstrate understanding of the concept of social stratification;

2. Analyze the concept of stratification based on various theoretical perspectives;
and
3. Locate the manifestations of social stratification in today’s society.

SUBJECT MATTER
Social Stratification
Stratification refers to the division of large social groups into smaller groups based on
categories determined by economics (Atienza, Rico, Arugay et. al., 2016). According
to Ariola (2016), it is a hierarchy of positions regarding economic production which
influences the social rewards to those in the positions. Stratification in simple terms is the
division of people, by the hierarchy in positions, based on their access to economic
resources. The higher the access to economic resources, the higher one’s social class.
Social stratification reflects inequality in society. Social class also affects political
relations; the higher one’s class, the higher its level of political participation and influence.
The common bases of social stratification include wealth, property, access to material and
cultural goods, access to political power, race, gender, and religion (Atienza,
Rico, Arugay et. al., 2016). The impact of stratification based on different standards varies
from society to society.
Systems of Stratification
There are two systems of stratification, namely closed and open systems.

1. Closed system- Closed systems have rigid boundaries between social groups
 limiting interaction among various members who belong to different social
groups or hierarchy. This system is considered resistant to change as it allows
minimal to no exchanges between social groups. An example of a rigid closed
system is the Caste system. Caste promotes belief in destined status by the
spiritual higher being than the promotion of freedom to decide on one’s fate in
life. People under caste should accept their social standing and permanently
remain in it under their death. They are expected to perform tasks and observe
social order based on their social standing.

1. Open system- under an open system. stratification is highly based on

meritocracy or achievement, allowing flexible social roles, and more social
engagements across people in other social groups and classes. A class system
based on the ownership of resources can also be considered as an open system
as it allows terms of social mobility, hence the existence of exogamous
relationships and marriages. Exogamous marriage is a marriage between
two individuals from different social classes.

Characteristics of Social Stratification

According to Ariola (2016), Social stratification can be characterized based on the
following:

1. Social stratification is universal

There is no society in the world that is free from stratification. According to Sorokin, “all
permanently organized groups are stratified.”

2.    Stratification is social

Biological factors such as age, sex, intelligence as well as strength can be a factor on which
status is distinguished; but education, property, power, experience, character, and
personality among others are more common bases of stratification.

3.     It is ancient

Stratification is a very old system. In almost all civilizations, segregations based on wealth
and power existed. Even during the period of Plato and Kautilya, emphasis on political,
social, and economic inequalities existed.
     4.  It is diverse in form
The forms of stratification differ from society to society. In India, stratification in a form of
caste is found. Aryas’ society was divided into four varnas: Brahmins, Kshatriyas,
Vaishyas, and Sudras. Ancient Greeks were divided between Freemen and slaves while
Romans were divided into patricians and plebians. New and old societies have different
forms and levels of stratification.
    5.  Social stratification is consequential
Stratification affects the ‘life chances’ and ‘lifestyle’ of individuals. Depending on the
society to which they belong and on the openness or closeness of the system,
stratification affects the chances of individuals to survive, to have good health, to obtain
opportunities and education, to secure employment, and chances of being fairly treated. A
lifestyle that includes preference in terms of music, dress, food, recreational activities, etc.
is also affected by social stratification.
Theoretical Perspectives on Social Stratification
The existence and proliferation of various social stratifications can be examined using
different theoretical perspectives. There are two main theories that explain such namely
functionalism, and conflict theory.

1. Functionalism

Functionalism maintains that society is a complex system of interrelated and independent

components and each component influences or affects one another. Each component
serves a purpose in order to maintain the stability of society. Functionalists believe that
social stratification is based on the intrinsic value of social activities or roles (Atienza,
Rico, Arugay et. al., 2016). In the Davis-Moore thesis by Kingsley Davis and Wilbert
Moore in 1945, it was pointed out that a social role with greater functional purpose will
result in greater reward, and that stratification symbolizes the unequal value of different
works. This causes members to seek high-value positions and to do well on their assigned
work. This means that stratification or inequality is necessary as it motivates individuals
to be efficient and productive in their work.

2.   Conflict Theory

Conflict theory views stratification critically as it perpetuates inequality. Many of the

ideas under conflict theory were drawn from the works of Karl Marx. He believed that
relationships in society is based on the factors of production, hence social stratification is
influenced by the economic forces. For Marx, society is divided into two groups:
the Bourgeoisie that controls the modes of production, and the proletariats who provide
manual labor needed to produce goods. Marx believed that inequalities between
the bourgeoisie and proletariats cause workers to experience unfair treatment,
exploitation, and alienation. this situation for Marx leads to class conflict. Conflict theory
holds that inequality is harmful as it creates a fixed system of winners and losers.
Social Mobility
Social mobility is the ability of individuals or groups to change their positions within a
social stratification system (Atienza, Rico, Arugay et. al., 2016). Change can either an
individual move from lower to higher social class or an individual loses his/her status and
moves to a much lower position. A major factor for this is the accumulation of wealth.
Upward mobility- is the term that refers to upward movement in social class. Examples of
this are a person who accumulated sufficient wealth to alleviate him/herself from his/her
previous status or class, someone who rose to fame or power like celebrities and
politicians, and an individual who landed good employment or promotion.
Downward mobility- it refers to the individual losing his/her status and moves to a lower
one. This can be caused by financial challenges, loss of employment, illness, and not
finishing school among others.
Intergenerational mobility- According to Coleen Cleveland in her online discussion in
study.com, intergenerational mobility refers to changes in the family’s social and
economic position that takes place from one generation to another. Here, mobility is
measured based on the level of association between parents’ and children’s
socioeconomic status; stronger association means more transmission of advantage and
less mobility and vice versa (Fox, Torche, & Wardfogel, 2016).
Intragenerational mobility- According to Collins dictionary, intragenerational mobility is
simply defined as the movement of an individual within or between social hierarchy in
his/her lifetime.
 LESSON 2- Social Inequalities: Poverty, Gender, Ethnicity, and Race,
and Persons with Disabilities

LESSON INTRODUCTION
Socio-political stratification, along with the instinctive “survival of the fittest” rule in the
animal kingdom, naturally leads to social equality (how we treat other members of the
society who are perceived differently from ours, most of which has no biological basis).
But as much as the laws of the actual jungle may apply to the mammals in the concrete
jungle, human beings have used (and misused) the capability to think above the other
inhabitants of the world we live in. Somehow, within all these social structures, humans
have treated their fellow human beings as that on a lower level, without recognizing that
discrimination in any form is just a product of social construction. Understanding how
stripped to our very core, we are (or should) not be that different from one another may
give us a twinkle of hope in bringing social justice in our daily dealings with people.

TARGET COMPETENCIES
Become fully aware of various problems being faced by the society concerning poverty, gender
inequality, ethnicity and race, and Persons With Disabilities (PWD); understand the causes of
 these problems and identify solutions for these.
    
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:

1. have awareness on various inequality issues in contemporary society;

2. identify and discuss personal experiences related to the topics; and
3. find viable solutions to solve the issues and problems identified in this lesson

SUBJECT MATTER
Social Inequality
Social inequality is the existence of unequal opportunities and rewards for the different
social positions or statuses within a group or society (Ariola, 2016). It happens when
resources are unevenly distributed favoring individuals or groups of people. While merit is
being claimed as the primary basis for resource distribution, various researches have
shown that distribution is widely affected by other socially defined conditions. Social
inequality is linked to racial, ethnic, and gender inequalities among others.
Poverty
In common words, poverty is a condition when there is minimal, absence, or deprivation of
access to natural and societal resources. Conditions of poverty or the identification of
poor people vary from society to society. In support to this, it was stated by Joanna Mack
in her online article Absolute and Overall Poverty (2016), that what is classed acute
deprivation will vary from society to society and through time, and what is considered as
premature death depend on the average life expectancy of every society. But in 1995, the
United Nations adopted two universal classifications of poverty: Absolute poverty and
Overall poverty.
Absolute poverty
According to the UN, absolute poverty is a condition characterized by severe deprivation
of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health,
shelter, education, and information. It depends not only on income but also on access to
services.
Overall Poverty
Compared to absolute poverty, it takes various forms including the following: lack of
income and productive resources to ensure sustainable livelihoods; hunger and
malnutrition; ill health; limited or lack of access to education and other basic services;
increased morbidity and mortality from illness; homelessness and inadequate housing;
unsafe environments and social discrimination and exclusion. it is also characterized by a
lack of participation in decision making and in civil, social, and cultural life. it occurs in all
countries: as mass poverty in many developing countries, pockets of poverty amid wealth
in developed countries,  loss of livelihoods as a result of economic recession, sudden
poverty as a result of disaster or conflict, the poverty of low-wage workers, and the utter
destitution of people who fall outside family support systems, social institutions, and
safety nets.
In 1998, the United Nations released a statement signed by the heads of all UN agencies
defining poverty as a “denial of choices and opportunities, a violation of human dignity. It
means a lack of basic capacity to participate effectively in society. It means not having
enough to feed and clothe a family, not having a school or clinic to go, not having the land
on which to grow one’s food or a job to earn one’s living, not having any access to credit. it
means insecurity, powerlessness, and exclusion of individuals, households, and
communities. It means susceptibility to violence, and it often implies living on marginal or
fragile environments, without access to clean water or sanitation.” According to the
World Bank, global poverty is set at $1.90 as of 2015 based on 2011 prices. A person with
less than $1.90 a day is considered poor (extreme poverty). Based on estimates, 734
million (10% of the world population) lived in poverty; far from 1.9 billion in 1990. With
the current crisis brought by COVID-19 pandemic and oil price drop, World
Bank foresees that an additional 40 million to 60 million people will fall into extreme
poverty due to loss of a job, loss of remittances, rising prices of services and commodities,
and disruption of essential services such as education and healthcare which
disproportionately affect the poor. Global extreme poverty could rise by 0.3 to 0.9% in
2020. People living under $3.20 dollars a day can increase by 40 million to 140 million
while those living under $5.50 dollars a day can increase by 70 million to 180 million.
Poverty in the Philippines
Despite good economic performance in the past years, self-rated poverty grew by 2
percent from 44% in 2016 to 46% in 2017. This is based on the survey conducted by the
Social Weather Stations (SWS) covering the fourth quarter of 2017. In the last quarter of
the 2019 survey conducted by SWS, a higher 54% of families considered themselves
poor. 13.1 million self-rated poor in that quarter is the highest in five years since
September 2014 where 55% said they are poor. However, the annual average of self-
rated poverty is slightly lower at 45% compared to 48% in 2018. Out of 54% self-rated
poor during the last quarter of 2019 survey, 7% or 1.6 million families are ‘newly poor’ or
they are not poor 1-4 years ago while 40% or 9.7 million always considered themselves
poor. According to SWS, an average family size of five members must have P15,000
monthly so as not to be considered poor. Those in Mindanao must have P10,000 while in
Metro Manila P20,000.
Based on the recent government records, Philippine Statistical Authority (PSA) reports
that in 2018, the poverty incidence—the proportion of poor Filipinos whose per capita
income is not sufficient to meet their basic needs—was estimated at 16.6 percent or 17.6
million Filipinos. According to PSA, the poverty threshold is estimated at P10,727 for a
family of five. Meanwhile, 5.2 percent lives under subsistence or those whose income is
not enough to buy even the basic food needs.
Sectoral Poverty
Based on the data released by the Philippine Statistics Authority last June 2017, Farmers,
Fishermen, and Children consistently posted the highest poverty incidence among basic
sectors for 2015. Among the nine basic sectors identified in Republic Act 8425 or Social
Reform and Poverty Alleviation Act, Farmers, Fishermen, and Children  belonging to poor
families have the highest poverty incidence in 34.3%, 34.0%, and 31.4% respectively in
2015. These are the same sector with the highest poverty incidence in 2006, 2009, and
2012. Below is the table showing the poverty incidence for the nine basic sectors from
2006 to 2015.
Gender
Inequalities based on gender are also an issue around the world most especially in illiberal
and non-democratic societies. Gender is defined as culturally-imposed characteristics
that define masculinity and femininity (Atienza et. al., 2016). It is different from sex which
refers to biological and anatomical assignment distinguishing a male from female. While
sex is unchanging given that it is assigned biologically, gender- as a social construct- is
fluid in the sense that it can be understood in various perspectives and can be  changed
depending on the norms, values, and traditions of a particular society. One of the
problems associated with gender is the gender role or tasks and conducts expected to be
performed by a person based on his or her sex. There are societies that are critical in
observing gender roles. An example of  this is women are expected to stay at home and
take care of the household while men are expected to work and provide the needs of the
family. Gender identity is also a critical concept in understanding gender inequality. It
refers to how a person identifies him or herself as part of a particular gender.
Based on the World Economic Forum Global Gender Gap Report 2020, it states that
gender parity will not be attained in the next 99.5 years. The gender parity gap was
measured on the following criteria: (1) Economic Participation and Opportunity; (2)
Educational Attainment; (3) Political Empowerment; and (4) Health and Survival. Among
Asian countries, the Philippines notched the highest rank with a score of 0.781 at
16th place. Out of 153 countries surveyed, the figure below shows the top 10
countries with the closest gender parity in the world:
Women
There have been consistent developments in the treatment of women but the way is still
long to reach gender equity. Women, in general, face discrimination in terms of accessing
healthcare, education, political representation, labor markets among others (United
Nations Development Program, 2015). An example of this is the treatment of women in
North Africa who hold less than one in five paid jobs in the non-agriculture sector. Girls in
Sub-Saharan Africa, Oceania, and Western Asia still face hurdles in entering primary
and secondary school (United Nations report cited by Nuncio et. al., 2016). Women’s
political participation is also very limited. Top government positions in some societies are
still dominated by men. The vulnerability of women in accessing services and participating
in political processes is an institutional problem given that most societies have a
patriarchal system of social organization. Patriarchy refers to the socially sanctioned and
systematic domination of males over females (Atienza et. al., 2016). In the Global Gender
Gap Report released by the World Economic Forum for 2017, the global gap to gender
parity widens to 32% from 31.7% in 2016. Though the global gender gap widens, the
country with a severe gender gap had improved over the last 12 months  with countries
reducing gender gaps for more than half. Talent is one of the most essential factors for
growth and competitiveness (World Economic Forum). To have a vibrant economy, equal
opportunity must be given regardless of gender or sexual orientation. Much has been
improved in the case of the Philippines. As stated above, the Philippines is the highest-
ranked Asian country in Global Gender Parity Report 2020 although it slides out of the
top 10 based on previous reports.

LGBT
In recent times, another classification of gender inequality has become prominent. The
members of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender (LGBT) community have been
experiencing discrimination the same with women and have become more active in
demanding equal treatment. The LGBT communities have been demanding legal
recognition and protection against all forms of discrimination. One of their demands is the
recognition of same-sex marriage. They are significant improvements in the treatment of
LGBT. One of which is the continuous trend of States allowing same-sex union. In the
United States alone, the Federal Supreme Court made a landmark decision in 2015 by
declaring states’ same-sex marriage bans as unconstitutional automatically giving
marriage equality to all 50 states. In May 2017, Taiwan became the first Asian State to
allow the same-sex union. Taiwan’s constitutional court declared the definition of
marriage as limited to man and woman unconstitutional paving a way for same-sex
marriage. Despite these developments, there are still bigger battles that need to be won
to achieve gender parity not only for women but including LGBT members.

Ethnicity and Race Issues

Ethnicity and Race has a different meaning. As defined by Atienza et. al.
(2016), Ethnicity is the feeling of affinity or loyalty towards a particular population,
cultural group, or territorial area. It is complex as it has both racial and cultural overtones.
it is a cultural identity operating at a deeper emotional level. Race, on the other hand,
refers to a group of people who shares a common ancestry; has something to do with
physical or genetic differences among mankind that distinguish one group of people to
another on the bases of skin or hair color, physique, and facial features to name a
few. Racism as a political term refers to a set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices used to
justify the superior treatment of one racial or ethnic group and the inferior treatment of
another racial or ethnic group (Atienza et. al., 2016).
Inequality based on ethnicity and race is prevalent especially in multicultural societies
(Atienza et. al., 2016). With the massive global migration due to colonization, civil wars,
and globalization, a lot of multicultural societies have existed. The inevitable interaction
between different racial and ethnic groups results in conflicts and domination of one
group over the other due to differences in cultural backgrounds and practices; resulting in
discrimination. An example is the different treatments among
native Americans, African Americans, and white Americans.
The Philippines is considered a multicultural State composed of numerous groups with
different historical and cultural backgrounds. Based on the study of the United Nations
Development Program (UNDP), there are about 110 Ethnolinguistic groups in the country
with 14-17 million Filipinos belonging to Indigenous groups. The biggest IP is
the Lumads (the name which means ‘born of the earth’) which comprises 61% of the
indigenous population. Some of the Lumad groups are Bagobo, Tboli, Ata,
Bukidnon, Dibabawon, Manaka, etc. The majority or 61% of them are located in Mindanao
while 33% are in the Cordillera Region; others are in the Visayas region. The Philippines
has the “Indigenous Peoples Act,” an act protecting the rights of IPs but despite the
presence of the law, numerous violations of IP rights exist. IPs are struggling over their
ancestral domain, suffering from poverty, and countless human rights violations.
Persons with Disabilities (PWD)
Another minority who experiences unfair treatment in terms of access to basic social
services, employment, and other opportunities in the Persons With Disabilities (PWD)
sector. According to the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Persons with
Disabilities, Persons With Disabilities or PWD include those who have long-term physical,
mental, intellectual or sensory impairments which in interaction with various barriers may
hinder their full and effective participation in society on an equal basis with others.
According to the World Health Organization (cited in the website of the Department of
Health), there are approximately 1 billion people around the world that have some form of
disability; about 80% of which live in low-income countries. Reports also show that PWDS
have less access to healthcare services, therefore, having unmet needs (WHO cited by
DOH).
In the Philippines. about 1.57% of the population or 1.4 million Filipinos have disabilities.
This is based on the 2010 Census of Population and Housing conducted by the Philippine
Statistics Authority. The common problem of PWDs is access to healthcare services,
PWD-friendly pathways and platforms, PWD-friendly public services such as
transportation, and access to job opportunities. Currently, the country has Republic Act
7277 or “An Act Providing for the Rehabilitation and Self-Reliance of Disabled Persons
and Their Integration into the Mainstream of Society and for Other Purpose” commonly
known as the Magna Carta for Disabled Persons. The law mandates the Department of
Health to have a National Health Program for PWD to ensure their easy access to
healthcare services.