All CE Formulas
All CE Formulas
All CE Formulas
Quadratic Equation
Form:
Ax2 + Bx + C = 0
Roots:
x=
−B ± √B2 − 4AC
2A
Sum of Roots:
x1 + x2 = −
B
A
Product of Roots:
x1 ∙ x2 = +
C
A
Progression
AM ∙ HM = (GM)2
Arithmetic Progression:
d = a2 − a1 = a3 − a2
an = a1 + (n − 1)d
an = ax + (n − x)d
Sn =
n
2
(a1 + an)
Harmonic Progression:
- reciprocal of arithmetic
progression
Geometric Progression:
r = a2/a1 = a3/a2
an = a1 r
n−1
an = ax r
n−x
Sn = a1
1 − rn
1−r
S∞ =
a1
1−r
Trigonometric Identities
Squared Identities:
sin2A + cos2A = 1
1 + tan2A = sec2A
1 + cot2A = csc2A
tan (A ± B) =
tan A ± tan B
1 ∓ tan A tan B
cos 2A = 2 cos2A − 1
cos 2A = 1 − 2 sin2A
tan 2A =
2 tan A
1 − tan2A
Spherical Trigonometry
Sine Law:
sin 𝑎
sin 𝐴
=
sin 𝑏
sin 𝐵
=
sin 𝑎
sin 𝐴
Spherical Polygon:
AB =
πR2E
180°
Spherical Pyramid:
V=
1
3
ABH =
πR3E
540°
Binomial Theorem
Form:
(x + y)n
rth term:
rth = Cm x
n−mym
where: m=r-1
n
Age Problems
→ underline specific time conditions
Motion Problems
→a=0
→ s = vt
Work Problems
rate =
work
time
Clock Problems
θ=
11M − 60H
+ if M is ahead of H
- if M is behind of H
n-sided Polygon
Interior Angle, ɤ:
γ=
(n − 2)180°
Deflection Angle, δ:
δ = 180° − γ
Central Angle, β:
β=
360°
E = spherical excess
E = (A+B+C+D…) – (n-2)180°
Area = n ∙ ATRIANGLE
Area = n ∙
1
2
R2sinβ
Area = n ∙
1
2
ah
Polygon Names
3 - triangle
4 - quad/tetragon
5 - pentagon
6 - hexagon/sexagon
7 - septagon/heptagon
8 - octagon
9 - nonagon
10 - decagon
11 - undecagon/
monodecagon
12 - dodecagon/
bidecagon
13 - tridecagon
14 - quadridecagon
15 - quindecagon/
pentadecagon
16 - hexadecagon
17 - septadecagon
18 - octadecagon
19 - nonadecagon
20 - icosagon
21 - unicosagon
22 - do-icosagon
30 - tricontagon
31 - untricontagon
40 - tetradecagon
50 - quincontagon
60 - hexacontagon
100 - hectogon
1,000 - chilliagon
10,000 - myriagon
1,000,000 - megagon
∞ - aperio (circle)
Triangle
A=
1
2
bh
A=
1
2
ab sin C
A=
1
2
a2
sin B sin C
sin A
A = √s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
s=
a+b+c
Common Quadrilateral
Square:
A = s2
P = 4s
d = √2s
Parallelogram:
A = bh
A = ab sin θ
A=
1
2
d1d2 sin θ
Rhombus:
A = ah
A = a2 sin θ
A=
1
2
d1d2
Trapezoid
A=
1
2
(a + b)h
A1
A2
=
n
m
;w=√
ma2 + nb2
m+n
General Quadrilateral
Non-cyclic Quadrilateral:
Triangle-Circle Relationship
Circumscribing Circle:
AT =
abc
4R
diameter =
opposite side
sine of angle
d=
a
sin A
=
b
sin B
=
c
sin C
Inscribed Circle:
AT = rs
Escribed Circle:
AT = Ra(s − a)
AT = Rb(s − b)
AT = Rc(s − c)
Ex-circle-
In-circle
1
𝑟
=
1
𝑟1
+
1
𝑟2
+
1
𝑟3
s=
a+b+c+d
1 minute of arc =
1 nautical mile
1 nautical mile =
6080 feet
1 statute mile =
5280 feet
1 knot =
1 nautical mile
per hour
Centers of Triangle
INCENTER
- the center of the inscribed circle (incircle)
of the triangle & the point of intersection of
the angle bisectors of the triangle.
CIRCUMCENTER
- the center of the circumscribing circle
(circumcircle) & the point of intersection of
the perpendicular bisectors of the triangle.
ORTHOCENTER
- the point of intersection of the altitudes of
the triangle.
CENTROID
- the point of intersection of the medians of
the triangle.
EULER LINE
- the line that would pass through the
orthocenter, circumcenter, and centroid of
the triangle.
Pappus Theorem
Pappus Theorem 1:
SA = L ∙ 2πR
Pappus Theorem 2:
V = A ∙ 2πR
Prism or Cylinder
V = ABH = AXL
v
LA = PBH = PxL
Pointed Solid
V=
1
3
ABH
LA = πrL
Reg. Pyramid
LA =
1
2
PBL
Special Solids
V = ABHave
LA = PBHave
V=
H
3
(A1 + A2 + √A1A2)
Prismatoid:
V=
H
6
Spherical Solids
Sphere:
V=
4
3
πR3
LA = 4πR2
Spheroid:
V=
4
3
πabc
LA = 4π [
a2 + b2 + c2
3
]
Prolate Spheroid:
V=
4
3
πabb
LA = 4π [
a2 + b2 + b2
3
]
Oblate Spheroid:
V=
4
3
πaab
LA = 4π [
a2 + a2 + b2
3
]
Spherical Lune:
Alune
θrad
=
4πR2
2π
Alune = 2θR
2
Spherical Wedge:
Vwedge
θrad
=
4
3
πR3
2π
Vwedge =
2
3
θR3
Spherical Zone:
Azone = 2πRh
Spherical Sector:
V=
1
3
AzoneR
V=
2
3
πR2h
Spherical Segment:
V=
1
3
πh2(3R − h)
Rectangle:
A = bh
P = 2a + 2b
d = √b2 + h2
Ellipse
A = πab C = 2π√
a2 + b2
# of diagonals:
d=
n
2
(n − 3)
Tetrahedron
H = a√
2
3
SA = a2√3
V = a3
√2
12
Circle
- the locus of point that moves such
that its distance from a fixed point
called the center is constant.
General Equation:
x2 + y2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
Standard Equation:
(x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2
Analytic Geometry
Slope-intercept form:
y = mx + b
Point-slope form:
m=
y − y1
x − x1
Two-point form:
y2 − y1
x2 − x1
=
y − y2
x − x2
Point-slope form:
x
a
+
y
b
=1
Archimedean Solids
- the only 13 polyhedra that are
convex, have identical vertices, and
their faces are regular polygons.
where:
E → # of edges
V → # of vertices
N → # of faces
n → # of sides of each face
v → # of faces meeting at a vertex
E=
Nn
2
V=
Nn
v
d = √(y2 − y1)
2 + (x2 − x1)
d=
|Ax + By + C|
√A2 + B2
d=
|C1 − C2|
√A2 + B2
Angle between two lines:
tan θ =
m2 − m1
1 + m1m2
Conic Sections
General Equation:
Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
Based on discriminant:
B2 − 4AC = 0 ∴ parabola
B2 − 4AC < 0 ∴ ellipse
B2 − 4AC > 0 ∴ hyperbola
Parabola
- the locus of point that moves such that it is always equidistant from a
fixed point (focus) and a fixed line (directrix).
General Equation:
y2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
x2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
Standard Equation:
(x − h)2 = ±4a(y − k)
(y − k)2 = ±4a(x − h)
Elements:
Eccentricity, e:
e=
df
dd
=1
Length of latus
rectum, LR:
LR = 4a
Ellipse
- the locus of point that moves such
that the sum of its distances from
two fixed points called the foci is
constant.
General Equation:
Ax2 + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
Standard Equation:
(x − h)2
a2
+
(y − k)2
b2
=1
(x − h)2
b2
+
(y − k)2
a2
=1
Elements:
Location of foci, c:
c2 = a2 − b2
Length of LR:
LR =
2b2
Loc. of directrix, d:
d=
a
e
Eccentricity, e:
e=
c
a
Hyperbola
- the locus of point that moves such
that the difference of its distances
from two fixed points called the foci
is constant.
General Equation:
Ax2 − Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
Standard Equation:
(x − h)2
a2
−
(y − k)2
b2
=1
(y − k)2
a2
−
(x − h)2
b2
=1
Elements:
Location of foci, c:
c2 = a2 + b2
Eq’n of asymptote:
y − k = ±m(x − h)
where:
m is (+) for upward asymptote;
m is (-) for downward
m = b/a if the transverse axis is horizontal;
m = a/b if the transverse axis is vertical
Same as ellipse:
Length of LR,
Loc. of directrix, d
Eccentricity, e
𝑥2 → 𝑥𝑥1
𝑦2 → 𝑦𝑦1
𝑥→
𝑥 + 𝑥1
𝑦→
𝑦 + 𝑦1
2
𝑥𝑦 →
𝑥𝑦1 + 𝑦𝑥1
Engineering Economy
Simple Interest:
I = P𝑖n
F = P(1 + 𝑖n)
Compound Interest:
F = P(1 + 𝑖)n
F = P (1 +
r
m
)
mt
ER =
I
P
= (1 −
r
m
)
m
−1
F = Pert
ER = er − 1
Annuity:
F=A[
(1 + 𝑖)n
′
−1
𝑖
]
P=A[
(1 + 𝑖)n
′
−1
𝑖(1 + 𝑖)n
]
Perpetuity:
P=
A
𝑖
= F(1 + 𝑖)−n
Capitalized Cost:
C = FC +
OM
𝑖
+
RC − SV
(1 + 𝑖)n − 1
AC = C ∙ 𝑖
AC = FC ∙ 𝑖 + OM +
(RC − SV)𝑖
(1 + i)n − 1
Single-payment-compound-amount factor:
(F/P, 𝑖, n) = (1 + 𝑖)n
Single-payment-present-worth factor:
(P/F, 𝑖, n) = (1 + 𝑖)−n
Equal-payment-series-compound-amount factor:
(F/A, 𝑖, n) = [
(1 + 𝑖)n
′
−1
𝑖
]
Equal-payment-sinking-fund factor:
(A/F, 𝑖, n) = [
(1 + 𝑖)n
′
−1
𝑖
]
−1
Equal-payment-series-present-worth factor:
(P/A, 𝑖, n) = [
(1 + 𝑖)n
′
−1
𝑖(1 + 𝑖)n
]
Equal-payment-series-capital-recovery factor:
(A/P, 𝑖, n) = [
(1 + 𝑖)n
′
−1
𝑖(1 + 𝑖)n
]
−1
where:
F → future worth
P → principal or present worth
i → interest rate per interest period
r → nominal interest rate
n → no. of interest periods
m → no. of interest period per year
t → no. of years
ER → effective rate
where:
F → future worth
P → principal or present worth
A → periodic payment
i → interest rate per payment
n → no. of interest periods
n’ → no. of payments
where:
C → capitalized cost
FC → first cost
OM → annual operation
or maintenance cost
RC → replacement cost
SV → salvage cost
AC → annual cost
Depreciation
BVm = FC − Dm
Straight-Line:
d=
FC − SV
Dm = d(m)
Sinking Fund:
d = (FC − SV) [
(1 + i)n − 1
𝑖
]
−1
Dm = d [
(1 + i)m − 1
𝑖
]
Sum-of-the-Years-Digit (SYD):
dm = (FC − SV) [
n−m+1
∑ years
]
Dm = (FC − SV) [
∑ xnn−m+1
∑ xn1
]
BVm = FC(1 − k)
m
BVm = FC(1 − k)
m
k = 2/n k → obtained
Dm = FC − BVm
d=
FC − SV
Qn
D = dQm
where:
FC → first cost
SV → salvage cost
d → depreciation
per year
n → economic life
m → any year before n
BVm → book value
after m years
Dm → total depreciation
where:
FC → first cost
SV → salvage cost
d → depreciation per year
Qn → qty produced during
economic life
Qm → qty produced during
up to m year
Dm → total depreciation
CALTECH:
Mode 3 3
x
(time)
y
(BV)
0 FC
n SV
n+1 SV
CALTECH:
Mode 3 6
x
(time)
y
(BV)
0 FC
n SV
CALTECH:
Mode 3 2
x
(time)
y
(BV)
0 FC
n SV
Inflation:
𝑖f = 𝑖 + f + 𝑖f
Break-even analysis:
cost = revenue
Rate of return:
RR =
annual net profit
capital
RP =
1
RR
Differential Calculus
Curvature:
k=
y"
[1 + (y′)2]
3
2
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
= y′ = 0
Point of inflection:
𝑑2𝑦
𝑑𝑥2
= y" = 0
Versed sine:
vers A = 1 − cos A
Versed cosine:
covers A = 1 − sin A
Half versed sine:
hav A =
1 − cos A
Exsecant:
exsec A = sec A − 1
Unit Circle
Radius of curvature:
ρ=
[1 + (y′)2]
3
2
𝑦"
(+) minima
(-) maxima
A = 1.5πa2
P = 8a
r = a(1 − sin θ) r = a(1 − cos θ)
r = a(1 + sin θ) r = a(1 + cos θ)
1 revolution
= 2π rad
= 360˚
= 400 grads
= 6400 mills
Statistics
Me
th =
n+1
2
Me
th =
1
2
[(
n
2
)+(
n
2
+ 1)]
Standard Deviation
NOTE:
If not specified whether population/sample
in a given problem, look for POPULATION.
NOTE:
-1 ≤ r ≤ +1; otherwise erroneous
Variance
standard deviation = σ
variance = σ2
Mean/average value
mv =
1
b−a
∫ f(x)dx
b
Mean value
RMS = √
1
b−a
∫ f(x)2dx
b
Walli’s Formula
∫ cosm θ sinn θ dθ =
[(m − 1)(m− 3)(m − 5)… (1 or 2)][(n − 1)(n − 3)(n − 5)… (1 or 2)]
π
2
0
∙α
NOTE:
x = r cos θ
y = r sin θ
r = x2 + y2
θ = tan−1
y
x
P(x) = p(qx−1)
P(x) =
μxe−μ
x!
Transportation Engineering
R=
v2
g(e + f)
gR
P = vR
P → power needed to move vehicle in watts
v → velocity of vehicle in m/s
R → sum of diff. resistances in N
Design of Pavement
t=√
3W
f
t=√
3W
2f
t=√
3W
4f
t → thickness of pavement
W → wheel load
f → allow tensile stress of concrete
Flexible pavement
t=√
W
𝜋f1
−r
t=
expansion pressure
pavement density
SF = √
Es
Ep
R=
A (100,000,000)
ADT ∙ N ∙ 365 ∙ L
R=
A (1,000,000)
ADT ∙ N ∙ 365
A → no. of accidents during period of analysis
ADT → average daily traffic entering all legs
N → time period in years
SR =
f∙i
f∙i∙p
f → fatal
i → injury
p → property damage
Us =
∑d
∑t
=
n
∑(
1
U1
)
Ut =
∑
d
t
n
=
∑U1
n
q = kUs
Fractiles
Range
= 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚 − 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚
Coefficient of Range
=
𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚 − 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚
𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚 + 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚
Quartiles
when n is even
Q1 =
1
4
n Q2 =
2
4
n Q3 =
3
4
n
when n is odd
Interquartile Range, IQR
= 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 − 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒
= Q3 −Q1
Coefficient of IQR
=
𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 − 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒
𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 + 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒
=
Q3 −Q1
Q3 +Q1
Outlier
→ extremely high or low data higher than
or lower than the following limits:
Q1 − 1.5IQR > x
Q3 + 1.5IQR < x
Decile or Percentile
im =
m
10 or 100
(n)
Q1 =
1
4
(n + 1) ; Q1 =
1
4
(n + 1) ; Q1 =
1
4
(n + 1)
Normal Distribution
Z-score or
standard score
or variate
z=
x−μ
σ
x → no. of observations
μ → mean value, x̅
σ → standard deviation
→ Mode Stat
→ AC Shift 1 Distr
left of z → P(
right of z → R(
bet. z & axis → Q(
→ Input
Fibonacci Numbers
an =
1
√5
[(
1 + √5
2
)
n
−(
1 − √5
2
)
n
Tip to remember:
𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 1 = 0
Mode Eqn 5
𝑥=
1 ± √5
2
Exponential Distribution
P(x ≥ a) = e−λa
P(x ≤ a) = 1 − e−λa
P(a ≤ x ≤ b) = e−λa − e−λb
Measurement
Corrections
Due to temperature:
(add/subtract); measured length
C = αL(T2 − T1)
Due to pull:
(add/subtract); measured length
C=
(P2 − P1)L
EA
Due to sag:
(subtract only); unsupported length
C=
w2L3
24P2
Due to slope:
(subtract only); measured length
C2 = S2 − h2
Normal Tension:
PN =
0.204W√AE
√PN − P
measure lay-out
too long add subtract
too short subtract add
Probable Errors
E = 0.6745√
∑(x − x̅)
n−1
Em =
E
√n
= 0.6745√
∑(x − x̅)
n(n − 1)
Proportionalities of weight, w:
E=error; d=distance; n=no. of trials
𝑤∝
1
𝐸2
𝑤∝
1
𝑑
𝑤∝𝑛
hcr = 0.067K
2
h = h2 +
D2
D1 + D2
(h1 − h2) − 0.067D1D2
Stadia Measurement
Horizontal:
D = d + (f + c)
D=(
𝑓
𝑖
)s+C
D = Ks + C
Inclined:
D = Ks cos θ + C
H = D cos θ
V = D sin θ
Subtense Bar
D = cot
θ
2
Reduction to
Sea Level
CD
R
=
MD
R+h
Leveling
Elev𝐵 = Elev𝐴 + 𝐵𝑆 − 𝐹𝑆
Inclined Upward:
Inclined Downward:
Total Error:
eT = error/setup ∙ no. of setups
Error of Closure:
= √ΣL2 + ΣD2
Relative Error/Precision:
=
Error of Closure
Perimeter
Lat = L cos α
Dep = L sin α
Trapezoidal Rule:
A=
d
2
[h1 + hn + 2Σh]
A=
d
3
2A = Σ(DMD ∙ Lat)
2A = Σ(DMD ∙ Dep)
Parabolic Curves
Symmetrical:
H=
L
8
(g1 + g2)
x2
y
=
(
L
2
)
2
H
L1
Unsymmetrical:
H=
L1L2
2(L1+L2)
(g1 + g2)
1 acre =
4047 m2
I
2
E = R [sec
I
2
− 1]
m = R [1 − cos
I
2
]
L = 2R sin
I
2
Lc = RI ∙
π
180°
20
D
=
2πR
360°
R=
1145.916
D
Spiral Curve
θ=
L2
2RLs
∙
180°
π
i=
θ
3
;p=
Ls
24R
x=
L3
6RLs
Y=L−
L5
40R2Ls
2
Ts =
Ls
2
+ (R + p) tan
I
2
Es = (R + p) sec
I
2
−R
Ls =
0.036k3
e=
0.0079k2
D
DC
=
L
Ls
Earthworks
𝑑𝐿
±𝑓𝐿
±𝑓
𝑑𝑅
±𝑓𝑅
A=
f
2
(dL + dR) +
w
4
(fL + fR)
Ve =
L
2
(A1 + A2)
Volume (Prismoidal):
VP =
L
6
Prismoidal Correction:
CP =
L
12
(c1 − c2)(d1 − d2)
VP = Ve − Cp
Volume (Truncated):
VT = ABase ∙ Have = A (
Σh
n
VT =
A
n
LT → long tangent
ST → short tangent
R → radius of simple curve
L → length of spiral from TS to any point
along the spiral
Ls → length of spiral
I → angle of intersection
Ic → angle of intersection of the simple
curve
p → length of throw or the distance from
tangent that the circular curve has been
offset
x → offset distance (right angle
distance) from tangent to any point on
the spiral
xc → offset distance (right angle
distance) from tangent to SC
Ec → external distance of the simple
curve
θ → spiral angle from tangent to any
point on the spiral
θS → spiral angle from tangent to SC
i → deflection angle from TS to any point
on the spiral
is → deflection angle from TS to SC
y → distance from TS along the tangent
to any point on the spiral
S = vt +
v2
2g(f ± G)
a = g(f ± G)
tb =
v
g(f ± G)
Eff =
f
fave
(100)
v → speed in m/s
t → perception-reaction time
f → coefficient of friction
G → grade/slope of road
200(√h1 + √h2)
2
L<S
L = 2(S) −
200(√h1 + √h2)
(deceleration)
(breaking time)
L>S
L=
A(S)2
122 + 3.5S
L<S
L = 2(S) −
122 + 3.5S
A → algebraic difference
of grades, in percent
L → length of sag curve
S → sight distance
L>S
L=
A(S)2
800H
L<S
L = 2(S) −
800H
A → algebraic difference of
grades, in percent
L → length of sag curve
L=
A(K)2
395
Horizontal Curve
L>S
R=
S2
8M
L<S
R=
L(2S − L)
8M
L → length of horizontal
curve
S → sight distance
R → radius of the curve
M → clearance from the
centerline of the road
H=C−
h1 + h2
too long
CD = MD (1 +
e
TL
)
too short
CD = MD (1 −
e
TL
)
Azimuth
from South
Properties of Fluids
W = Mg
ɤ=
W
V
;ρ=
M
V
ɤ = ρg =
pg
RT
s. v. =
V
M
=
1
ρ
s. g. =
ɤ
ɤ𝑤
=
ρ
ρ𝑤
EB = −
∆P
∆V
V
;β=
1
EB
μ=τ
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑉
=
FT
L2
υ=
μ
ρ
=
L2
σ=
pd
4
h=
4σcosθ
ɤd
Pressure
p = ɤh
h2 =
s. g.1
s. g.2
h1
h𝑤 = s. g.1 h1
Hydrostatic Forces
e=
Ig
Aӯ
On plane surfaces:
F = ɤh̅A
On curved surfaces:
Fℎ = ɤh̅A
F𝑣 = ɤV
F = √Fℎ
2 + F𝑣
Dams
F1 = ɤAh1 =
1
2
ɤh1
2
; F2 = ɤAh2 =
1
2
ɤh2
2
U1 = ɤh2B ; U2 =
1
2
(h1 − h2)ɤB
OM = F1 (
h
3
) + U1 (
1
2
B) + U2 (
2
3
B)
Rx̅ = RM − OM
FS𝑂 =
RM
OM
& FS𝑆 =
μR𝑦
R𝑥
𝑒=|
B
2
− x̅|
𝑒<
B
6
;q=−
R𝑦
B
[1 ±
6𝑒
B
𝑒>
B
6
;q=
2R𝑦
3x̅
𝑒=
B
6
;q=−
R𝑦
B
𝑒 = 0; q =
2R𝑦
Buoyancy
BF = W
BF = ɤ𝑤V𝑑
MG = metacentric height
MG = MB𝑂 ± GB𝑂
Use (-) if G is above BO and (+) if G is below BO.
Note that M is always above BO.
RM or OM = Wx
= W(MG sin θ)
MB𝑂 =
B2
12D
[1 +
tan2θ
2
MB𝑂 =
vs
VD sin θ
=
I
VD
NOTE:
ħ = vertical distance from cg of
submerged surface to liquid surface
Horizontal Motion:
tan θ =
a
g
Inclined Motion:
tan θ =
ah
g ± av
Vertical Motion:
p = ɤh (1 ±
a
g
Rotation:
tan θ =
ω2x
y=
ω2x2
2g
;
r2
h
=
x2
V=
1
2
πr2h
1 rpm =
π
30
rad/sec
z1 +
P1
ɤ
+
v1
2g
= z2 +
P2
ɤ
+
v2
2g
+ H. L.
with pump:
z1 +
P1
ɤ
+
v1
2g
+ HA = z2 +
P2
ɤ
+
v2
2g
+ H. L.
with turbine:
z1 +
P1
ɤ
+
v1
2g
− HE = z2 +
P2
ɤ
+
v2
2
2g
+ H. L.
efficiency =
output
input
; HP =
QɤE
746
H. L. = f
L
D
v2
2g
H. L. =
0.0826 f L Q2
D5
Manning’s Formula:
H. L. =
10.29 n2 L Q2
D16/3
H. L. =
10.64 L Q1.85
C1.85 D4.87
Series-Parallel Pipes
Series Connection:
QT = Q1 = Q2 = Qn
Parallel Connection:
QT = Q1 + Q2+. . . +Qn
(rigid pipes)
c=√
EB
ρw
(non-rigid pipes)
c=√
EB
ρw (1 +
EB D
Et
Without headloss:
v = √2gh
With headloss:
v = Cv√2gh
Q = CAo√2gh
C = CcCv
Cc =
a
A
Cv =
v
vt
H. L. =
v2
2g
[
1
Cv
2
− 1]
H. L. = ∆H[1 − Cv
2]
y=
x2
4Cv
2h
t=
2As
CAo√2g
(√h1 − √h2)
t=∫
As dh
CAo√2gh
h1
h2
Time in which water surfaces of two tanks will reach same elevation:
t=
2
CAo√2g
(As1)(As2)
(As1 + As2)
(√h1 − √h2)
Abel =
sgm
sgl
Atot
Vbel =
sgm
sgl
Vtot
Stresses/Hoops
St =
pD
2t
s=
2T
pD
St = tensile stress
p = unit pressure
D = inside diameter
t = thickness of wall
s = spacing of hoops
T = tensile force
Open Channel
Specific Energy:
E=
v2
2g
+d
v = C√RS
Theoretically:
C=√
8g
f
Kutter Formula:
C=
1
n
+ 23 +
0.000155
S
1+
n
√R
(23 +
0.000155
S
)
v=
1
n
R2/3S1/2
Rectangular:
b = 2d
R=
d
2
Trapezoidal:
x = y1 + y2
R=
d
2
Triangular:
b = 2d
A = d2
θ = 90°
Semi-circular:
d = r (full)
R=
r
2
Circular:
Qmax if d = 0.94D
Vmax if d = 0.81D
Fluid Flow
Q = Av
Q → discharge
→ flow rate
→ weight flux
Manning Formula:
C=
1
n
R1/6
Bazin Formula:
C=
87
1+
m
√R
Hydrodynamics
∑ Fx = ρQ(v2x − v1x)
∑ Fy = ρQ(v2y − v1y)
Water Hammer
∆Pmax = ρcv
tc =
2L
c
A. TIME of closure:
rapid/instantaneous
∆P = ∆Pmax
Slow Closure
∆P = ∆Pmax (
tc
tactual
)
B. TYPE of closure:
Partial Closure (vf ≠ 0)
∆P = ρc(vi − vf)
Total Closure (vf = 0)
∆P = ρcvi
1 atm
= 101.325 KPa
= 2166 psf
= 14.7 psi
= 760 mmHg
= 29.9 inHg
TRAPEZOIDAL:
For minimum seepage:
b = 4d tan
θ
2
e=
ɤIg sin θ
Dr (%) Description
0 – 20 Very Loose
20 – 40 Loose
40 – 70 Medium Dense
70 – 85 Dense
85 – 100 Very Dense
LI State
LI < 0 Semisolid
0 < LI < 1 Plastic
LI > 1 Liquid
Volume
e=
Vv
Vs
n=
Vv
V
S=
Vw
Vv
Weight
ω=
Ww
Ws
0<e<∞
e=
n
1−n
0<n<1
n=
e
1+e
Se = Gsω
ɤ=
W
V
ɤd =
WS
V
ɤd =
ɤ
1+ω
Unit Weight:
ɤ=
(Gs + Gsω)ɤw
1+e
ɤ=
(Gs + Se)ɤw
1+e
When S=0:
ɤd =
Gsɤw
1+e
When S=100%:
ɤsat =
(Gs + e)ɤw
1+e
ɤsub = ɤsat − ɤw
ɤsub =
(Gs − 1)ɤw
1+e
ɤzav =
Gsɤw
1 + Gsω
Gs =
ɤs
ɤw
Relative Compaction:
R=
ɤd
ɤd𝑚𝑎𝑥
Relative Density/
Density Index:
Dr =
e𝑚𝑎𝑥 − e
e𝑚𝑎𝑥 − e𝑚𝑖𝑛
Dr =
1
ɤd𝑚𝑖𝑛
−
1
ɤd
1
ɤd𝑚𝑖𝑛
−
1
ɤd𝑚𝑎𝑥
Atterberg Limits
PI = LL − PL
LI =
ω − PL
LL − PL
SI = PL − SL
CI =
LL − ω
LL − PI
SL =
m1 − m2
m2
−
V1 − V2
m2
ɤw
SL =
e
Gs
; SR =
m2
V2ɤw
G𝑠 =
1
1
SR
− SL
Ac =
PI
μ
; St =
quund
qurem
μ = % passing 0.002mm
PI Description
0 Non-plastic
1-5 Slightly plastic
5-10 Low plasticity
10-20 Medium plasticity
20-40 High plasticity
>40 Very High plastic
Ac Class
AC < 0.7 Inactive
0.7 < AC < 1.2 Normal
AC > 1.2 Active
Sieve Analysis
Uniformity
Coefficient:
Cu =
D60
D10
Coeff. of Gradation
or Curvature:
Cc =
(D30)
D60 ∙ D10
Sorting
Coefficient:
So = √
D75
D25
Suitability Number:
Sn = 1.7√
3
(D50)
2
+
1
(D20)
2
+
1
(D10)
2
Permeability
v = ki ; i =
∆h
L
; v𝑠 =
v
n
Q = vA = kiA
k=
QL
Aht
k=
aL
At
𝑙𝑛
h1
h2
Stratified Soil
keq =
h1k1 + h2k2+. . . +hnkn
keq =
H
h1
k1
+
h2
k2
+. . . +
hn
kn
Pumping Test:
Unconfined:
k=
Q 𝑙𝑛
r1
r2
π(h1
2
− h2
2
Confined:
k=
Q 𝑙𝑛
r1
r2
2πt(h1 − h2)
Hazen Formula
k = c ∙ D10
Samarasinhe:
k = C3 ∙
en
1+e
Kozeny-Carman:
k = C1 ∙
e2
1+e
Stresses in Soil
Effective Stress/
Intergranular Stress:
pE = pT − pw
Total Stress:
pT = ɤ1h1 + ɤ2h2+. . . +ɤnhn
Isotropic soil:
q = kH
Nf
Nd
Non-Isotropic soil:
q = √kxkzH
Nf
Nd
Compressibility of Soil
Cc = 0.009(LL − 10%)
Cc =
e − e′
𝑙𝑜𝑔
∆P + Po
Po
S=
e − e′
1+e
S=
CcH
1+e
𝑙𝑜𝑔
∆P + Po
Po
S=
CsH
1 + eo
𝑙𝑜𝑔
∆P + Po
Po
S=
CsH
1+e
𝑙𝑜𝑔
Pc
Po
+
CcH
1+e
𝑙𝑜𝑔
∆P + Po
Pc
OCR =
pc
po
; OCR = 1
Coefficient of Compressibility:
av =
∆e
∆P
mv =
∆e
∆P
1 + eave
Coefficient of Consolidation:
Cv =
Hdr
2Tv
t
Coefficient of Permeability:
k = mvCvɤw
ACTIVE PRESSURE:
pa =
1
2
kaɤH
2 − 2cH√ka
For Inclined:
ka = cos β
cos β − √cos2 β − cos2 Ø
cos β + √cos2 β − cos2 Ø
For Horizontal:
ka =
1 − sin Ø
1 + sin Ø
ka =
cos2 Ø
cos α [1 + √
sin (Ø + α) sin Ø
cos α
]
PASSIVE PRESSURE:
pP =
1
2
kPɤH
2 + 2cH√kP
For Inclined:
kP = cos β
cos β + √cos2 β − cos2 Ø
cos β − √cos2 β − cos2 Ø
For Horizontal:
kP =
1 + sin Ø
1 − sin Ø
If there is angle of friction α bet. wall and soil:
kP =
cos2 Ø
cos α [1 − √
sin (Ø − α) sin Ø
cos α
]
AT REST:
ko = 1 − sin Ø
Cs =
1
5
Cc
θ = 45° +
Ø
2
TRI-AXIAL TEST:
σ1 → maximum principal stress
→ axial stress
△σ → additional pressure
→ deviator stress
→ plunger pressure
σ3 → minimum principal stress
→ confining pressure
→ lateral pressure
→ radial stress
→ cell pressure
→ chamber pressure
Normally consolidated:
sin Ø =
r
σ3 + r
Cohesive soil:
sin Ø =
r
x + σ3 + r
tan Ø =
c
x
Unconsolidated-
undrained test:
c=r
Unconfined
compression test:
σ3 = 0
tan Ø =
σS
σN
Cohesive soil:
tan Ø =
σS
x + σN
=
c
x
σS = c + σN tan ∅
12
3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
NOTE:
Quick
condition:
pE = 0
Capillary Rise:
hcr =
C
eD10
aSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
Circular Footing:
qult = 1.3cNc + qNq + 0.3ɤBNɤ
Strip Footing:
qult = cNc + qNq + 0.5ɤBNɤ
Square Footing:
qult = 1.3c′Nc
′ + qNq
′ + 0.4ɤBNɤ
Circular Footing:
qult = 1.3c′Nc
′ + qNq
′ + 0.3ɤBNɤ
Strip Footing:
qult = c′Nc
′ + qNq
′ + 0.5ɤBNɤ
Nq = tan
2 (45° +
Ø
2
) eπ tan Ø
Nc = (Nq − 1) cot Ø
Parameters
qult → ultimate bearing capacity
qu → unconfined compressive strength
c → cohesion of soil
c=
qu
2
qallow =
qult
FS
=
Pallow
qnet =
qult − q
FS
Weirs
Rectangular
Q=
2
3
C√2g L [(H +
va
2g
)
3/2
−(
va
2g
)
3/2
Q=
2
3
C√2g L H3/2
Q = m L [(H +
va
2g
)
3/2
−(
va
2g
)
3/2
Q = m L H3/2
Q = 1.84 L′ [(H +
va
2g
)
3/2
−(
va
2g
)
3/2
Q = 1.84 L′ H3/2
NOTE:
L’ = L for suppressed
L’ = L – 0.1H for singly contracted
L’ = L – 0.2H for doubly contracted
t=
2As
mL
[
1
√H2
−
1
√H1
where:
W → channel width
L → weir length
Z → weir height
H → weir head
PARAMETERS:
C → coefficient of discharge
va → velocity of approach m/s
m → weir factor
Q=
8
15
C√2g tan
θ
2
H5/2
Q = m H5/2
When θ=90°
Q = 1.4H5/2
Q = 1.859 L H3/2
with Dam:
Neglecting velocity of approach:
Q = 1.71 L H3/2
Qf = PAkμ
where:
P → perimeter of pile
A → area of pressure diagram
k → coefficient of lateral pressure
μ → coefficient of friction
Qtip = peNqAtip
(AKA Qbearing)
where:
pe → effective pressure at bottom
Nq → soil bearing factor
Atip → Area of tip
QT = Qf + Qtip
Qdes =
QT
F. S.
Qf = CLαP
where:
C → cohesion
L → length of pile
α → frictional factor
P → perimeter of pile
Qtip = cNcAtip
(AKA Qbearing)
where:
c → cohesion
Nc → soil bearing factor
Atip → Area of tip
QT = Qf + Qtip
Qdes =
QT
F. S.
Group of Piles
Eff =
Qdes−group
Qdes−indiv
mnπD
where:
m → no. of columns
n→ no. of rows
s → spacing of piles
D → diameter of pile
Soil Stability
FS =
C
ɤ H sin 𝛽 cos 𝛽
+
tan ∅
tan 𝛽
FS =
C
ɤ′
ɤ𝑠𝑎𝑡
tan ∅
tan 𝛽
FS =
Ff + Fc
W sin 𝜃
Maximum height for critical equilibrium
(FS=1.0)
Hcr =
4𝐶
ɤ
[
sin 𝛽 cos ∅
1 − cos(𝛽 − ∅)
]
where:
C → cohesion
β → angle of backfill from horizontal
Ø → angle of internal friction
H → thickness of soil layer
Stability No.:
m=
C
ɤH
Stability Factor:
SF =
1
m
Case 1
q = ɤ(Df − d)+ɤ′d
3rd term ɤ = ɤ′
Case 2
q = ɤDf
3rd term ɤ = ɤ′
Case 3
q = ɤDf
for d > B
ɤave = ɤ
NOTE:
ɤ′= ɤ𝑠𝑢𝑏 = ɤ − ɤ𝑤
where:
Ff → frictional force; Ff = μN
Fc → cohesive force
Fc = C x Area along trial failure plane
W → weight of soil above trial failure plane
H
tan 𝜃
−
H
tan 𝛽
= BC
QTIP
Qf
dc
Critical depth, dc:
Loose 10 (size of pile)
Dense 20 (size of pile)
Reynold’s Number
NR =
Dv
υ
=
Dvρ
hf =
64
NR
hf = f
L
D
v2
2g
hf =
0.0826 f L Q2
D5
τ = ɤRS
τo =
f
8
ρv
Froude Number
NF =
v
√gdm
where:
v → mean velocity (Q/A)
g → 9.81 m/s2
dm → hydraulic depth (A/B)
B → width of liquid surface
NF = √
Q2 ∙ Bc
Ac
3
∙g
Critical Flow NF = 1
Subcritical Flow NF < 1
Supercritical Flow NF > 1
Critical Depth
Q2
g
=
Ac
3
Bc
NOTE:
E is minimum for critical depth.
dc = √
q2
g
3
=
2
3
Ec
q=
Q
B
E𝑐 =
v2
2g
+ d𝑐
vc = √gdc
where:
Q → flow rate m3/s
g → 9.81 m/s2
AC → critical area
BC → critical width
where:
q → flow rate or discharge
per meter width
EC → specific energy at
critical condition
vC → critical velocity
Hydraulic Jump
22
Solving for Q:
P2 − P1 =
ɤQ
g
(v1 − v2)
P = ɤh̅A
q2
g
=
1
2
Power Lost:
P = QɤE
Load Combinations
→ choose largest U in design
Basic Loads:
𝑈 = 1.4𝐷 + 1.7𝐿
Horizontal members
(i.e. beam, slab, footing, etc.)
fc = 0.45 f’c
fs = 0.50 fy
where:
f’c → compressive strength of concrete at 28 days
fy → axial strength of steel
Structural Grade ASTM Gr.33 / PS Gr.230 fy = 230 MPa
Intermediate Grade ASTM Gr.40 / PS Gr.275 fy = 275 MPa
High Carbon Grade ASTM Gr.60 / PS Gr.415 fy = 415 MPa
n=
Estronger
Eweaker
=
Esteel
Econcrete
=
200,000
4700√fc
Vertical members
(i.e. column, wall, etc.)
fc = 0.25 f’c
fs = 0.40 fy
Design Conditions
Over-reinforced:
→ concrete fails first
→ fs < fy (USD)
→ Ms > Mc (WSD)
Under-reinforced:
→ steel fails first
→ fs > fy (USD)
→ Ms < Mc (WSD)
Balance Condition:
→ concrete & steel
simultaneously fail
→ fs = fy (USD)
→ Ms = Mc (WSD)
Ay̅above NA = Ay̅below NA
bx (
x
2
) = nAs(d − x)
x → obtained
INA =
bx3
3
+ nAs(d − x)
2
INA → obtained
For concrete:
fc =
Mc ∙ x
INA
Ay̅above NA = Ay̅below NA
bx (
x
2
) = b(d − x) (
d−x
2
) + (n − 1)As(d − x)
x → obtained
INA =
bx3
3
+
b(d − x)3
3
+ (n − 1)As(d − x)
2
INA → obtained
fc =
Mc ∙ x
INA
Factor k:
k=
n
n+
fs
fc
R=
1
2
fckj
Moment Capacity:
Mc = C ∙ jd =
1
2
fckdb ∙ jd = Rbd
2
Ms = T ∙ jd = Asfs ∙ jd
Factor j:
j=1−
1
3
Values
fs
n
=
Ms ∙ (d − x)
INA
Ay̅above NA = Ay̅below NA
bx (
x
2
) + (2n − 1)As
′ (x − d′) = nAs(d − x)
x → obtained
INA =
bx3
3
+ (2n − 1)As
′ (x − d′)2 + nAs(d − x)
2
INA → obtained
For concrete:
fc =
Mc ∙ x
INA
fs
n
=
Ms ∙ (d − x)
INA
fs
′
2n
=
Ms
′ ∙ (x − d′)
INA
yt =
h
2
; yt → obtained
Ig =
bx3
12
Ig → obtained
fr = 0.7√fc
′=
Mcr ∙ yt
Ig
Mcr → obtained
fs
n
=
Ms ∙ (d − x)
INA
Ma =
wL2
Icr =
bx3
3
+ nAs(d − x)
Ie = (
Mcr
Ma
)
3
∙ Ig + [1 − (
Mcr
Ma
)
3
] ∙ Icr
Ie =
Ie mid + Ie support
𝜆=
𝜉
1 + 50𝜌′
δi =
5wL4
384EcIe
δadd = δsus ∙ 𝜆
δadd = (% of sustained load)δi ∙ 𝜆
δfinal = δi + δadd
time-dep factor, ξ:
5 yrs + 2.0
12 mos 1.4
6 mos 1.0
3 mos 1.0
εs
d−c
=
0.003
εs = 0.003 (
d−c
c
)
fs = 600 (
d−c
c
)
a = β1c
a → depth of compression block
c → distance bet. NA &
extreme compression fiber
0.65 ≤ β1 ≤ 0.85
* 1992 NSCP
β1 = 0.85 − 0.008(fc
′ − 30)
* 2001 NSCP
β1 = 0.85 −
0.05
7
(fc
′ − 30)
* 2010 NSCP
β1 = 0.85 −
0.05
7
(fc
′ − 28)
Steel Ratio
ρb =
0.85fc
′β1600
fy(600 + fy)
ρmax = 0.75ρb
Asmax = 0.75Asb
ρmin =
1.4
fy
C=T
0.85fc
′ab = Asfs
0.85fc
′ab = Asfy
a → obtained
a = β1c
c → obtained
fs = 600 [
d−c
c
]
fs → obtained
(2nd-b) Recomputation:
C=T
0.85fc
′ab = Asfs
0.85fc
′β1cb = As ∙ 600 [
d−c
c
]
c → obtained
a = β1c
a → obtained
Mu = ∅(C or T) [d −
a
2
]
Mu = ∅(0.85fc
′ab) [d −
a
2
] or
Mu = ∅(Asfs) [d −
a
2
]
WU = 1.4WD + 1.7WL
MU =
WUL
∅bd2
ρ=
0.85fc
fy
[1 − √1 −
2Rn
0.85fc
′
]
Check:
ρmin ≤ ρ ≤ ρmax
As = ρbd
N=
As
Ab
=
ρbd
π
4
db
2
Ultimate Moment Capacity:
Mu = ∅Mn
Mu = ∅Rnbd
2
Mu = ∅fc
′bd2 ω(1 −
10
17
ω)
ω=ρ
fy
fc
Rn = fc
′ω(1 −
10
17
ω)
Rn =
Mu
∅bd2
ρ=
As
bd
ρ=
0.85fc
′
fy
[1 − √1 −
2Rn
0.85fc
′
]
ρmin =
√fc
4fy
Singly or Doubly ?
fs = fy = 600 [
d − c𝑏
c𝑏
]
Thus,
c𝑏 =
600d
600 + fy
c𝑏 → obtained
a𝑏 = β1c𝑏
a𝑏 → obtained
C=T
0.85fc
′a𝑏b = As𝑏fy
As𝑏 → obtained
Asmax = 0.75As𝑏
If As < Asmax
Solve the given beam
using SRB Investigation
procedure.
If As > Asmax
Solve the given beam
using DRB Investigation
procedure.
Cc + Cs = T
0.85fc
′ab + As′fs′ = Asfs
(assume tension steel yields fs=fs’=fy)
0.85fc
′ab + As′fy = Asfy
a → obtained
a = β1c
c → obtained
fs = 600 [
d−c
c
]
fs → obtained
fs′ = 600 [
c − d′
c
]
fs′ → obtained
(2nd-b) Recomputation:
C=T
0.85fc
fs = 600 [
d−c
c
]
fs′ = 600 [
c−d′
c
]
c → obtained
a = β1c
a → obtained
Mu = ∅Cc [d −
a
2
] + ∅Cc[d − d′]
Mu = ∅(0.85fc
′ab) [d −
a
2
]
+ ∅(As′fs′)[d − d′] or
Mu = ∅T [d −
a
2
]
Mu = ∅(Asfs) [d −
a
2
]
20 mm → slab
40 mm → beam
→ column
75 mm → column footing
→ wall footing
→ retaining wall
ρb𝑑 = ρb𝑠 +
As′
bd
ρ𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑑 = 0.75ρb𝑠 +
As′
bd
As𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑑
= ρ𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑑bd
ρb =
0.85fc
′β1600
fy(600 + fy)
ρmax = 0.75ρb
As1 = 0.75ρb ∙ bd
M1 = (As1fy) [d −
a
2
]
M2 =
MU
∅
− M1
M2 = (As2fy)[d − d′]
As2 → obtained
N=
As
Ab
=
As1 + As2
π
4
db
2
fs′ = 600 [
c − d′
c
]
As′fs′ = As2fy
=
As′
π
4
db
2
Vu =
wuL
2
− wud
Vc =
1
6
√fc′bwd
s=
dAvfy
n
Vs
NOTE:
fyn → steel strength for shear reinforcement
Av → area of shear reinforcement
n → no. of shear legs
Av =
π
4
d2 ∙ n
2Vc =
1
3
√fc′bwd
smax =
d
2
or 600mm
smax =
d
4
or 300mm
smax =
3Avfyn
T-Beam
bf =
L
4
bf = bw +
s1
2
+
s2
2
bf = bw + 8tf
bf = bw +
L
12
bf = bw +
s1
2
bf = bw + 6tf
Factor: [0.4 +
fy
700
] [1.65 − 0.0003𝜌𝑐]
WU = 1.4WD + 1.7WL
MU =
WUL
d = h − cc −
db
2
Mu = ∅(C) [d −
a
2
]
Mu = ∅(0.85fc
′ab) [d −
a
2
]
a → obtained
′ab = Asfy
As → obtained
LONGITUDINAL OR MAIN BARS
ρ=
As
bd
ρmin =
1.4
fy
& ρmin =
√fc
4fy
N=
As
Ab
=
As
π
4
db
2
s=
b
N
(10th) Check for max. spacing of main bars:
smax = 3h or 450mm
TEMPERATURE BARS/
SHRINKAGE BARS
As = kb⫠h
N=
As
Ab
=
As
π
4
db
2
s=
b
N
i. fy = 275 MPa,
k = 0.0020
ii. fy = 415 MPa,
k = 0.0018
iii. fy > 415 MPa,
k = 0.0018 [
400
fy
ρmin =
1.4
fy
ρmin =
√fc
4fy
Design of Column
P = PC + PS
P = 0.85fc
ρ=
Ast
Ag
Thus,
Ag =
P
0.85fc
′(1 − ρ) + ρfy
PN = 0.8P
PU = ∅0.8P ; ∅ = 0.7
PU = (0.7)(0.8)[0.85fc
N=
Ast
Ab
N is based on Pu.
NOTE: If spacing of main bars < 150mm, use 1 tie per set.
SPIRAL COLUMN
PN = 0.85P
PU = ∅0.85P ; ∅ = 0.75
PU = (0.75)(0.85)[0.85fc
ρs = 0.45
fc
fy
[
Ag
Ac
− 1] =
volume of spiral
volume of core
s=
π
4
(dsp)
2 ∙ π(Dc−dsp)
π
4
(Dc)
2 ∙ ρs
=
4Asp
Dcρs
Spacing of bars:
s = 16db
s = 48dt
s = least dimension
Design of Footing
qA = qS + qC + qsur + qE
qE =
P
Aftg
; qU =
PU
Aftg
where:
VU1 ≤ ∅Vwb = ∅
√fc
6
Bd
τwb =
VU1
∅Bd
τwb(allw) =
√fc
VU2 ≤ ∅Vpc = ∅
√fc
3
bod
τpc =
VU2
∅bod
τpc(allw) =
√fc
3
BENDING MOMENT
MU = qU(B)(x) (
x
2
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