1st Quarter

Oral Communication Notes

Communication
The word is originated from two Latin word communis and communicare
Communis – to make common
Communicare – to make common too many
Communication’s Key Ideas
 Systematic process
 People interaction
 Exchange of verbal and nonverbal symbols
 Creation and Interpretation of Meanings
“Meanings are not in words but in people.” - David Berlo
Principles of Communication
 We cannot not communicate.
 Communication is irreversible.
 Communication is unrepeatable.
 Communication is a process of adjustment.
 Communication is transactional.
 Communication is complex.
Common Misconception About Communication
 Words have meanings
 Communication is a verbal process
 Telling is communicating
 Communication will solve all our problems
 Communication is a good thing
 The more people communicate the better
 Communication can break down
 Communication is a natural ability
 Interpersonal means intimate communication
 Communication competence means communication effectiveness

Figures of the Communication Process

1. Sender and Receiver
2. Message
3. Channel
4. Feedback
5. Setting/Environment 

•Noise - Basic factor that affects communication process 

Types of Noises:
1. Environmental Noise - background noises
2. Physiological - Impairment Noise - illness, ailments, hunger etc.
3. Semantic Noise - the message itself
4. Syntactic Noise - to look and wait expectantly or in anticipation
5. Organizational Noise - how the message is arranged
6. Cultural Noise - cultural differences
7. Psychological Noise - attitude of the speaker or listener towards one another 

•Communication Model - systematic representation of the process which helps in

understanding how communication works can be done 

•Karl Deutsch suggests that a model should provide four functions:

1. It should organize a complex system
2. It should provide a heuristic function
3. It should be as original as possible
4. It should also provide some form of measurement of the system that will work
analogously within the model and within the actual system being observed 

3 Basic Models:
1. Linear - The linear communication model explains the process of one-way
communication, whereby a sender transmits a message a receiver absorbs it.
2. Interactional - is a communication process that refers to the exchange of ideas,
messages and information from the sender to the receiver within physical and
psychological contexts. The communication process can take place between human
beings and machines in a non-verbal or verbal way.
3. Transactional – is the process of continuous change and transformation where
every component is changing such as the people, their environments and the medium
used. Due to this, it assumes the communicators to be independent and act any way they
want.

Aristotle's model (Linear Model)

- One of the oldest communication models (300 BC) 

Speaker (Ethos)  Message (Logos)  Audience (Pathos)

Lass Well's Model (Linear Model)

- regarded as one of the most influential communication models 

Who  Says what  In what channel  To whom  In what effect 

(Control Analysis)  (Content Analysis)  (Media Analysis)  (Audience Analysis) 
(Effect Analysis)

Shannon-Weaver's model (1949) (Linear Model)

- known as the mother of all communication models 

Information Source  Transmitter  O  Receiver  Destination

(Message) ^ (Message)
Noise Source

Berlo's model (Linear Model)

-In 1960, American communication scientist David Berlo wrote a book titled "Process of
Communication: An introduction to Theory and Practice" where he discussed his
communication model. This is also called as SMCR model of communication.

Source  Message  Channel  Receiver

-Communication Content Hearing Communication Skills
Skills
-Attitudes Elements Seeing Attitudes

- Knowledge Treatment Touching Knowledge

-Social System Structure Smelling Social System

-Culture Code Tasting Culture

Wilbur Schramm proposed this model in 1954. The focuses of this model are people
with various knowledge, experience and cultural practices interpret message in a
different way than others. (Interactive Model)
Frank Dance proposed a communication model inspired by a helix in 1967, known as
Helical Model of Communication. 

Julia Wood's model portrayed communication as a dynamic process which

continually changes over time depending on previous interactions. (Transactional
Model)

Verbal vs. Nonverbal

 Verbal Communication – verbal communication refers to an interaction in
which words are used to relay a message. For effective and successful verbal
communication, use words to express ideas which can be easily understood by
the person you are talking to.

Things to Consider in engaging verbal communication:

 Appropriateness – The language that you use should be appropriate to the

environment or occasion (i.e., whether formal or informal).
 Brevity – Speakers who often use simple yet precise and powerful words are
found to be more credible. Try to achieve brevity by being more direct with your
words.
 Clarity – The meanings of words, feelings, or ideas may be interpreted
differently by a listener; hence, it is essential for you to clearly state your message
and express your ideas and feelings.
 Ethics – Words should be carefully chosen in consideration of the gender, roles,
ethnicity, preferences, and status of the person or people you are talking to.
 Vividness – Words that vividly or creatively describe things or feelings usually
add color and spice to communication. Hence, you are encouraged to find ways to
charms your audience through the use of vivid words.

 Non-verbal Communication – It is defined as communication without words.

It is communication of meaningful information from one person to another by
means other than written or spoken language.

Functions of Nonverbal Message

 Accenting – accentuate or emphasize a certain point of verbal message.
 Complementing – reinforce or enhance the verbal message.
 Contradicting – nonverbal messages tend to contradict the verbal messages.
 Repeating – reinforcing what is already said.
 Substituting – taking place of words.

Categories of Nonverbal Message

I. Body Movements and Gestures
 Emblems – nonverbal behaviours that directly translate words or phrases, or
nonverbal substitutes for specific words or phrases.
 Illustrators – these are used to illustrate or add meaning to the verbal message.
They help clarify the message.
  Regulators – nonverbal cues that control or regulate communication between
people.
 Affect Display – these are nonverbal behaviors that reflect one’s emotional
state.
 Adaptors – these are movements that are usually exhibited unconsciously, and
are associated with the tension or anxiety.

II. Physical Appearance and Attractiveness

- Our appearance plays a crucial role in the formation of initial impressions
(Burgoon et at 2010).
- Physical appearance and general attractiveness often determine whether
another person wants it interact with us (Wrench et al. 2008;Wood 2014).

III. Dress and Artifacts

- The way we dress can influence how others would communicate with us.

IV. Facial Expressions and Eye Contact

- Our face is the most expressive part of the body. It provides others with cues
about our race, gender, nationality, emotional state, age, and even the type of
person we are.

V. Use of the Voice

 Vocalics – refers to the use of, and the characteristics and qualities of human
voice.
 Vocalic Inflections – these are potent nonverbal message that aid in
stimulating intended meaning in the minds of the listeners beyond those that
verbal messages can.

VI. Territory and Personal Space

 Proxemics – refers to the way we use space in communication. Research
suggests that the way people use space is determine by their cultural orientation,
gender, age, and status.
 Personal Space – is movable, portable space that goes wherever we go. We
occupy space or territory for such long time that it becomes associated with us,
this becomes known as TERRITORIALITY.
a. Intimate Distance: 0-18 inches
b. Personal Distance: 18 inches – 4 feet
c. Social Distance: 4-8 feet
d. Public Distance: 8 feet – the end of the speaker’s vision or hearing
VII. Touch
 Haptics – refers to the use of touch and how is used to communicate.
a. Functional/Professional Touch
b. Social/Polite Touch
c. Friendship/Warmth Touch
d. Love/Intimacy Touch
e. Sexual/Arousal Touch

VIII. Environmental Factors

a. Formal Environment
b. Warm Environment
c. Private Environment
d. Familiar Environment
e. Distant Environment
f. Constraining Environment

IX. Time
 Chronemics – the study of the role of time in communication. It investigates
how we perceive, define, and react to time.
Two Conceptions of Time
a. Monochromatic – people see this as a commodity
b. Polychromatic – people see this as more holistic, more fluid and less
structured than their monochromatic counterpart.

X. Silence
- Silence should also be mean that the listener is thinking or reflecting on what
the speaker said (Tubbs, 2013)

FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION:
1. Regulation and control
- Controlling other people by managing or regulating their behavior
- Ex. simple act of telling someone to keep quiet, giving medicine instructions
2. Social interaction
- The most familiar and primary reason why people communicate.
- Allows people to be connected with one another.
- Ex. talking, socializing, etc.
3. Motivation
- When the speaker’s purpose is to persuade other people or to try to persuade his or her
opinion, attitude, or decision.
- Persuasive
4. Information
- This function is used to make other people to be aware of certain data, knowledge,
concepts and processes.
5. Emotion expression
- Appealing to the listener’s feelings
- Used to move other people’s feelings, and to move other people to act
- Ex. in dramas, stories, novels, etc.

DIMENSIONS OF COMMUNICATION:
1. Oral and written dimension
- (oral – spoken, takes care of delivering the words/messages)
- (written – transcription of thoughts and ideas, takes care of putting down the words)
2. Formal & Informal dimension
- (formal – meticulous observation of appropriateness)
- (informal – it uses more casual approach)
3. Intentional & unintentional dimension
- Rely on the fact that communication always has a purpose
- Different interpretations
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION:
- Relatively specialized lifestyle of people.
- Beliefs, behavior, lifestyle, etc.
- This culture grows and adapt.
- Culture is dynamic
- Culture encompasses what we know, values, beliefs, attitudes, experiences, meanings,
religion, hierarchy, time, roles, etc.
- Enculturation is the use of space and proxemics, concepts of the universe, materials
and objects, professions.
- Acculturate means different culture, adapting different culture
- Intercultural communication happens when individuals interact, negotiate, and create
meanings. It is the sending and receiving of messages across languages and cultures.
Example: “You’ve put on weight” means healthy in South Africa but can be
misinterpreted.
- According to McCroskey, Wrench, and Richmond, oral language has a smaller variety
of words and has shorter sentences.
- Samovar – perception of time, meanings

THE DEVELOPMENTAL MODEL OF INTERCULTURAL SENSITIVTY

(DMIS)
- Offers a structure that explores how people experience cultural difference.
- According to Bennett and Bennett (2004), it has six stages.
Stage 1 Denial – does not recognize cultural differences
Stage 2 Defense – the individual starts to recognize cultural differences and is
intimidated by them.
Stage 3 Minimization (playing safe) – they bank more on the universality of ideas
rather than on cultural differences.
Stage 4 Acceptance – begins to appreciate important cultural differences in behaviors
and in values.
Stage 5 Adaptation – very open to world views when accepting new perspectives
Stage 6 Integration – starts to go beyond their own cultures and see themselves and
their actions
- Diverse cultural viewpoints
- Competent intercultural communicator
- Flexibility and the ability to tolerate high levels of uncertainty
- Reflectiveness or mindfulness, open-mindedness
- Sensitivity (especially words are powerful)
- Adaptability and Politeness
- Ability to engage in divergent (thinking creatively) thinking and systems (level
thinking)

INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION 
- Type of communication that occurs within us. (decisions, beliefs, thoughts, etc.) 
- The speaker is yourself 

3 Aspects of Intrapersonal communication: 

1. Self-concept – self-awareness, the basis for intrapersonal communication. One’s

view determined how one sees self 
Factors: 
▪ Beliefs – basic personal orientation about what is true or untrue, good or not good. 
▪ Values – deep-seated orientations and ideals mostly in accordance with one’s beliefs
about the rightness or wrongness. (negative values + negative attitude) 
▪ Attitudes – learned previous position towards an idea. Generally global and
emotional. 

2. Perception – focuses on a person, how they view the world, or how a person looks
on the world. Has a lot to do with self-concept. 

3. Expectations – messages intended for a future event. Projections of developed or

learned relationships within the family or community. 

Levels of Intrapersonal communication:

1. Thinking 
- Analysis for us to be able to understand other people’s thoughts 
- Daydreaming / nocturnal dreaming 
- Mediating 

2. Vocal 
- Process includes talking, rehearsing 
- Give yourself some instructions 
- Associated with self-thought/talk 
3. Written 
- Journals, diary, letter 
- Organized and productive 

INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION 
- More than 1 communicator 

Types: 
1. Dyadic 
- Two communicators 
- One speaker and one listener 
- The roles are not fixed, its interchangeable 
- Informal & formal dyadic 
- Dialogues 

2. Small group 
- Requires 3-15 people 
- Has an agenda, a leader, a plan 
- Anyone can be the speaker or the listener 
- Divided into two: study group or task-oriented group (group that study an issue) 
- Examples: panel discussions, round table, etc. 

3. Public communication 
- One speaker addresses an audience 
- Only one speaker and the role of the audience is to listen 
- The programs are formally structured 

4. Organizational communication
- Refers to the communication of the members 
- Two types: 
formal (proper channels, organizational chart, e.g. school organization chart, memos,
notes, commands) 
informal (e.g. announcements, memos, not strict and doesn’t follow the process or
steps) 

5. Intercultural communication 
- Should have a deeper understanding of why nationalities are unique 
- Exchange of concepts, tradition, cultural practices 
- Should be opem-minded 

6. Mass communication 
- Mass media, technology 
- Radio, television, technical systems 
- Internet, worldwide web, social media
Quiz 1
It is the idea being transmitted by the sender to the receiver. It includes three aspects —
content, structure, and style.
Message

It is the medium or vehicle through which the message is sent.

Channel

It is the response or reaction given by the receiver to the sender of the message.

Feedback

Which is NOT a basic element of communication?

Language

An example of ______________ on the listener’s side: hearing problems.

physiological noise

It is mental interference in the speaker or listener.

psychological noise

It refers to when a speaker and a listener have different interpretations of the meanings of
certain words. 

Semantic

Communication can be disrupted by mistakes in grammar, such as an abrupt change in

verb tense during a sentence.

syntactical noise

Good communication occurs when a(n) ________________ meaning is reached.

Shared

Communication comes from two __________ words, "communis" and "communicare"

Latin

Communicare means_______

to make common to many

What happens before the process affects interaction and what occurs in after a particular
communication has taken place affects the future exchanges."Which of the following BEST
describes this statement?

communication is a systematic process

"Humans are talked into humanity" "Which of the following BEST describes the
statement?

It means that we see ourselves through the eyes of our significant others and all other people around us.

Which of the following completes the loop of communication process?

Feedback

This refers to gestures,body movements, facial expressions, and vocal cues.

Nonverbal
It frefers to the noise coming from outside.

external noise

"A receiver who is given unclear, badly worded directions may be unable to figure out how
to reach their destination." This is best example of _____

Organizational Noise

"Making stereotypical assumptions, such as unwittingly offending a non-Christian person

by wishing them a “Merry Christmas,” can also detract from communication." It pertains
to _____

cultural noise

This is one of the elements of Aristotle's model of communication that refers to

experiences or artistic representation evoking pity or compassion. 

Pathos

Which of the following situations is verbal communication necessary?

calling someone on the phone

The following are forms of non-verbal communication EXCEPT:

reciting in class

Which of the following is NOT a channel?

Environment

When does encoding take place?

when the sender translates the message into a perceivable form

It is the exchange of thoughts, messages, or information, as by speech, signals, writing, or

behavior.

Communication

He is one of the models of communication proponents in which the focus of his model are
people with various knowledge, experience, and cultural practices
interpret the message differently than others.

Wilbur Schramm

Quiz 2
Any communication that conveys a message consisting of words is called

verbal communication

Which of these statements almost always requires verbal communication and would be
difficult to express nonverbally?

"The recent budget fiasco could have been prevented by better statistical analysis."
The interactional model of communication recognises that individuals can be receivers
and senders of messages

True

The linear model of communication assumes a lack of immediate _____.

Feedback

This model analyzes the sender-encoder-channel-decoder -receiver in the communication

process. The model also factors in the effect of channel noise and its effect to the encoded
message.

Shannon-Weaver's Model

This model highlights the importance of an overlap in the communicator's fields of

experience in order that communication may occur.

Schramm's Model

In Berlo's model of commincation, it is the manner of handling or dealing with the

message or how the mesaage is conveyed or sent.

Treatment

This non linear model believes that comminication process evolves from the very birth of
an individuals and continues for as long as he lives.

Dance's Model

Let’s say you are watching TV amidst your exams, and your mother asked you to switch off
the TV and start to study. You didn’t hear your mother and you continue the show,
perhaps, your mom will feel or may be judged that you either is not interested in studies or
is turning obstinate. This scenario means that:

Telling is not communicating

This model revealed how people's communication varies overtime and in response to their
history of relating to others.

Wood's Model

With regard to touch, which is true?

Touch can communicate various messages ranging from aggression to affection

The meanings of words, feelings, or ideas may be interpreted differently by a listener;

hence, it is essential for you to clearly state your message and express your ideas and
feelings. WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING IS BEING DESCRIBED BY THE STATEMENT? 

Clarity

Which of the following situations describe CONTRADICTING?

Saying ''I did not do it'' while rubbing the nose and pulling at the collar

We receive and respond to messages from another person at the same time that she or he
is receiving and responding to us is an example of the _____________ model.

Transactional
Asking for help and then, after a short delay during which they do not respond, raising
eyebrows and saying 'mm?'. The situation best describes: 

Repeating

When you've completed speaking, break (or make) eye contact or give a last and nod.
Which of the following options best describes the situation? 

Regulating

What do you call nonverbal behaviors that reflect one’s emotional state? 

affect display

In a job interview, you answer your first question, and the interviewer frowns. Which
communication attribute best reflects the situation?

feedback can be verbal or nonverbal

This refers to the use of and the characteristics and qualities of the human voice. 

Vocalic

We occupy space or territory for such a long time that it becomes associated with us, this
became known as  _________

Territoriality

When people see time as a commodity, this means that people are _______

Monochromatic

Stamping, increasing volume, moving forward, and slowing down in the delivery of your
speech. These are the best examples of _________

Accenting

Smiling a lot to convince people you are friendly, nodding to appear interested, and
dressing to look professional are all types of nonverbal behavior that could be used for

All of these are the best options

This model analyzes who says what, in which channel, to whom, and with what effect.

Lasswell's Model

An effective communicator does not only shares knowledge but also achieve his goals, this
only means that:

Communicative competence doesn't mean being an effective communicator

2nd Quarter
Types of Speech Style
 1. Intimate – This style is private, which occurs between or among close family
members or individuals. The language used in this style may not be shared in
public; depicts close relationship. Only to love ones, close friends, common
among peers (using call signs).
2. Casual – This style is common among peers and friends. Jargon, slang, or the
vernacular language is used.
3. Formal – This style is used in formal settings. Unlike the consultative style, this
is one-way.
4. Frozen - This style is “frozen” in time and remains unchanged. It mostly occurs
in ceremonies.
5. Consultative – The style is the standard one. Professional or mutually
acceptable language is a must in this style.

Speech Acts
Utterance – “Intentional action should be properly understood by the listeners.”
– Set of phrases
– A kind of intentional action
– Naturally successful

Speech Act – Any of the act that may be performed by a speaker in making an
utterance, as stating, asking, requesting, advising, warning, or persuading, considered in
terms of the content of the message, the intention of the speaker, and the effect on the
listener. It may contain one word.
Example:
Speaker: I couldn’t agree with you more.
Listener: What? You don’t like my idea?
“I couldn’t agree with you more” means “I like your idea”

3 Types of Speech Act (Actually still a theory)

1. Locutionary
- The act of making meaningful utterance.
- Literal meaning
- Natural unit of speech
- For this utterance to be considered as Locutionary, it requires that it has
sense, has the same meaning to both the speaker and listener.
 - What we say
Examples:
Speaker: “It is raining outside.” (Literal meaning, literally raining outside)
Speaker: “It is hot in here.”

2. Illocutionary
- Uttering with the intended meaning
- Said something for a reason or purpose
- What we mean when we say it
Examples:
- Stating an opinion, promise, request, denial, confirmation, decision making,
giving advice, permission, indirectly requesting or saying
Speaker: “It is raining outside.” (The speaker wants to convey something, either
bring an umbrella or stay inside until the rain subsides.)
Speaker: “It is hot in here.” (An indirect request for someone to open the
window or a complaint implying that someone know better than to keep the
windows closed.)

3. Perlocutionary
- Action or state of mind brought about or by, as a consequence of saying
something.
- Effect or result of the utterance on the listener, depending on specific
circumstances.
- What we accomplish by saying it
Examples:
Speaker: “It is raining outside.” (The listener may use umbrella when he or she
goes out or the listener may stay while waiting for the rain to subside.)
Speaker: “It is hot in here.” (Could result to someone opening the window.)

5 Illocutionary Acts (Searle 1976)

1. Assertive
- An utterance intended to tell you how things are in the real world
- A representation of reality
- Based on facts
- A speech act that commits the speaker to the truth of preposition
- A statement, description, classification, explanation, and clarification
Examples:
“Rodrigo Duterte is the President of the Philippines.”
“Woman’s brain is different from the man’s brain.”
“All men are mortal.”

2. Directive
- The act which commits the speaker to do something in the future
- Not true or false like assertive but it is either to be followed or to be
unfollowed
- “Direct”
Examples:
“Please stop playing mobile legends!”
“Ordering, commanding, requesting, pleading, begging, praying, insisting, and
suggesting.”

3. Commissive
- Commits the speaker to some future voluntary action
- Reveals the intention of the speaker
- Refers to vow, threats, pledges, guarantees, contracts, promises, covenants,
and oaths
Examples:
“Starting next week, I promise to wake up early.”
“I’ll be there tomorrow.”
“I love you, nothing else but only you.”

4. Declaration
- The most interesting type of speech act as it brings a change in the external
situations
- An utterance that change the world by representing it as being so changed
 Examples:
“I hereby”
“I hereby declare total lockdown.” – PRRD (declaration – a big change)
“The meeting is adjourned.” (a declaration to end the meeting)

5. Expressive
- Reveals the speaker’s attitude and emotions towards a particular preposition
- Includes thanking, apologizing, welcoming, deploring (disapproval of
something)
- Using emotions
Examples:
“Welcome back to our class.”
“Thank you for the gift.”
“I’m sorry, I didn’t mean to hurt you.”

Consider this:
“Promise to come and see you.” – Both commissive and declaration because it I
committing the speaker to a future action and is making the utterance a promise by
declaring it to be a promise.

Types of Communicative Strategy

1. Nomination
- A speaker carries out nomination to collaboratively and productively
establish a topic. Basically, when you employ this strategy, you try to open a
topic with the people you are talking to.
- Presenting a particular topic clearly, truthfully, and saying only what is
relevant.
- It is a strategy that can also be applied any time during the course of an
interaction as a way of continuing the communication. When this strategy is
used, the topic is introduced in a clear and truthful manner, stating only what
is relevant to keep the interaction focused.
- Basic Unit
- Initiation of a conversation
Examples:
 - “Do you have anything to say?”
- “Have you heard the news about the prettiest girl in school?”
- “Now, it’s your turn to ask questions.”
- “Does that make sense to you?”

2. Restriction
- Is a communication refers to any limitation you may have as a speaker.
- Constraining the response or reaction within a set of categories.
- Strategy that constrains or restricts the response of the other person involved
in the communication situation. The listener is forced to respond only within
a set of categories that is made by the speaker.

The focus of this strategy is the quintessential component of performance in

every activity (Tim Gallwey); the focus is on the what, when, why questions
rather than the how questions.

What – Desired accomplishment

When – Timeline that makes the new future a specific event instead of an
abstract idea
Why – The value statement that provides a context or the importance of the
topic and allows participants to choose ways and efforts to reach the
conversational goal.

Examples:
- In your class, you might be asked by your teacher to brainstorm on peer
pressure.
- When you were asked to deliver a speech in a specific language.

3. Turn-taking
- Pertains to the process by which people decide who takes the conversational
floor. There is a code of behaviour behind establishing and sustaining a
productive conversation, but the primary idea is to give all communicators a
chance to speak.
- Recognizing when and how to speak because it is one’s turn.
- Requires that each speaker speaks only when it is his/her turn during
interaction. Knowing when to talk depends on watching out for the verbal
and nonverbal cues that signal the next speaker that the previous speaker has
finished or the topic under discussion has been exhausted and a new topic
may be introduced. At the same time, it also means that others should be
given the opportunity to take turn. Turn-taking communicative strategy uses
either an informal approach (just jump in and start talking) or a formal
approach (permission to speak is required).
- Giving all communicators a chance to speak
- Others give the opportunities
 - Exceptions when laughing and formal greeting

Examples:
- “Can we all listen to the one who talk in front of us?”
- “Excuse me? I think we should speak one at a time, so we can clearly
understand what we want to say about the topic.”
- “Go on with your ideas. I’ll let you finish first before I say something.”

4. Topic Control
- Topic control covers how procedural formality and informality affects the
development of topics in conversation. This only means that when a topic is
initiated, it should be collectively developed by avoiding unnecessary
interruptions and topic shifts.
- Keeping the interaction going by asking questions and eliciting a response.
- This is simply a question-answer formula that moves the discussion forward.
- This also allows the listener or other participants to take turns, contribute
ideas, and continue the discussion.

Examples:
- Student-teacher conversation/interaction
- “One of the essential lessons I gained from the discussion is the importance
of sports and wellness to a healthy lifestyle.”

5. Topic Shifting
- Involves moving from one topic to another. In other words, it is where one
part of a conversation ends and where it begins.
- Introducing a new topic followed by the continuation of that topic.
- Is useful in introducing another topic. This strategy works best when there is
follow-through so that new topic continues to be discussed.
- Conversations can be broken down into small basic units called episodes.
- Episodes – helps us organize our thoughts; has boundaries
- Monotopical – One topic within the episode
- Polytopical – More than one topic is discussed

Examples:
- “By the way, there’s a new shop opening at the mall.”
- “In addition to what you said about the beautiful girl, is that she is also
smart.”

6. Repair
- Refers to how speaker address the problems in speaking, listening, and
comprehending that they may encounter in a conversation.
- Overcoming communication breakdown to send more comprehensible
messages.
 - Clarifications, agree to disagree, fixing something wrong with the
conversation

Examples:
- “Excuse me, but there are 5 functions of Communication, not 4.”
- “I’m sorry, the word should be pronounced as pretty, not priti.”

7. Termination
- Refers to the conversation participants’ close-initiating expressions that end
a topic in a conversation.
- Using verbal and nonverbal signals to end the interaction.
- Ends the interaction through verbal and nonverbal messages that both
speaker and listener send to each other. Sometimes the termination is quick
and short. Sometimes it is prolonged by clarification, further questions, or
the continuation of the topic already discussed, but the point of the language
and body movement is to end the communication.

Examples:
- “Best regards to your parents! See you around!”
- “It was nice meeting you, bye!”
- “That is all for today class, goodbye!”