Basic Simulation Laboratory Manual B.Tech (Ii Year - I Sem) (2021-22)

BASIC SIMULATION
LABORATORY MANUAL
B.TECH
(II YEAR – I SEM)
(2021-22)
Prepared by:
Ms.D. Asha, Associate Professor
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE

OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
Recognized under 2(f) and 12 (B) of UGC ACT 1956
Affiliated to JNTUH, Hyderabad, Approved by AICTE - Accredited by NBA & NAAC – ‘A’ Grade - ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Maisammaguda, Dhulapally (Post Via. Kompally), Secunderabad – 500100, Telangana State, India
BS LAB MANUAL ECE, MRCET
VISION
MISSION
QUALITY POLICY
PROGRAMME EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES
PEO1: PROFESSIONALISM & CITIZENSHIP

To create and sustain a community of learning in which students acquire
knowledge and learn to apply it professionally with due consideration
for ethical, ecological and economic issues.
PEO2: TECHNICAL ACCOMPLISHMENTS

To provide knowledge based services to satisfy the needs of society and
the industry by providing hands on experience in various technologies in
core field.
PEO3: INVENTION, INNOVATION AND CREATIVITY

To make the students to design, experiment, analyze, interpret in the
core field with the help of other multi disciplinary concepts wherever
applicable.
PEO4: PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

To educate the students to disseminate research findings with good soft
skills and become a successful entrepreneur.
PEO5: HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

To graduate the students in building national capabilities in technology,
education and research.
CODE OF CONDUCT FOR THE LABORATORIES

1.
All students must observe the Dress Code while in the laboratory.
2.
Sandals or open-toed shoes are NOT allowed.
3.
Foods, drinks and smoking are NOT allowed.
4.
All bags must be left at the indicated place.
5.
The lab timetable must be strictly followed.
6.
Be punctual for your laboratory session.
7.
Program must be executed within the given time.
8.
Noise must be kept to a minimum.
9.
Workspace must be kept clean and tidy at all time.
10.
Handle the systems and interfacing kits with care.
11.
All students are liable for any damage to the accessories due to their own negligence.
12.
All interfacing kits connecting cables must be RETURNED if you taken from the lab
supervisor.
13.
Students are strictly PROHIBITED from taking out any items from the laboratory.
14.
Students are NOT allowed to work alone in the laboratory without the Lab Supervisor
15.
USB Ports have been disabled if you want to use USB drive consult lab supervisor.
16.
Report immediately to the Lab Supervisor if any malfunction of the accessories, is
there.
Before leaving the lab
➢
Place the chairs properly.
➢
Turn off the system properly
➢
Turn off the monitor.
➢
Please check the laboratory notice board regularly for updates.
CONTENTS
S.No Experiment Name Pg.No

1. Basic Operations on Matrices. 1
Generation of Various Signals and Sequences (Periodic and
2. Aperiodic), such as Unit Impulse, Unit Step, Square, Saw tooth, 5
Triangular, Sinusoidal, Ramp, Sinc.
Operations on Signals and Sequences such as Addition,

3. Multiplication, Scaling, Shifting, Folding, Computation of Energy 12
and Average Power
Finding the Even and Odd parts of Signal/Sequence and Real and
4. Imaginary parts of Signal 20
5. Convolution between Signals and sequences 25
6. Auto Correlation and Cross Correlation between Signals and Sequences 29

Verification of linearity properties of a given continuous /discrete
7. system. 33
Verification of time invariance properties of a given continuous discrete

8. system. 35
Computation of Unit sample, Unit step and Sinusoidal responses of

9. the given LTI system and verifying its physical realiazability and 37
stability properties.
Finding the Fourier Transform of a given signal and plotting its

10. magnitude and phase spectrum 41
Locating the Zeros and Poles and plotting the Pole-Zero maps in S-
11. plane and Z- Plane for the given transfer function. 44
12. Sampling Theorem Verification. 48
0
Experiment No-1
BASIC OPERATIONS ON MATRICES

AIM: Generate a matrix and perform basic operation on matrices using MATLAB software.
Software Required: MATLAB software
Theory:
MATLAB treats all variables as matrices. Vectors are special forms of matrices and contain
only one row or one column. Whereas scalars are special forms of matrices and contain only
one row and one column. A matrix with one row is called row vector and a matrix with single
column is called column vector.
The first one consists of convenient matrix building functions, some of which are given
below.
1. eye - identity matrix
2. zeros - matrix of zeros
3. ones - matrix of ones
4. diag - extract diagonal of a matrix or create diagonal matrices
5. triu - upper triangular part of a matrix
6. tril - lower triangular part of a matrix
7. rand - ran
commands in the second sub-category of matrix functions are
1. size- size of a matrix
2. det -determinant of a square matrix
3. inv- inverse of a matrix
4. rank- rank of a matrix
5. rref- reduced row echelon form
6. eig- eigenvalues and eigenvectors
7. poly- characteristic polynomialdomly generated matrix
Program:
% Creating a column vector
>> a=[1;2;3]
a=
1
2
3
% Creating a row vector
>> b=[1 2 3]
b=
123
1
% Creating a matrix
>> m=[1 2 3;4 6 9;2 6 9]
m=
123
469
269
% Extracting sub matrix from matrix
>> sub_m=m(2:3,2:3)
sub_m =
69
69
% extracting column vector from matrix
>> c=m (:,2)
c=
2
6
6
% extracting row vector from matrix
>> d=m (3,:)
d=
269
% creation of two matrices a and b
>> a=[2 4 -1;-2 1 9;-1 -1 0]
a=
2 4 -1
-2 1 9
-1 -1 0
>> b=[0 2 3;1 0 2;1 4 6]
b=
023
102
146
2
% matrix multiplication
>> x1=a*b
x1 =
308
10 32 50
-1 -2 -5
% element to element multiplication
>> x2=a.*b
x2 =
0 8 -3
-2 0 18
-1 -4 0
% matrix addition
>> x3=a+b
x3 =
262
-1 1 11
036
% matrix subtraction
>> x4=a-b
x4 =
2 2 -4
-3 1 7
-2 -5 -6
% matrix division
>> x5=a/b
x5 =
-9.0000 -3.5000 5.5000
12.0000 3.7500 -5.7500
3.0000 0.7500 -1.7500
% element to element division
>> x6=a./b
Warning: Divide by zero.
3
x6 =
Inf 2.0000 -0.3333
-2.0000 Inf 4.5000
-1.0000 -0.2500 0
% inverse of matrix a
>> x7=inv(a)
x7 =
-0.4286 -0.0476 -1.7619
0.4286 0.0476 0.7619
-0.1429 0.0952 -0.4762
% transpose of matrix a
>> x8=a'
x8 =
2 -2 -1
4 1 -1
-1 9 0
RESULT: Matrix operations are performed using Matlab software.
VIVA QUESTIONS:-
1. Expand MATLAB? And importance of MATLAB?
2. What is clear all and close all will do?
3. What is disp() and input()?
4. What is the syntax to find the Eigen values and eigenvectors of the matrix?
5. Define scalar and vector?
4
Experiment No-2
Generation of signals and sequences
AIM: Generate various signals and sequences (Periodic and aperiodic), such as Unit Impulse,
Unit Step, Square, Saw tooth, Triangular, Sinusoidal, Ramp, Sinc.
Software Required: Matlab software
Theory: If the amplitude of the signal is defined at every instant of time then it is called
continuous time signal. If the amplitude of the signal is defined at only at some instants of
time then it is called discrete time signal. If the signal repeats itself at regular intervals then it
is called periodic signal. Otherwise they are called aperiodic signals.
EX: ramp,Impulse,unit step, sinc- Aperiodic signals
square,sawtooth,triangular sinusoidal – periodic signals.
Ramp sinal: The ramp function is a unitary real function, easily computable as the mean of
the independent variable and its absolute value.This function is applied in engineering. The
name ramp function is derived from the appearance of its graph.
r(t)= t when
0 else
Unit impulse signal: One of the more useful functions in the study of linear systems is the
"unit impulse function."An ideal impulse function is a function that is zero everywhere but at
the origin, where it isinfinitely high. However, the area of the impulse is finite
Y(t)= 1 when t=0
=0 other wise
Unit step signal: The unit step function and the impulse function are considered to be
fundamental functions in engineering, and it is strongly recommended that the reader
becomes very familiar with both of these functions.
0 if t < 0
u(t)= 1 if t > 0
If t=0
Sinc signal: There is a particular form that appears so frequently in communications

engineering, that we give it its own name. This function is called the "Sinc function”.
The Sinc function is defined in the following manner:
if and sinc(0) =1
The value of sinc(x) is defined as 1 at x = 0, since
5
PROCEDURE:-
➢ Open MATLAB
➢ Open new M-file
➢ Type the program
➢ Save in current directory
➢ Compile and Run the program
➢ For the output see command window\ Figure window
PROGRAM:
% Generation of signals and sequences
clc;
clear all;
close all;
%~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
%generation of unit impulse signal
t1=-1:0.01:1
y1=(t1==0);
subplot(2,2,1);
plot(t1,y1);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('unit impulse signal');
%generation of impulse sequence
subplot(2,2,2);
stem(t1,y1);
xlabel('n');
title('unit impulse sequence');
%~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
%generation of unit step signal

t2=-10:1:10;
y2=(t2>=0);
subplot(2,2,3);
plot(t2,y2);
xlabel('time');
title('unit step signal');
%generation of unit step sequence
subplot(2,2,4);
stem(t2,y2);
xlabel('n');
title('unit step sequence');
%~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
6
%generation of square wave signal

t=0:0.002:0.1;
y3=square(2*pi*50*t);
figure;
subplot(2,2,1);
plot(t,y3);
axis([0 0.1 -2 2]);
xlabel('time');
title('square wave signal');
%generation of square wave sequence
subplot(2,2,2);
stem(t,y3);
axis([0 0.1 -2 2]);
xlabel('n');
title('square wave sequence');
%~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
%generation of sawtooth signal

y4=sawtooth(2*pi*50*t);
subplot(2,2,3);
plot(t,y4);
axis([0 0.1 -2 2]);
xlabel('time');
title('sawtooth wave signal');
%generation of sawtooth sequence
subplot(2,2,4);
stem(t,y4);
axis([0 0.1 -2 2]);
xlabel('n');
title('sawtooth wave sequence');
%~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
%generation of triangular wave signal

y5=sawtooth(2*pi*50*t,.5);
figure;
subplot(2,2,1);
plot(t,y5);
axis([0 0.1 -2 2]);
xlabel('time');
title(' triangular wave signal');
%generation of triangular wave sequence
subplot(2,2,2);
stem(t,y5);
axis([0 0.1 -2 2]);
xlabel('n');
7
title('triangular wave sequence');
%generation of sinsoidal wave signal
y6=sin(2*pi*40*t);
subplot(2,2,3);
plot(t,y6);
axis([0 0.1 -2 2]);
xlabel('time');
title(' sinsoidal wave signal');
%generation of sin wave sequence
subplot(2,2,4);
stem(t,y6);
axis([0 0.1 -2 2]);
xlabel('n');
title('sin wave sequence');
%~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
%generation of ramp signal
y7=t;
figure;
subplot(2,2,1);
plot(t,y7);
xlabel('time');
title('ramp signal');
%generation of ramp sequence
subplot(2,2,2);
stem(t,y7);
xlabel('n');
title('ramp sequence');
%~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
%generation of sinc signal
t3=linspace(-5,5);
y8=sinc(t3);
subplot(2,2,3);
plot(t3,y8);
xlabel('time');
title(' sinc signal');
%generation of sinc sequence
subplot(2,2,4);
stem(y8);
xlabel('n');
title('sinc sequence');
Result: Various signals & sequences generated using Matlab software.
8
Output:
9
10
VIVA QUESTIONS:-
1. Define Signal?
2. Define continuous and discrete Signals?
3. State the relation between step, ramp and Delta Functions?
4. Differentiate saw tooth and triangular signals?
5. Define Periodic and aperiodic Signal?
11
Experiment No-3
Basic Operations on Signals and sequences
AIM: perform the operations on signals and sequences such as addition, multiplication,
scaling, shifting, folding and also compute energy and power.
Software Required: Matlab software.
Theory:
Signal Addition
Addition: any two signals can be added to form a third signal,
z (t) = x (t) + y (t)
Multiplication :
Multiplication of two signals can be obtained by multiplying their values at every instants . z
z(t) = x (t) y (t)
Time reversal/Folding:
Time reversal of a signal x(t) can be obtained by folding the signal about t=0.
Y(t)=y(-t)
Signal Amplification/Scaling : Y(n)=ax(n) if a < 1 attnuation
a >1 amplification
Time shifting: The time shifting of x(n) obtained by delay or advance the signal in time by
using y(n)=x(n+k)
If k is a positive number, y(n) shifted to the right i e the shifting delays the signal
If k is a negative number, y(n ) it gets shifted left. Signal Shifting advances the signal
12
Energy:
Average power:
Program:
clc;
clear all;
close all;
%~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
% generating two input signals

t=0:.01:1;
x1=sin(2*pi*4*t);
x2=sin(2*pi*8*t);
subplot(2,2,1);
plot(t,x1);
xlabel('time');
title('input signal 1');
subplot(2,2,2);
plot(t,x2);
xlabel('time');
title('input signal 2');
% addition of signals
y1=x1+x2;
subplot(2,2,3);
plot(t,y1);
xlabel('time');
title('addition of two signals');
% multiplication of signals
y2=x1.*x2;
subplot(2,2,4);
plot(t,y2);
xlabel('time');
title('multiplication of two signals');
% scaling of a signal1
13
A=2;
y3=A*x1;
figure;
subplot(2,2,1);
plot(t,x1);
xlabel('time');
title('input signal')
subplot(2,2,2);
plot(t,y3);
xlabel('time');
title('amplified input signal');
% folding of a signal1
h=length(x1);
nx=0:h-1;
subplot(2,2,3);
plot(nx,x1);
xlabel('nx');
y4=fliplr(x1);
nf=-fliplr(nx);
subplot(2,2,4);
plot(nf,y4);
xlabel('nf');
title('folded signal');
%shifting of a signal 1
figure;
subplot(3,1,1);
plot(t,x1);
xlabel('time t');
title('input signal');
subplot(3,1,2);
plot(t+2,x1);
xlabel('t+2');
title('right shifted signal');
subplot(3,1,3);
plot(t-2,x1);
xlabel('t-2');
title('left shifted signal');
%~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
14
%operations on sequences
n1=1:1:9;
s1=[1 2 3 0 5 8 0 2 4];
figure;
subplot(2,2,1);
stem(n1,s1);
xlabel('n1');
title('input sequence1');
s2=[1 1 2 4 6 0 5 3 6];
subplot(2,2,2);
stem(n1,s2);
xlabel('n2');
title('input sequence2');
% addition of sequences
s3=s1+s2;
subplot(2,2,3);
stem(n1,s3);
xlabel('n1');
title('sum of two sequences');
% multiplication of sequences
s4=s1.*s2;
subplot(2,2,4);
stem(n1,s4);
xlabel('n1');
title('product of two sequences');
%~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
% program for energy of a sequence

z1=input('enter the input sequence');
e1=sum(abs(z1).^2);
disp('energy of given sequence is');e1
% program for energy of a signal

t=0:pi:10*pi;
z2=cos(2*pi*50*t).^2;
e2=sum(abs(z2).^2);
disp('energy of given signal is');e2
% program for power of a sequence

p1= (sum(abs(z1).^2))/length(z1);
disp('power of given sequence is');p1
% program for power of a signal

p2=(sum(abs(z2).^2))/length(z2);
15
disp('power of given signal is');p2
OUTPUT:
enter the input sequence[1 3 2 4 1]
energy of given sequence is
e1 = 31
energy of given signal is
e2 = 4.0388
power of given sequence is
p1 = 6.2000
power of given signal is
p2 = 0.3672
Result: Various operations on signals and sequences are performed.
16
Output:
17
18
VIVA QUESTIONS:-
1. Define Symmetric and Anti-Symmetric Signals?
2. Define scaling of a signal?
3. What are the Different types of representation of discrete time signals?
4. What are the Different types of Operation performed on signals?
5. What is System?
19
Experiment No-4
Even and odd parts of signal and sequence & Real and imaginary parts of
Signal
AIM: Finding even and odd part of the signal and sequence and also find real and imaginary
parts of signal.

Theory: One of characteristics of signal is symmetry that may be useful for signal analysis.
Even signals are symmetric around vertical axis, and Odd signals are symmetric about origin.
Even Signal: A signal is referred to as an even if it is identical to its time-reversed
counterparts; x(t) = x(-t).
Odd Signal: A signal is odd if x(t) = -x(-t).
An odd signal must be 0 at t=0, in other words, odd signal passes the origin.
Using the definition of even and odd signal, any signal may be decomposed into a sum of
its even part, xe(t), and its odd part, xo(t), as follows
Even and odd part of a signal: Any signal x(t) can be expressed as sum of even and odd
components i.e .,
x(t)=xe(t)+xo(t)
Program:
clc
close all;
clear all;
%Even and odd parts of a signal

t=0:.001:4*pi;
x=sin(t)+cos(t); % x(t)=sint(t)+cos(t)
subplot(2,2,1)
plot(t,x)
xlabel('t');
ylabel('amplitude')
y=sin(-t)+cos(-t); % y(t)=x(-t)
subplot(2,2,2)
plot(t,y)
xlabel('t');
ylabel('amplitude')
title('input signal with t= -t')
20
even=(x+y)/2;
subplot(2,2,3)
plot(t,even)
xlabel('t');
ylabel('amplitude')
title('even part of the signal')
odd=(x-y)/2;
subplot(2,2,4)
plot(t,odd)
xlabel('t');
title('odd part of the signal');
% Even and odd parts of a sequence

x1=[0,2,-3,5,-2,-1,6];
n=-3:3;
y1= fliplr(x1);%y1(n)=x1(-n)
figure;
subplot(2,2,1);
stem(n,x1);
xlabel('n');
title('input sequence');
subplot(2,2,2);
stem(n,y1);
xlabel('n');
title('input sequence with n= -n');
even1=.5*(x1+y1);
odd1=.5*(x1-y1);
% plotting even and odd parts of the sequence

subplot(2,2,3);
stem(n,even1);
xlabel('n');
title('even part of sequence');
subplot(2,2,4);
stem(n,odd1);
xlabel('n');
title('odd part of sequence');
% plotting real and imginary parts of the signal

x2=sin(t)+j*cos(t);
figure;
subplot(3,1,1);
plot(t,x2);
xlabel('t');
21
subplot(3,1,2)
plot(t,real(x2));
xlabel('time');
title('real part of signal');
subplot(3,1,3)
plot(t,imag(x2));
xlabel('time');
title('imaginary part of siganl');
RESULT: Even and odd part of the signal and sequence, real and imaginary parts of signal
are computed.
Output:
22
23
VIVA QUESTIONS:-
1. What is the formula to find odd part of signal?
2. What is Even Signal?
3. What is Odd Signal?
4. What is the formula to find even part of signal?
5. How to represent a signal with even and odd parts?
24
Experiment No-5
Convolution between signals& sequences
Aim: Write the program for convolution between two signals and also between two
sequences.

Theory:
Convolution involves the following operations.

1. Folding
2. Multiplication
3. Addition
4. Shifting
These operations can be represented by a Mathematical Expression as follows:

x[n]= Input signal Samples
h[ n-k]= Impulse response co-efficient.
y[ n]= Convolution output.
n = No. of Input samples
h = No. of Impulse response co-efficient.
Example : X(n)={1 2 -1 0 1}, h(n)={ 1,2,3,-1}
Program:
clc;
close all;
clear all;
%program for convolution of two sequences
x=input('enter input sequence: ');
h=input('enter impulse response: ');
y=conv(x,h);
subplot(3,1,1);
stem(x);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('x(n)');
title('input sequence')
subplot(3,1,2);
stem(h);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('h(n)');
title('impulse response sequence')
subplot(3,1,3);
25
stem(y);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('y(n)');
title('linear convolution')
disp('linear convolution y=');
disp(y)
%program for signal convolution
t=0:0.1:10;
x1=sin(2*pi*t);
h1=cos(2*pi*t);
y1=conv(x1,h1);
figure;
subplot(3,1,1);
plot(x1);
xlabel('t');
ylabel('x(t)');
subplot(3,1,2);
plot(h1);
xlabel('t');
ylabel('h(t)');
title('impulse response')
subplot(3,1,3);
plot(y1);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('y(n)');
title('linear convolution');
RESULT: convolution between signals and sequences is computed.
Output:
enter input sequence: [1 3 4 5]
enter impulse response: [2 1 4]
linear convolution y=
2 7 15 26 21 20
26
27
VIVA QUESTIONS:-
1. Define Convolution?
2. Define Properties of Convolution?
3. What is the Difference between Convolution& Correlation?
4. Define impulse response?
5. What is Half Wave Symmetry?
28
Experiment No-6
Auto correlation and Cross correlation
Aim: To compute Auto correlation and Cross correlation between signals and sequences.
Software Required: Mat lab software

Theory:
Correlations of sequences:
It is a measure of the degree to which two sequences are similar. Given two real-valued
sequences x(n) and y(n) of finite energy,
Convolution involves the following operations.
1. Shifting
2. Multiplication
3. Addition
These operations can be represented by a Mathematical Expression as follows:
Cross correlation +
rx , y (l ) =  x ( n) y ( n − l )
n = −
The index l is called the shift or lag parameter
Autocorrelation
+
rx , x (l ) =  x ( n) x ( n − l )
n = −
Program:
clc;
close all;
clear all;
% two input sequences

x=input('enter input sequence');
h=input('enter the impulse suquence');
subplot(2,2,1);
stem(x);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('x(n)');
title('input sequence');
subplot(2,2,2);
stem(h);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('h(n)');
title('impulse sequence');
29
% cross correlation between two sequences

y=xcorr(x,h);
subplot(2,2,3);
stem(y);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('y(n)');
title(' cross correlation between two sequences ');
% auto correlation of input sequence
z=xcorr(x,x);
subplot(2,2,4);
stem(z);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('z(n)');
title('auto correlation of input sequence');
% cross correlation between two signals

% generating two input signals
t=0:0.2:10;
x1=3*exp(-2*t);
h1=exp(t);
figure;
subplot(2,2,1);
plot(t,x1);
xlabel('t');
ylabel('x1(t)');
subplot(2,2,2);
plot(t,h1);
xlabel('t');
ylabel('h1(t)');
title('impulse signal');
% cross correlation
subplot(2,2,3);
z1=xcorr(x1,h1);
plot(z1);
xlabel('t');
ylabel('z1(t)');
title('cross correlation ');
% auto correlation
subplot(2,2,4);
z2=xcorr(x1,x1);
plot(z2);
xlabel('t');
ylabel('z2(t)');
title('auto correlation ');
Result: Auto correlation and Cross correlation between signals and sequences is computed.
30
Output: enter input sequence [1 2 5 7]

enter the impulse sequence [2 6 0 5 3]
31
VIVA QUESTIONS:-
1. Define Correlation? And its properties?
2. Define Auto-Correlation?
3. Define Cross-Correlation?
4. What is the importance of correlation?
5. What is the difference b/w correlation and convolution?
32
Experiment No-7
Verification of Linearity of a Discrete System
AIM: Verify the Linearity of a given Discrete System.
Software Required:
Mat lab software 7.0 and above
Theory:
LINEARITY PROPERTY:
Any system is said to be linear if it satisfies the superposition principal. superposition
principal state that Response to a weighted sum of input signal equal to the corresponding
weighted sum of the outputs of the system to each of the individual input signals.
If x(n) is a input signal and y(n) is a output signal then
y(n)=T[x(n)]
y1(n)=T[x1(n)] and y2(n)=T[x2(n)]
x3=[a*x1(n) +b *x2(n) ]
Y3(n)= T [x3(n)]
T [a*x1(n)+b*x2(n) ] = a y1(n)+ b y2(n)
Program:
% Verification of Linearity of a given System.
% a) y(n)=nx(n) b) y=x^2(n)
clc;
clear all;
close all;
n=0:40;
a1=input('enter the scaling factor a1=');
a2=input('enter the scaling factor a2=');
x1=cos(2*pi*0.1*n);
x2=cos(2*pi*0.4*n);
x3=a1*x1+a2*x2;
%y(n)=n.x(n);
y1=n.*x1;
y2=n.*x2;
y3=n.*x3;
yt=a1*y1+a2*y2;
yt=round(yt);
y3=round(y3);
if y3==yt
disp('given system [y(n)=n.x(n)]is Linear');
else
33
disp('given system [y(n)=n.x(n)]is non Linear');

end
%y(n)=x(n).^2
x1=[1 2 3 4 5];
x2=[1 4 7 6 4];
x3=a1*x1+a2*x2;
y1=x1.^2;
y2=x2.^2;
y3=x3.^2;
yt=a1*y1+a2*y2;
if y3==yt
disp('given system [y(n)=x(n).^2 ]is Linear');
else
disp('given system is [y(n)=x(n).^2 ]non Linear');
end
Result: The Linearity of a given Discrete System is verified.
Output:
enter the scaling factor a1=3
enter the scaling factor a2=5
given system [y(n)=n.x(n)]is Linear
given system is [y(n)=x(n).^2 ]non Linear
VIVA QUESTIONS:-
1. Define linear system with example?

2. Define non- linear system with example?
3. Define super position principle?
4. Give mathematical expression for Linearity.
5. Identity the system y(n)=[x(n)]3 is linear or non-linear system.
34
Experiment No -8
Verification of Time Invariance of a Discrete System
AIM: Verify the Time Invariance of a given Discrete System.
Software Required: Mat lab software

Theory:
TIME INVARIENT SYSTEMS (TI):
A system is called time invariant if its input – output characteristics do not change with time
X(t)---- input : Y(t) ---output

X(t-k) -----delay input by k seconds : Y(t-k) ------ Delayed output by k seconds
If Y(t)=T[X(t)] then Y(t-k)=T[X(t-k)] then system is time invariant system.

Program:
% Verification of Time Invariance of a Discrete System

% a)y=x^2(n) b) y(n)=nx(n)
clc;
clear all;
close all;
n=1:9;
x(n)=[1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9];
d=3; % time delay
xd=[zeros(1,d),x(n)];%x(n-k)
y(n)=x(n).^2;
yd=[zeros(1,d),y];%y(n-k)
disp('transformation of delay signal yd:');disp(yd)
dy=xd.^2; % T[x(n-k)]
disp('delay of transformation signal dy:');disp(dy)
if dy==yd
disp('given system [y(n)=x(n).^2 ]is time invariant');
else
disp('given system is [y(n)=x(n).^2 ]not time invariant');
end
y=n.*x;
yd=[zeros(1,d),y(n)];
disp('transformation of delay signal yd:');disp(yd);
n1=1:length(xd);
dy=n1.*xd;
disp('delay of transformation signal dy:');disp(dy);
if yd==dy
disp('given system [y(n)=nx(n)]is a time invariant');
else
disp('given system [y(n)=nx(n)]not a time invariant');
end
35
Result: The Time Invariance of a given Discrete System is verified.
Output:
Transformation of delay signal yd:

0 0 0 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81
Delay of transformation signal dy:

0 0 0 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81
Given system [y(n)=x(n).^2 ]is time invariant

Transformation of delay signal yd:
0 0 0 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81
Delay of transformation signal dy:

0 0 0 4 10 18 28 40 54 70 88 108
Given system [y(n)=nx(n)]not a time invariant
VIVA QUESTIONS:-
1. Define time invariant system with example?

2. Define time variant system with example?
3. Define LTI system?
4. Give mathematical expression for time invariant system?
5. Give another name for time invariant system and time variant system?
36
Experiment No-9
Unit sample, unit step and sinusoidal response of the given LTI system and verifying its
stability
AIM: Compute the Unit sample, unit step and sinusoidal response of the given LTI system
and verifying its stability
Software Required:
Mat lab software 7.0 and above
Theory:
A discrete time system performs an operation on an input signal based on predefined criteria
to produce a modified output signal. The input signal x(n) is the system excitation, and y(n) is
the system response. The transform operation is shown as,
If the input to the system is unit impulse i.e. x(n) = δ(n) then the output of the system is
known as impulse response denoted by h(n) where,
h(n) = T[δ(n)]
we know that any arbitrary sequence x(n) can be represented as a weighted sum of discrete
impulses. Now the system response is given by,
For linear system (1) reduces to
%given difference equation y(n)-y(n-1)+.9y(n-2)=x(n);
37
Program:
%given difference equation y(n)-y(n-1)+.9y(n-2)=x(n);

clc;
clear all;
close all;
b=[1];
a=[1,-1,.9];
n =0:3:100;
%generating impulse signal

x1=(n==0);
%impulse response
y1=filter(b,a,x1);
subplot(3,1,1);
stem(n,y1);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('y1(n)');
title('impulse response');
%generating step signal

x2=(n>0);
% step response
y2=filter(b,a,x2);
subplot(3,1,2);
stem(n,y2);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('y2(n)')
title('step response');
%generating sinusoidal signal
t=0:0.1:2*pi;
x3=sin(t);
% sinusoidal response
y3=filter(b,a,x3);
subplot(3,1,3);
stem(t,y3);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('y3(n)');
title('sin response');
% verifing stability
figure;
zplane(b,a);
38
Result: The Unit sample, unit step and sinusoidal response of the given LTI system is
computed and its stability verified. Hence all the poles lie inside the unit circle, so system is
stable.
Output:
39
VIVA QUESTIONS:-
1. What operations can be performed on signals and sequence?

2. Define causality and stability?
3. Define step response and impulse response of the system.
4. Define poles and zeros of the system?
5. What is the function of filter?
40
Experiment No-10
Finding the Fourier Transform of a given signal and plotting its magnitude and phase
spectrum
AIM: To find the Fourier Transform of a given signal and plotting its magnitude and phase
spectrum.
Theory:
Fourier Transform:
The Fourier transform as follows. Suppose that ƒ is a function which is zero outside of some
interval [−L/2, L/2]. Then for any T ≥ L we may expand ƒ in a Fourier series on the interval
[−T/2,T/2], where the "amount" of the wave e2πinx/T in the Fourier series of ƒ is given by
By definition Fourier Transform of signal f(t) is defined as
Inverse Fourier Transform of signal F(w) is defined as
Program:
clc;
clear all;
close all;
fs=1000;
N=1024; % length of fft sequence
t=[0:N-1]*(1/fs);
% input signal
x=0.8*cos(2*pi*100*t);
subplot(3,1,1);
plot(t,x);
axis([0 0.05 -1 1]);
grid;
xlabel('t');
% Fourier transformof given signal
x1=fft(x);
% magnitude spectrum
41
k=0:N-1;
Xmag=abs(x1);
subplot(3,1,2);
plot(k,Xmag);
grid;
xlabel('t');
title('magnitude of fft signal')
%phase spectrum
Xphase=angle(x1);
subplot(3,1,3);
plot(k,Xphase);
grid;
xlabel('t');
ylabel('angle');
title('phase of fft signal');
Result: Magnitude and phase spectrum of FFT of a given signal is plotted.
Output:
42
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Define convolution property of Fourier transform?

2. What are the properties of Continuous-Time Fourier transform?
3. What is the sufficient condition for the existence of F.T?
4. Define the F.T of a signal?
5. What is the difference b/w F.T&F.S?
43
Experiment No-11
Locating Poles and Zeros in s-plane & z-plane
AIM: Write the program for locating poles and zeros and plotting pole-zero maps in s-plane
and z-plane for the given transfer function.
Theory:
Z-transforms
The Z-transform, like many other integral transforms, can be defined as either a one-sided or
two-sided transform.
Bilateral Z-transform
The bilateral or two-sided Z-transform of a discrete-time signal x[n] is the function X(z)
defined as
Unilateral Z-transform
Alternatively, in cases where x[n] is defined only for n ≥ 0, the single-sided or unilateral Z-
transform is defined as
In signal processing, this definition is used when the signal is causal.
The roots of the equation P(z) = 0 correspond to the 'zeros' of X(z)

The roots of the equation Q(z) = 0 correspond to the 'poles' of X(z)
Example:
44
Program:
clc;
clear all;
close all;
%enter the numerator and denamenator cofficients in square brackets
num=input('enter numerator co-efficients');
den=input('enter denominator co-efficients');
% find poles and zeros

poles=roots(den)
zeros=roots(num)
% find transfer function H(s)

h=tf(num,den);
% plot the pole-zero map in s-plane

sgrid;
pzmap(h);
grid on;
title('locating poles and zeros on s-plane');
%plot the pole zero map in z-plane

figure
zplane(poles,zeros);
grid on;
title('locating poler and zeros on z-plane');
Result: Pole-zero maps are plotted in s-plane and z-plane for the given transfer function.
Output:
enter numerator co-efficients[1 -1 4 3.5]
enter denominator co-efficients[2 3 -2.5 6]
poles =
-2.4874
0.4937 + 0.9810i
0.4937 - 0.9810i
zeros =
0.8402 + 2.1065i
0.8402 - 2.1065i
-0.6805
45
46
VIVA QUESTIONS:-
1. Study the details of pzmap() and zplane() functions?

2. What are poles and zeros?
3. How you specify the stability based on poles and zeros?
4. Define S-plane and Z-plane?
5. Define transfer function of the system?
47
Experiment No-12
Sampling theorem verification
AIM: Verify the sampling theorem.

Theory:
Sampling Theorem:
A bandlimited signal can be reconstructed exactly if it is sampled at a rate atleast twice the
maximum frequency component in it." Figure 1 shows a signal g(t) that is bandlimited.
Figure 1: Spectrum of band limited signal g(t)
The maximum frequency component of g(t) is fm. To recover the signal g(t) exactly from its
samples it has to be sampled at a rate fs ≥ 2fm.
The minimum required sampling rate fs = 2fm is called ' Nyquist rate
Proof: Let g(t) be a bandlimited signal whose bandwidth is fm (wm = 2πfm).
Figure 2: (a) Original signal g(t) (b) Spectrum G(w)

δ (t) is the sampling signal with fs = 1/T > 2fm.
Fig
ure 3: (a) sampling signal δ (t) ) (b) Spectrum δ (w)
48
Figure 4: (a) sampled signal gs(t) (b) Spectrum Gs(w)
To recover the original signal G(w):

1. Filter with a Gate function, H2wm(w) of width 2wm
Scale it by T.
Figure 5: Recovery of signal by filtering with a fiter of width 2wm Aliasing ws < 2wm.
Figure 6: Aliasing due to inadequate sampling
Aliasing leads to distortion in recovered signal. This is the reason why sampling frequency
should be atleast twice thebandwidth of the signal. Oversampling ws >2wm. This condition
avoid aliasing.
Figure 7: Oversampled signal-avoids aliasing
49
Program:
clc;
clear all;
close all;
t=-10:.01:10;
T=4;
fm=1/T;
x=cos(2*pi*fm*t);
subplot(2,2,1);
plot(t,x);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('x(t)');
title('continous time signal');
grid;
n1=-4:1:4;
fs1=1.6*fm;
fs2=2*fm;
fs3=8*fm;
x1=cos(2*pi*fm/fs1*n1);
subplot(2,2,2);
stem(n1,x1);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('x(n)');
title('discrete time signal with fs<2fm');
hold on;
subplot(2,2,2);
plot(n1,x1);
grid;
n2=-5:1:5;
subplot(2,2,3);
stem(n2,x2);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('x(n)');
title('discrete time signal with fs=2fm');
hold on;
subplot(2,2,3);
plot(n2,x2)
grid;
n3=-20:1:20;
subplot(2,2,4);
stem(n3,x3);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('x(n)');
title('discrete time signal with fs>2fm')
hold on;
subplot(2,2,4);
50
plot(n3,x3)
grid;
Result: Sampling theorem is verified.
OUTPUT:
VIVA QUESTIONS:-
1. State Paeseval’s energy theorem for a periodic signal?

2. Define sampling Theorem?
3. What is Aliasing Effect?
4. What is under sampling?
5. What is over sampling?
51

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BASIC SIMULATION

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE

PROGRAMME EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

PEO1: PROFESSIONALISM & CITIZENSHIP

PEO2: TECHNICAL ACCOMPLISHMENTS

PEO3: INVENTION, INNOVATION AND CREATIVITY

PEO4: PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

PEO5: HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

CODE OF CONDUCT FOR THE LABORATORIES

Before leaving the lab

S.No Experiment Name Pg.No

Operations on Signals and Sequences such as Addition,

5. Convolution between Signals and sequences 25

6. Auto Correlation and Cross Correlation between Signals and Sequences 29

Verification of time invariance properties of a given continuous discrete

Computation of Unit sample, Unit step and Sinusoidal responses of

Finding the Fourier Transform of a given signal and plotting its

12. Sampling Theorem Verification. 48

BASIC OPERATIONS ON MATRICES

Sinc signal: There is a particular form that appears so frequently in communications

%generation of unit step signal

%generation of square wave signal

%generation of sawtooth signal

%generation of triangular wave signal

Result: Various signals & sequences generated using Matlab software.

% generating two input signals

% program for energy of a sequence

% program for energy of a signal

% program for power of a sequence

% program for power of a signal

disp('power of given signal is');p2

Software Required: Matlab software

%Even and odd parts of a signal

% Even and odd parts of a sequence

% plotting even and odd parts of the sequence

% plotting real and imginary parts of the signal

Software Required: Matlab software

Convolution involves the following operations.

These operations can be represented by a Mathematical Expression as follows:

RESULT: convolution between signals and sequences is computed.

enter impulse response: [2 1 4]

Software Required: Mat lab software

Convolution involves the following operations.

These operations can be represented by a Mathematical Expression as follows:

The index l is called the shift or lag parameter

% two input sequences

% cross correlation between two sequences

% cross correlation between two signals

Output: enter input sequence [1 2 5 7]

If x(n) is a input signal and y(n) is a output signal then

y1(n)=T[x1(n)] and y2(n)=T[x2(n)]

T [a*x1(n)+b*x2(n) ] = a y1(n)+ b y2(n)

disp('given system [y(n)=n.x(n)]is non Linear');

Result: The Linearity of a given Discrete System is verified.

1. Define linear system with example?

AIM: Verify the Time Invariance of a given Discrete System.

Software Required: Mat lab software

TIME INVARIENT SYSTEMS (TI):

T [ax1(n)+bx2(n) ] = a y1(n)+ b y2(n)