Chapter 4

Effect of Damping

4.1 Introduction

We now know that there is always a presence of some type of energy loss mechanism in
physical systems. The energy loss mechanism is expressed in the form of damping and is
represented by the damper c. The response of a system with any type of damping
continues indefinitely with decaying amplitude. The energy dissipations for various
types of damping are different from each other and the resulting motion is termed
damped vibration. When damped free vibrations take place, the amplitude of vibrations
gradually diminishes and eventually comes to rest completely. The energy loss of
dissipation of energy mechanism controls the rate at which the amplitude decays. The
dampings in physical system are of several types. A vibrating system may be related to
different types of damping forces, such as internal molecular friction, sliding friction,
fluid resistance, etc. Their mathematical representation, in general, is not that simple to
carry out the vibration analysis. Therefore simplified damping models have been
evolved. In many cases, such models are found to be sufficient in determining the
response of the system. For instance, we are already familiar with the viscous damping
model, represented by a dashpot that leads to manageable mathematical solutions. Some
of the important features of three of the types, namely, viscous, Coulomb, and structural
damping are described below.

4.2 Viscous Damping

A preliminary discussion about this was presented in Chapter 1. In dynamic analysis this
is the most frequently used form of system damping. Well oiled surfaces, shock
absorbers and dashpots are some of the common examples where this type of damping is
used to represent the effect of energy dissipation in the system. It is convenient to use
this type of damping in the analysis of the dynamic behaviour of structural systems
because it is easy to find a solution to the governing differential equation of motion with
this idealization. Viscous damping forces proportionally vary with velocity and
successive amplitudes of vibration decay exponentially. The direction of forces here
opposes the motion.

4.2.1 Logarithmic Decrement

Damping has the effect of lowering the natural frequency from n to D and lengthening
the natural period Tn to TD. The more important effect of damping is on the rate at which
free vibration decays. Figure 4.1 shows this effect for four systems with the same natural
period Tn but with differing damping ratios, i.e.,  = 2, 5, 10 and 20%.

It is quite clear from the discussion on damped free vibration that the motion decays with
time resulting in decrease in amplitude in every cycle as is evident from Fig. 4.2. We
will now present a relation between the ratio of two successive peaks of damped free
vibration over a time period TD and the damping ratio. This is derived from Eq. (3.16)
and is given in Eq. (4.1).

(4.1)

Equation (4.1) has been obtained by combining Eqs (3.3), (3.16) and (3.18). From Eq.
(4.1), it is quite obvious that the ratio of displacement at times t and (t + T D) is

independent of t. This result also gives the ratio of successive peaks (maxima)

shown in Fig. 4.2, because these peaks are separated by period TD:

(4.2)
The natural logarithm of this ratio is called the logarithmic decrement and it is expressed
as:

(4.3)

If  is small, and this gives an approximate equation

(4.4)
If the decay of motion is slow, it is desirable to relate the ratio of two amplitudes several
cycles apart, instead of successive amplitudes, to the damping ratio. Over n cycles, the
motion decreases from x1 to xn+1. This ratio is given by
(4.5)
Therefore
(4.6)
To determine the number of cycles elapsed for a 50 per cent reduction in displacement
amplitude, we obtain the following relation from Eq. (4.7),

(4.7)
The term ‘decay factor’ is used to denote the logarithmic decrement divided by the period
of vibration.

Example 4.1

A damped SDOF system consists of a mass 20 kg, a spring with constant 500 N/m, a
damper with damping coefficient of 15 N-s/m. Evaluate for this system (a) undamaped
natural frequency, (b) damping ratio, (c) logarithmic decrement, (d) damped natural
frequency, (e) ratio of two successive

Example 4.2

The mass of a one-storey building is 4000 kg. A damped free vibration test was
conducted on this building to determine its dynamic properties. The initial displacement
of the building is 5 mm. The maximum displacement in the first cycle is 3 mm and
period of this displacement cycle is 1.2 s. Find out the effective weight, undamped
frequency, logarithmic decrement, damping ratio, damping coefficient, damped
frequency and the amplitude after 8 cycles of the building.

Solution
(a) The damped frequency from Eq. (3.3) is

(b) Effective weight of the building

We know from Eq. (3.2)
; K = 109662.78 N/m
Period is given by Eq. (3.6) as

or
(c) Logarithmic decrement is given by
From Eq. (4.5) after one cycle, ; ;  = 0.51
(d) Damping ratio
From Eq. (4.4),
(e) Damping coefficient
From Eq. (3.13), ;c= =

c = 3392.93 N-s/m
(f) Damped frequency
From Eq. (3.17),
(g) Amplitude after 8 cycles
From Eq. (4.5),

Solid damping factor () is related to the logarithmic decrement as follows:

 (4.8)
for small values of damping ratio. Here  is the hysteretic damping coefficient.

Damping Capacity: It is used to specify the damping in metals at various stress levels
and is generally expressed as the percentage loss of energy per cycle obtained from a
torsional vibration test. A loss of 1 per cent per cycle is equivalent to a logarithmic
decrement of about 0.005. At 5 per cent loss corresponds to  = 0.025 and a 30 per cent
to  = 0.18.

4.3 Coulomb Damping

Energy loss in a system can occur between distinguishable parts of a structure. As for a
structural engineer, the most relevant system mechanism is Coulomb damping. This
results from the motion of a body on a dry surface. It is common to use fasteners like,
bolt, rivets, etc., in construction. Energy can be dissipated in this arrangement during
cyclic shear strain of the dry surfaces of the connection. The resultant damping is nearly
consistent between the moving parts. The successive amplitudes of the free vibration for
a system with Coulomb damping decay linearly.

4.3.1 Free Vibration with Coulomb Damping

Coulomb damping results from friction against sliding of two dry surfaces. The friction
force F = FN where  denotes the coefficient of static and kinetic friction, taken to be
equal, and FN the normal force between the sliding surfaces. The friction force is
assumed to be independent of the velocity once the motion is initiated. The direction of
the force opposes motion, and the sign of the friction force will change when the
direction of motion changes. Therefore the necessity of formulating two differential
equations and solving both arise. One of the equations is valid for motion in one
direction and the other valid when the motion is reversed.

A spring – mass system with the mass sliding against a dry surface is shown in Fig.
4.3(a). First, the mass displaces to the right. In Fig. 4.3(b), the free-body diagram of the
displaced mass in the direction from left to right, including the inertia force is depicted.
Figure 4.3(c) illustrates the free-body diagram of the mass in its displaced position with
forces when the motion is reversed, i.e., when the motion is from right to left.

The equation of motion governing the mass from right to left is

(4.8)

The solution of Eq. (4.8) is

(4.9)
where . For motion of the mass from left to right, the governing equation is

(4.10)

for which the solution is

(4.11)

The constants A1, B1, A2 and B2 depend on the initial conditions of each successive half-
cycle of motion. The constant and may be interpreted as the static
deformation of the spring due to the friction force F N. Each of the two differential
equations is linear but the overall problem is nonlinear because the governing equation
changes every half-cycle of motion.

Let us study the motion of the system shown in Fig. 4.3 starting with some given initial
conditions and continuing until the motion ceases. At time t = 0, the mass is displaced a
distance x(0) to the right and released from rest such that For the first half-
cycle of motion, Eq. (4.9) applies with constants A 1 and B1 determined from the initial
conditions at t = 0:

B1 = 0 (4.12)

Substituting Eq. (4.12) in Eq. (4.9) gives

(4.13)

This is plotted in Fig. 4.4. It is a cosine function with amplitude = x(0) - and shifted
in the positive x direction by Equation (4.13) is valid until the velocity becomes

zero again at t = ; at this instant .

Starting from this extreme left position, the mass moves to the right with its motion
described by Eq. (4.11). The constants A 2 and B2 are determined from the conditions at
the beginning of this half-cycle:

B2 = 0 (4.14)

Substituting these in Eq. (4.11) gives

 ; (4.15)

This is plotted in Fig. 4.4. It is a cosine function with reduced amplitude =

and shifted in the negative x direction by . Equation (4.15) is valid until the velocity

becomes zero again at ; at this time instant .

At the motion reverses and is described by Eq. (4.9), which after evaluating the
constants A1 and B1 becomes

; (4.16)

This is a cosine function with its amplitude reduced further to and shifted,
as before, in the positive x direction by .

The time taken for each half-cycle is and the duration of a full-cycle, the natural
period of vibration, is

(4.17)
It is worth noting that the natural period of a system with Coulomb damping is the same
as for the system without damping. In contrast, viscous damping had the effect of
lengthening the natural period [Eq. (3.18)]. In each cycle of motion, the amplitude is
reduced by ; i.e., the displacement xi and xi+1 at successive maxima are related by
(4.18)
Thus envelops of the displacement – time curves are straight lines as in Fig. 4.4, instead
of the exponential functions for systems with viscous damping (Fig. 3.6).

When does the free vibration of a system with Coulomb friction stop? In each cycle the
amplitude is reduced by . Motion stops at the end of the half-cycle for which the
amplitude is less than . At that point the spring force acting on the mass is less than
the friction force, Kx < FN, and motion ceases. In Fig. 4.4, this occurs at the end of the
third cycle. The final rest position of the mass is displaced from its original equilibrium
position and represents a permanent deformation in which the friction force and spring
force are locked in. Shaking or tapping the system will usually jar it adequately to restore
equilibrium.

Damping in real structures must be partly due to Coulomb friction, since only this
mechanism can stop motion in free vibration. If the damping were purely viscous,
motion theoretically continues forever, although at infinitesimally small amplitudes. This
is an academic exercise. However, it is basic to an understanding of damping
mechanisms.

The various damping mechanisms that exist in real structures are rarely modeled
individually. In particular the Coulomb frictional forces that must exist are not
considered explicitly unless frictional devices have been attached to the structure. Even
with such devices, it is possible to use equivalent viscous damping to obtain approximate
result for dynamic response.

4.4 Structural Damping

Another kind of energy dissipation mechanism present in a physical system is the

structural damping or solid damping. Structural damping is due to the internal molecular
friction of the material of the structure. During vibration when materials are cyclically
stressed, the energy is dissipated internally within the material itself. The stress-strain
diagram for a vibrating system is not a straight line but forms a loop as in Fig. 4.5. This
is called a hysteresis loop, the area enclosed within this loop represents the energy
dissipated due to molecular friction per cycle per unit volume. This type of damping is
also called hysteresis damping. The size of the loop depends upon the material of the
vibrating system, the frequency and the amount of dynamic stress shown in Fig. 4.5.
When the energy dissipation per cycle is proportional to the square of the vibration
amplitude, the loss coefficient is a constant. As such the shape of the hysteresis curve
remains the same with amplitude and is independent of the strain rate.

The damping force associated with hysteretic damping is in phase with the velocity, but
proportional to the displacement of a system. The hysteretic damping force may be
expressed as

(4.19)

where  is the hysteretic damping coefficient. The hysteretic damping force is expressed
as a fraction of the elastic force.

4.5 Measurement of Damping

All engineering systems, in fact, possess damping. Therefore they are called non-
conservative systems since energy is being dissipated by damping forces. The effect of
damping is to lengthen the period of natural frequency and to lower the value of the
resonant frequency than that obtained for the case without damping being considered.
The damping for engineering structures is usually more complicated than a simple
idealization of viscous damping. The dynamic response of a SDOF system mainly
depends on the physical properties such as mass, stiffness and viscous damping. The
calculation of mass and stiffness is simple and straightforward. We can calculate these
properties from the geometry and dimensions of the structure. However, it is much more
difficult to estimate the amount of damping present in a system because its characteristics
are not well understood. Therefore damping in a system has to be evaluated only
experimentally. We can determine the value of the damping in an elastic system either
by free vibration test or by forced vibration test. In these tests we observe the response of
the system for a range of frequencies in and around the resonance frequency.

4.5.1 Free Vibration Test

A free vibration test is conducted by exciting the system with a displacement or impact or
dynamic force. We connect a displacement measuring device called transducer or pick
up and a recorder to the system. We run the recorder attached to the system freely thus
allowing the amplitude traces to be recorded on the chart paper. The system initially
vibrates with large amplitudes as soon as the excitation starts. After sometime the
vibration decays indicating the gradual decrease in amplitude of vibration. This is called
a run down record or chart. By observing the values of successive amplitudes of free
vibration test, we can calculate the logarithmic decrement  of the system from Eq. (4.3).
As the value of structural damping is small, it is more accurate to use Eq. (4.6) for
amplitudes which are several cycles apart. We do not require an elaborate arrangement
of equipment and instrumentation to conduct a free vibration test. We can adopt any
convenient method to excite the system under free vibration test. For example, values of
damping of tall buildings have been obtained by observing the free vibration caused by
wind, mild impact or even by releasing a taut cable connecting the building to the ground.
In free vibration test we need to measure the relative displacement only.

4.5.2 Forced Vibration Test

We make use of a mechanical exciter or harmonic generator to conduct a forced vibration

test. This machine is mounted on the system. During operation, this machine will apply
a uni-directional harmonic force either in the vertical or horizontal direction. Under the
influence of this exciter, the system will execute a steady-state vibration. We keep
changing the load frequency and measure the displacement amplitude for each frequency.
With these values we plot the frequency – response curve shown in Fig. 4.6.

This response curve help in obtaining the deformation response factor or dynamic
magnification factor for any given frequency. This factor is the ratio of response
amplitude x0 of vibration to the static deformation (x st)0 and is given by Eq. (3.32). At
resonance where  = n, the maximum deformation in terms of displacement is given by
Eq. (4.20)

(4.20)
At or near resonance, measurement of response is difficult. Therefore we prefer the half
power or band width method to evaluate the damping ratio. Generally, bandwidth is the
difference between two frequencies corresponding to the same amplitude. Frequency
response curve is used to define the half power bandwidth (Fig. 4.6). In this method,
frequencies of response for the power input at resonance are determined. These
frequencies correspond to a response amplitude of (1/2) times the resonant amplitude.
At this amplitude, the forcing frequencies on either side of resonant frequency is assumed
to be a and b. By equating the peak amplitude of the stead-state response given by Eq.
(3.42) to (1/2) of Eq. (4.20) we obtain,

(4.21)

Squaring both sides and rearranging terms we get,

(4.22)

where and  is the forcing frequency.

Equation (4.22) is a quadratic equation in 2, the roots of which are

(4.23)

where the positive sign gives the larger root and the negative sign correspond

to the smaller root .

In real structures, the damping ratio is small and hence we can ignore higher order terms
of .

(4.24)

We can expand Eq. (4.24) by Taylor series. Therefore RHS of Eq. (4.24) is given by

(4.25)

One of the roots is 1 + . This is the larger root. Therefore

(4.26)

The other root is 1 - . This is the smaller root. Hence,

(4.27)

Now from Eq. (4.26) we subtract Eq. (4.27) to get

(4.28)
The points where the amplification factor falls to of resonant amplitude are called
half-power points and the difference between the frequencies associated with half-power
points is called the bandwidth. These quantities are shown in Fig. 4.6.

4.5.3 Equivalent Viscous Damping

By measuring the forced response at resonance, we can reduce the non-viscous damping
in a system to an equivalent amount of viscous damping. At resonance, the response of a
SDOF system is out-of-phase by 90 with the input. In this situation the damping force
balances the applied loading. Appropriate equipments are available to detect the phase
difference. We can use these equipments and establish the resonant condition by
adjusting the frequency of the input. If we plot the applied force against the displacement
for one cycle, then the damping force – displacement relationships is automatically
obtained.

The damping force – displacement relation in the case of viscously damped system is an
ellipse shown in Fig. 4.7. Now we can define the damping coefficient, c, as the ratio of
the maximum damping force, fD, to the maximum velocity, x0max, i.e.,

(4.29)
However, in the case of a system with non-viscous damping, the force - displacement
relation is not an ellipse. In contrast, it is dumbel shaped as shaded area in Fig. 4.7. The
area of this curve is assumed as D. We can determine an equivalent ellipse of the same
area D as for the case of non-viscous damping. This equivalent ellipse defines the
amount of equivalent viscous damping. We assume here that the energy loss per cycle in
both viscous and non-viscous damping is the same. For this case, we can present an
equivalent viscous damping coefficient as

(4.30)

where Aeqd is the area of the equivalent viscous damping curve and is equal to
for the ellipse.

We know that for a SDOF system, the critical damping coefficient cc is given by 2m or
2K/. We can obtain the stiffness K from the force – displacement relation of the
system. If A is the triangular area under the force – displacement curve (Fig. 4.8), then

stiffness for a linear system. The damping ratio for an equivalent viscous

system is, therefore, expressed as

(4.31)
Equation (4.30) contains the frequency terms. Therefore the damping ratio of Eq. (4.31)
is also frequency dependent.

4.5.4 Values of Damping in Structural Materials

In most metals the value of damping is very low. Compared to other materials like cork,
rubber and concrete the damping value in metal is much less. The annual publication of
Kempe’s Engineers Yearbook provides some information on damping properties of
metals. Accordingly, typical values for metals range from 5 to 30 per cent. These
correspond to the logarithmic decrement  values of 0.025 to 0.18.

Manufacturers of rubber and cork invariably supply the damping values of their products.
For rubber, values of logarithmic decrement range from 0.01 to 0.50. Specific values
depend on the constituents of rubber. Cork is similar to a medium hard rubber. The
logarithmic decrements for this cork range from 0.2 to 0.5.

For concrete, the damping depends on whether it is cracked or not. In the case of cracked
concrete the mean values for logarithmic decrement are of the order of 0.03 and the
corresponding value for cracked concrete is quoted as 0.1. The damping present in the
reinforced concrete depends on the constituents of concrete and the amount and type of
reinforcement. When compared to reinforced or plain concrete, the amount of damping
present in prestressed concrete is very low. Values of logarithmic decrement of 0.03 to
0.44 have been quoted for prestressed and reinforced concrete beams.

4.5.5 Values of Damping in Structures

The actual values of damping are different for different structures. However, a number of
attempts were made over the decades to determine the damping ratios of complete
structures. These ratios represent the overall effect of damping and hence arte indicator
of their possible levels. As a guideline, the following data may be used to assess the
dynamic response of structures.

The damping ratios for concrete buildings are in the range of 0.05 to 0.10. The
corresponding values for masonry structures are 0.05 to 0.15. Particularly, for three-
storey reinforced concrete framed building the damping ratios were found to be 0.02 to
0.03 whereas for a damaged eleven-storey reinforced concrete framed structure in
previous earthquake the corresponding values are 0.05 to 0.06.

Values of damping for other types of structures are also available. For example, for a
cooling tower, its logarithmic decrement is 0.193. For metal bridges, values of damping
vary from 4 to 6 per cent for frequency range of 1 to 3 Hz and 10 to 12 per cent for a
frequency range of 4 to 10 Hz.

POINTS TO REMEMBER

 The energy loss mechanism in a vibrating body is expressed in the form of damping
 and is represented by a damper.

 The response of a system with any type of damping continues indefinitely with
decaying amplitude.

 The energy dissipations for various types of damping are different from each other and
the resulting motion is termed damped vibration.

 When damped free vibrations take place, the amplitude of vibrations gradually
diminishes and eventually comes to rest completely.

 The energy loss of dissipation of energy mechanism controls the rate at which the
amplitude decays.

 Three common of dampings are: viscous, Coulomb, and structural damping

 Viscous damping forces proportionally vary with velocity and successive amplitudes
of vibration decay exponentially.

 The direction of forces in viscous damping opposes the motion.

 The natural logarithm of the ratio of successive peaks is called the logarithmic
decrement

 If  is small, and this gives an approximate equation

 Coulomb damping results from the motion of a body on a dry surface

 Coulomb damping results from friction against sliding of two dry surfaces

 Damping in real structures must be partly due to Coulomb friction

 The friction force is assumed to be independent of the velocity once the motion is
initiated.
 The direction of the force opposes motion, and the sign of the friction force will
change when the direction of motion changes.

 Another kind of energy dissipation mechanism present in a physical system is the

structural damping or solid damping.

 Structural damping is due to the internal molecular friction of the material of the
structure.
  All engineering systems, in fact, possess damping. Therefore they are called non-
conservative systems since energy is being dissipated by damping forces.

 The effect of damping is to lengthen the period of natural frequency and to lower the
the resonant frequency than that obtained for the case without damping being
considered

 By measuring the forced response at resonance, we can reduce the non-viscous

damping in a system to an equivalent amount of viscous damping.

 The damping force – displacement relation in the case of viscously damped system is
an ellipse

 Typical values for metals range from 5 to 30 per cent

 For rubber, values of logarithmic decrement range from 0.01 to 0.50

 The logarithmic decrements for cork range from 0.2 to 0.5

 In the case of cracked concrete the mean values for logarithmic decrement are of the
order of 0.03 and the corresponding value for cracked concrete is quoted as 0.1

 Values of logarithmic decrement of 0.03 to 0.44 have been quoted for prestressed
and reinforced concrete beams

 The actual values of damping are different for different structures

 The damping ratios for concrete buildings are in the range of 0.05 to 0.10.

 The values of damping for masonry structures are 0.05 to 0.15

 For three-storey reinforced concrete framed building the damping ratios were found
to be 0.02 to 0.03

 For a damaged eleven-storey reinforced concrete framed structure in previous

earthquake the damping values are 0.05 to 0.06.

 For a cooling tower, its logarithmic decrement is 0.193

 For metal bridges, values of damping vary from 4 to 6 per cent for frequency range of
1 to 3 Hz and 10 to 12 per cent for a frequency range of 4 to 10 Hz
 Exercises
1. How the energy loss mechanism in a system is expressed?
2. List the different types of damping forces.
3. State some common examples of viscous damping.
4. What are the characteristics of viscous damping forces?
5. What is Coulomb damping?
6. How does the decay occur in Coulomb dampint?
7. What is logarithmic decrement? Derive an expression for the same.
8. What is solid damping factor?
9. Define damping capacity.
10. In Coulomb damping, how much amplitude is reduced in each cycle of motion?
11. What causes structural damping?
12. What is hysteresis loop? What does it indicate?
13. How damping is measured by test? Describe anyone test procedure.
14. What is bandwidth? How damping is measured using bandwidth?
15. Define equivalent viscous damping. Derive an expression for the same.
16. List the damping values for rubber, cork, and concrete.

17. An empty elevated tank is set in motion in free vibration mode laterally by snapping
suddenly a cable attached to it. The force in the attached cable is 15 kN and it pulls the
tank horizontally by 50 mm. As per free vibration test record the time after 6 cycles is 3 s
and amplitude of motion is 25 mm. Based on these information, determine the following
quantities: (a) damping ratio; (b) natural period of undamped vibration; (c) effective
stiffness; (d) effective weight; (e) damping coefficient and (f) number of cycles required
for the displacement amplitude to decrease to 5 mm.

18. The damper of a SDOF system offers resistance of 2 N at a constant velocity of 0.1
m/s. The damper is used with a spring of constant 15 N/m. Determine the damping ratio
and frequency of the system when the mass of the system is 0.8 kg.

19. For a system with damping ratio , determine the number of free vibration cycles
required to reduce the displacement amplitude to 20% of the initial displacement; the
initial velocity is zero.

20. A SDOF system with Coulomb damping has a mass of 50 kg attached to a spring of
stiffness 2000 N/m. The coefficient of friction is 0.03. Determine (a) the frequency of
free vibration; (b) number of cycles corresponding to 60% reduction in amplitude is 80
mm; and (c) the time taken to achieve this 60% reduction.