Metals

✓ Metals are usually strong, conduct electricity and heat well and are
opaque to light (shiny if polished).

✓ Characteristics are owed to non-localized electrons (metallic bond

between atoms) i.e. electrons are not bound to a particular atom

✓ Malleable—that is, they can be hammered or pressed permanently

out of shape without breaking or cracking—as well as fusible

✓ About 91 of the 118 elements in the periodic table are metals

 Classification of Metals

✓ Metallic materials are again classified for ease of selection and/or based on their tonnage of usage
broadly into two classes
✓Ferrous Materials
✓Non-ferrous Materials

✓ Ferrous materials –chief constituent is iron (Fe).

E.g.: steel, cast iron.

✓ Metallic materials those are not ferrous , termed as nonferrous materials.

E.g.: Brass, Silver, Aluminium, Titanium.
 Ferrous Metal

✓ Ferrous Materials can be classified into two major categories based on carbon
content

Steels : %C is up to 2.14%
Cast irons : %C is above 2.14%

✓ Cast irons are called so because they are usually manufactured through casting
technique owing to their brittle nature due to presence of iron carbide.

✓ Steels are serving major part of present engineering applications.

 Classification of Steel

✓ Carbon is the principal element affecting the properties of iron alloys.

✓ Generally plain carbon steels contain other elements whose presence due to
Steel Making practice (Si & Mn added as deoxidizers)
Impossibility of removal and from raw material (S & P)

✓ AISI (American Iron & Steel Institute) defines carbon steels as iron carbon alloys
having a maximum of 1.65% Mn, 0.60% Si , 0.60% Cu.
 Classification of Steel

Ferrous
Metals

Steel Cast Iron

Plain Carbon
Steel Alloy Steel Grey Ductile Malleable White

Low Carbon Medium High Carbon

Steel Carbon Steel Steel Tool Steel Stainless
Steel
 Plain Carbon Steel

✓ In steels, C atoms occupies interstitial

Plain Carbon Steels
sites of Fe.
Low-carbon steels
✓ Steels are classified based on their C % wt of C < 0.3
content/alloying elements.
Medium carbon steels
Plain carbon steels
0.3 <% wt of C < 0.6
&
Alloying steels
High-carbon steels
2.14 <% wt of C > 0.6
 Low Carbon Steel

 Low carbon steels having carbon up to 0.3%

Low carbon Steels – up to 0.15% of C
Mild Steels - 0.15 % to 0.30% of C

 The low carbon steels contain with 0.15% C with 0.3% to 0.4% of Mn
 Yield Strength - 200 to 300 Mpa
 Tensile Strength – 300 to 370 Mpa
 Elongation - 28% to 40%
 Low Carbon Steel

 Carbon range is low

 Good Strength with high ductility

 Excellent fabrication properties (Rolling, Drawing & Welding)

 Not hardened as the hardenability is too low to produce martensite

 Applications of Low Carbon Steel

 Because of high ductility, these steels find application in the form of cold-deformed shapes such as
Automobile bodies,
refrigerator bodies,
tin cans,
corrugated sheets & solid drawn tubes
o Rimmed Variety fins applications rod & wire for
nails, rivets,
fencing, binding,
cable-armouring, ferroconcrete bars
 Mild Steel

 Mild steels having carbon between 0.15% up to 0.3% of C

 These steels contain 25% fine pearlite & 75% ferrite. The composition as follows
0.15- 0.35% Si,
0.6 to 1.25% Mn (increases yield & tensile)
0 .035% P,
0.004% S
0.2% Cu (improves corrosion resistance)
 Yield Strength - 300 to 350 Mpa
 Tensile Strength – 400 to 450 Mpa
 Elongation - 26% to 30%
 Mild Steel

 Mild steels having higher carbon content than low carbon steel and thus, have higher strength but lower
ductility

 Due to this, these steels are normally are hot rolled or forged and air cooled (or sometimes normalized)

 Moderate yield & tensile strength

 Proper combination of strength, ductility, toughness & weldability

 Because of low hardenability, maximum hardness of HRC 45 and is not brittle

 Examples of Mild Steel

 Free Cutting Steels

Low co-efficient of friction of this metals improves the machinability
These are resulphurised steels i.e. have intentionally added Sulphur (0.08 to 0.20%) improves
machinability

 Weathering Steels
Addition of both 0.40% Cu & 0.10% P together to mild steels increase the corrosion resistance.
0.80% Cr also increases corrosion resistance of mild steel
 Medium Carbon Steel

 These steels having carbon between 0.30% up to 0.6% of C

 They are less ductile and stronger than low carbon steels.

 Heat treatable (austenitizing, quenching & tempering).

 Hardenability is increased by adding Ni, Cr, Mo.

 Used in various tempered conditions.

 Applications of Medium Carbon Steel

 These steels are often used in normalized condition for a great variety of components

 It is known as machinery steels

 Drop forging (0.3 – 0.5% C) for general engineering purposes, boiler drums, agricultural tools

 0.3 – 0.4% C steels for shafts, high tensile tubes, wire fish plates

 0.4 0.5% C steels for turbo –electric disc, shafts, rotors, die-blocks, gears & tyre
 High Carbon Steel

 These steels having carbon between 0.6% up to 2.14 % of C

 They are strongest and hardest of carbon steels.

 Heat treatable & Used in tempered or hardened conditions.

 Alloying additions – Cr, V, W, Mo

 These steels are heat treated to attain high hardness & wear resistance

 Very good cutting properties & less ductile

 Applications of High Carbon Steel

 0.6 0.65 % C - Railway rails, laminated springs for railways & automobiles, wheel spokes, wire ropes

 0.65 – 0.75 % C – Saws, mandrel, diesel engine liners, hammers

 0.75 – 0.85 % C - Car Bumpers, cold chisels, large die for cold-process

 0.85 – 0.95 % C – Small cold chisels, shear blades, punches

 0.95 – 1.10 % C – Screwing dies, mint dies, axe, milling cutters

 1.1 – 1.4 % C – Razors, gauges, drills, reamers, turning & planning tools
 Limitations of Plain Carbon Steel

 Difficult to harden plain carbon steel parts thicker than 1.5 cm up to centre ( Due to low
hardenability)
 Low corrosion & oxidation resistance
 Major loss of hardness on stress reliving, tempering treatment
 Poor high temperature properties
 Alloy Steels

 The limitations of alloy steels are overcome by the use of alloy steels.
 The presence of alloying elements, not only enhances the characteristics but also improves the
following properties.
 Improve the hardenability
 Improved Corrosion & Oxidation Resistance
 Increasing resistance to softening on tempering on tempering
 Increase high temperature properties
Steels are regarded as plain carbon steels which contain not more than 1.65% Mn, 0.60% Si, and 0.60% Cu
and all other steels being regarded as alloy steels
 Alloying Elements

 Austenite Stabilizers : Mn, Ni, Co, Cu, Zn, C and N

 Ferrite Stabilizers : Cr, W, Mo, V, Si, Al, Be, Nb, P, Ti and Zr
 Graphitizing elements : Si, Ni, Cu and Al

 Carbide forming elements (in order of increasing affinity for carbon)

Fe > Mn > Cr > W > Mo > V > Ti > Nb > Zr

Characteristic effects of alloying elements

Manganese Nickel Chromium

• Acts a deoxidizer & An • An Austenite Stabilizer • Strong carbide forming
Austenite –Stabilizer element
• Increases toughness &
• Increases yield strength, ductility • Forms Cr2O3 , an inert passive
Tensile strength & Toughness layer that gives oxidation
• Dissolves in ferrite (also in resistance
• Increases the hardenability austenite), causing solid
but causes quench-cracking solution strengthening to • Dissolves in alpha as well as
increase toughness gamma iron to increase
strength, wear resistance &
toughness
Characteristic effects of alloying elements

Molybdenum (Mo) Tungsten (W) Vanadium (V)

• A Ferrite –Stabilizer & strong • A strong carbide former • A ferrite stabilizer & Strong
carbide forming element carbide forming element

• Mo carbides enhance • Increases wear & abrasion • Forms Vanadium carbides to

creep resistance of steel resistance increase abrasion & wear
resistance
• Increases the resistance to • A part of corrosion & heat –
softening on tempering • Improves the hardenability
resisting steels
& Creep strength
Characteristic effects of alloying elements

Titanium (Ti) Cobalt (Co) Boron (B)

• A Ferrite –Stabilizer, a strong • Neither forms carbide nor • No solubility in ferrite A ferrite
carbide & nitride forming cause graphitization stabilizer & Strong carbide
element forming element
• Reduces hardenability but
• Titanium carbides enhance improves resistance to • Boron increases
wear & abrasion resistance softening on tempering hardenability
of steel
• Acts as bonding base for • Boron is used in C -Mn steels
• Added in SS to prevent Cr to cemented carbide particles for superior cold forming
form Chromium Carbide. properties.
 High Strength Low Alloy Steel (HSLA)

 Micro-Alloyed Steels (High Strength Low Alloy Steel)

✓ Micro-Alloyed steels are having small additions (≤0.2%) of alloying elements to 0.03% C and up to 1.5% Mn

✓ Very small addition of Nb, Ti, V & Al forms the finely dispersed precipitates of carbides or carbo-nitrides of these
elements cause refinement in grain size as well as precipitation hardening

✓ The grain refinement improves the yield strength to about 450 -550 Mpa and decreases the Ductile to britlle
transition temperature as low as -70˚c

✓ High strength to weight ratio

✓ Good wledability & reasonably low cost

 Dual-Phase Low Alloy Steel (DPLA)

 Even HSLA steels have good formability, it is difficult to do deep-cold-pressing, etc.

But DPLA offer great potentials.

 Combination of island of martensite (normally 10 -20%) or dispersion of martensite

in ferrite matrix.

 Addition of 1.5% Mn & 0.5% Si increases the hardenability

 Yield strength: 500 – 700 Mpa

 Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP)
Steel

 These steels are stain induced transformation of austenite to martensite

 The transformation leads to higher strength and ductility

 The strong carbide forming elements like V, Ti may be added to get high yield
strength (> 2000 Mpa) with 20 -25% elongation

 Requires extremely good metallurgical control & large plastic deformation

 Stainless Steel

 These steels are having a minimum 11.5% of Cr which is having more affinity for oxygen than iron

 Cr reacts with oxygen and forms a very thin, protective & stable Chromium oxide (Cr2O3) layer

 This is a continuous , impervious & passive layer to stop further reaction between steel & surrounding
atmosphere

 Cr imparts to the steels corrosion resistance, oxidation resistance & pleasing appearance

 The combination of Cr with Ni, Mo & Mn enhance the creep strength, toughness and ductility
 Type of Stainless Steel

Ferritic Stainless Steel

Martensitic Stainless Steel
Austenitic Stainless Steel
Duplex Stainless Steel
Precipitation –hardenable Stainless Steel
 Ferritic Stainless Steel
 Cr stabilizes ferrite, leading to formation of closed-gamma loop
Fe – Cr Phase Diagram with maximum 12.7% Cr at about 1000° c .

 To obtain a complete ferritic SS, ( Cr % - 17 times of C %) > 12.7%

 Carbon content is kept as low as (0.08 to 0.2%) to improve
toughness & reduce sensitization.

 This is not a high strength steel because carbon content is low.

 Yield Strength : 275 to 415 Mpa. Tensile Strength : 500 – 600 Mpa

 Typical Grades: AISI 405, 409, 430, 430 Nb, 444, 446
 AISI 430 is general purpose grade in chemical industry (Where
weldability is not required)
 Advantages of FSS

Cheaper than Austenitic steel.

Washing Machine Tubs, sinks, drainers , ducts, for handling fresh
water (AISI 444), Sea water condenser tubing (SEA-CURE)
Very good resistant to corrosion
Good oxidation resistance at high temperature & used in making
furnace components
Magnetic in Nature
 Limitation of FSS

 Get corroded in Chloride & Sulphur dioxide containing industrial & marine atmospheres

 17% Cr FSS is less corrosion resistant than ASS

 After high temperature treatment such as welding, the grains become very coarse &
difficult to be refined.

 FSS are inferior where stretch – forming is required. So we couldn’t use it in deep drawing
applications
 Martensitic Stainless Steel

 These are austenitic at temperature of 950 - 1000° c, but transform to martensite on

cooling.

 Normally Contains 12 – 17% Cr

 Heat treatable and can be hardened tempered to obtain yield strength of 550 -1860 Mpa

 These steels can be broadly divided into two categories

 Low carbon high strength martensitic stainless steels (AISI 403, 410, 414, 416, 420, 422)
 High carbon high strength martensitic stainless steels (AISI 431, 440 A, 440 B, 440 C)
 LOW CARBON HIGH STRENGTH MARTENSITIC
STAINLESS STEELS

 The carbon content is kept low to have good weldability, formability and impact strength

 These steels are quenched in oil or air from around 1050°c and then tempered.

 Tempering temperature is kept low for high tensile as well as yield strengths

 AISI 410 is a general purpose martensite alloy used widely for components such as bolts,
valves, pump shafts and bearings

 Moreover it finds applications in petro-chemical and chemical plant construction, gas-

turbine engines, turbine blades, propeller shafts in ships.., etc.
 HIGH CARBON HIGH STRENGTH MARTENSITIC
STAINLESS STEELS

 High carbon content increases the strength and hardness but lowers the weldability & toughness.

 Cutlery Stainless steel contains 0.3 % C and 12 % Cr

 Hardness of 400 VPN after hardening & tempering
 Precipitation of Cr23C6 causes pitting in SS knives
 Used for making gears, needle-valves etc.,

 Stainless steel razor blade contains 0.6 to 0.7 % C and 16 – 18 % Cr

 Surgical stainless steel contains 0.95 – 1.20 % C; 16 – 17 % Cr

 Hardness after tempering is 600 – 700 VPN
 Used for making surgical implements, scalpels, coal hammers etc.,
 Austenitic Stainless Steel

 These steels are having 16 – 25% Cr and sufficient amount of austenite stabilizing elements
like Ni, Mn or N.

 AISI 300 series has Ni as austenite stabilizing element

 When Ni is partly or fully replaced by Mn, we have AISI 200 serious.

 Non magnetic in nature & have good ductility

 Tough even at low temperature & there is no ductile to brittle transition temperature
 Austenitic Stainless Steel

 These steels are also very resistant to high temperature oxidation because of the
Chromium oxide layer

 The ASS is prone to Stress Corrosion Cracking . But reduced in high Ni (> 30% ) austenitc
alloys

 These are the single phase FCC materials and so it can be welded easily. But very prone to
weld decay.
 AISI 304 & 316 steels are prone to weld decay
 AISI 304L & 316L ( L indicates low carbon <0.3%) are made to take car of weld decay
 Nb or Ti is added to AISI 324 & 347 to take care of weld decay
 Austenitic Stainless Steel

 These steels are having high Nickel. So these are expensive. But used for making House-hold
utensils & structural purposes

 Stabilized and molybdenum grades find applications in chemical industries and for welding
purposes

 High chromium grades have high oxidation and scaling resistance to find applications in steam
pipes, boiler tubes, radiant super heater tubes, furnace parts etc.

 Alloys 904L, Al-6X and 254 SMO have been developed for sea water applications to avoid
pitting corrosion

 High Mo ASS are used for brackish or sea water cooling heat exchangers/condenser tube
applications for power stations
 DUPLEX STAINLESS STEELS

 Contains ferrite & austenite in microstructure . The exact proportion of the phases is controlled by
heat treatment

 Controlled rolling treatment by hot working in range of 900 - 950°c or even lower temperature
produces a very fine dispersion of ferrite and austenite grains called micro-duplex steels.

 These steels exhibit super plasticity, i.e. very high ductility of about 500% at high temperature of
950°c

 Balance between Cr equivalent elements as well as Ni equivalent elements help to obtain better
proportion. (23 – 30 % Cr and 2.5 – 7 % Ni and some Ti & Mo)

 Combination of toughness & weldability of austenite with strengths & resistance to localized
corrosion of ferrite
 DUPLEX STAINLESS STEELS

 Very good corrosion resistance similar to austenite stainless steels

 Have freedom from trans-granular scc, as the ferrite phase is immune to the SCC

 Have good weldability but micro-duplex structure is destroyed in HAZ, which decreases the strength
as well as stress corrosion resistance.

 Due to presence of ferrite, these steels have ductile to brittle transition temperature.

 Suffer from both type of embrittlement effects. 475°c embrittlement & formation of sigma phase.
 Typical grades – SAF 2205 , AF 22, Ferralium 255
 PRECIPITATION-HARDENABLE STAINLESS
STEELS

 These steels offer attractive combinations of properties but quite expensive

 It requires to be vacuum melted. So these alloys are restricted for use to high strength to weight
ratio applications as well as high temperature power plant steels

 The matrix in precipitation –hardenable stainless steels could be

 Austenite
 Martensite
 PRECIPITATION-HARDENABLE AUSTENITIC
STEELS

 These steels, at least have 10 % Ni or Ni + Mn to keep the steel as austenitic even after precipitation
of intermetallic compounds - Ni 3(Al,Ti )

 Strengthening elements are P, Mo, Cu, Nb, Al, or Ti

 The alloys are solutionised at about 1200° c and then aged at 700 - 800 ° c to result in yield strength
of 700 Mpa

 Ageing temperature is high. So these steels could be used for high temperature applications.
 PRECIPITATION-HARDENABLE MARTENSITE
STEELS

 These steels contain low carbon ( < 0.05% ) to have good toughness and Nickel lowered to 4 – 7%

 Precipitation forming elements are Cu, Mo, Al, Ti, Nb and N.

 Common precipitates are Ni 3Ti, Ni 3Al, NiAl etc.

 After quenching, the steel is aged at 400-500°c. So the maximum toughness can not be obtained.

 The high temperature results in over -aging that causes loss of strength.

 However by increasing Mo to 4 % and with addition of Co develops the maximum hardness.

 NON-FERROUS Alloys

 Copper alloys

 Nickel alloys

 Magnesium alloys

 Aluminium alloys

 Titanium alloys
 Properties of Copper

 Excellent electrical conductivity - Used in generators, bus-bars, power-lines, etc.

 Excellent thermal conductivity - Used in radiators, heat exchangers, refrigerators etc.

 Good ductility & malleability – can be rolled down strips of thick less than 0.0025 cm

 Good corrosion resistance

 Non-Magnetic

 Copper based alloys are a very important part of non-ferrous alloys

 Alloys of Copper - Brass

o Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc with the zinc content varying from 5 to 54%.
o Small amounts of lead, tin or aluminium also are added to impart specific properties to brass
o The important properties of brass are
oGood strength, ductility and formability
oGood machinability
oGood electrical and thermal conductivity
oGood wear and corrosion resistances
oNon-magnetic
oGood aesthetic property
 Alpha Brass – FCC structure
0% to 36% @ room temperature

Name & Applications Name & Applications

Composition Composition
Gilding Metal Coins, Medals, Base for gold Cartridge Brass Cartridge cases, head light
95% Cu & 5% Zn plating 70% Cu & 30% Zn reflectors for automobiles,
electrical sockets,
condenser tubes
Red Brass Electrical Sockets, Admiralty Brass Sn improves corrosion
90% Cu & 10% Zn condenser tubes, heat- 70% Cu, 29% Zn & resistance. Condenser tubes
exchanger tubes, radiator 1%Sn , heat exchanger tubes in
core steam power plants
Low Brass Dutch Musical instruments, flexible Aluminium Brass Al improves corrosion
Metal hoses, ornamental work 76% Cu, 22% Zn & resistances more than Sn.
80% Cu & 20% Zn 2% Al Replaces admiralty brass for
marine & land power plants
Name & Applications Name & Applications
Composition Composition
Muntz Metal / Excellent Hot working Prop Architectural Excellent forging properties.
Yellow Brass Easily hot rolled, extruded & Bronze Lock bodies, handrails, grills
60% Cu & 40% Zn forged @ 800˚C 57% Cu, 40% Zn, 3%
Ship-Sheathing, valve stems Pb
Free Cutting Brass Excellent machinability Manganese Bronze Clutch disks, pump rods,
61.5% Cu, 35.5% Zn, Gears, hardware, screw 58% Cu, 39% Zn, water turbine runners,
3% Pb machine parts 1.4%Fe, 1% Sn, shafting rods, auto-calve
valves
Naval Brass / Tobin Suitable in salt water, in Forging brass Hot forgings, hadware &
Bronze marine hardware as 60% Cu, 38% Zn & plumbing parts
60% Cu, 39% Zn & condenser plates, propeller 2% Pb
1% Sn shafts, piston rods
 Bronze –An alloy of Cu & Sn

Name & Applications Name & Applications

Composition Composition
Phosphor Bronze Wire brushes, condenser Silicon Bronze Used in chemical plants in
93.8% Cu, 6% Sn, tubes, gears, marine fittings, 96% Cu, 3% Si &1% the form strips, plates, wires,
0.2% P Diaphragms, bellows, cotter Mn tubes, propeller shafts &
pins belts
Bearing Bronze High speed, heavy pressure
85% Cu, 5% Sn, 5% bearing & busging
Zn, 5% Pb Beryllium Bronze Bourdon tubes, flexible-
97.5 % Cu, 2% Be & bellows, surgical instruments
0.5% Co
Aluminium Bronzes Pickling crates, ship fittings,
93% Cu & 7% Al (or) heat exchanger tubes,
90% Cu & 10% Al condenser tubes
 Nickel

 Ni is a white, malleable, ductile & FCC structure

 Mon-corrodible metal in caustic alkalis, ammonia, salt solutions & organic acids

 High strength, high heat conductivity & good heat resisting properties

 60% of Ni produced is used in producing SS & Ni-alloys

 The rest is used in high nickel alloys and for electroplating

 Nickel Alloys

Name Composition Properties Applications

A Nickel 99.4% (Ni+Co), High strength & Malleable Evaporators, Heating coils,
0.1% Cu & others Good resistance to corrosion & tanks, hot cathode in radio
oxidation tubes

D Nickel 95.2 %(Ni+Co), Mn increases resistance to Spark-plug electrodes,

0.05% Cu,4.5% Mn atomospheric attack ignition tubes, etc

E Nickel 97.7% (Ni+Co), 2% Good resistance to Sulphur attack Furnace lead-in wires, wires in
Mn, 0.05% Cu at elevated temperature incandescent lamps
 Nickel Alloys

Name Composition Properties Applications

Dura Nickel 93.5% (Ni+Co), High strength & High hardness Coil & flat springs, radio-
4.5% Al & others High corrosion resistance antenna, optical frames, fish-
Good impact strength hooks

Perma-Nickel 98.65%(Ni+Co), High strength Snap-switch blades, pump

0.02% Cu,0.3% Mn High Corrosion resistance parts etc.,
& others Good electrical & thermal
conductivity
 Nickel – Copper Alloys
Name Composition Properties Applications
Monel 67% Ni , 30% Cu & High strength & Ductility Tanks, valves, pumps, propellers in marine, oil
others Excellent corrosion resistance refining plant equipment
K Monel 65.25% (Ni+Co), A non-magnetic Marine pump shafts, steam valve discs,
29.60 % Cu & 2.75% High corrosion resistant Hydraulic valves
Al
H Monel 63% (Ni+Co), 30.5% Improve the castability Cast turbine nozzles
Cu & 3.2%Si High hardness with adequate ductility

R Monel 67% (Ni+Co), 30% Improve machinability Automatic Screw-machining, bolts & precision
Cu & 1.1%Mn Free cutting grade parts

S Monel 63% (Ni+Co), 30% Age hardenable to have high resistance to Valve seats, plugs, Bushings & Discs for high
Cu, 4%Si & 2% Fe galling & erosion temperature team
 Nickel – Chromium Alloys
Name Composition Properties Applications
Chromel A 80% Ni, 20% Cr Good resistance to oxidation, scaling, heat Electric Heating elements for household
Nichrome V appliances & industrial furnace

Chromel C 60% Ni, 16% Cr & Improve the castability Electric Heating elements for toasters, hot-
Nichrome V 24% Fe High hardness with adequate ductility water heaters, hair driers, Rheostats for
electronic equipment

Inconel 78% Ni, 14% Cr, High resistance to corrosion & high Exhaust manifold of airplane engines, Brine-
0.2% Cu, 6.5% Fe, temperature oxidation jacketed tanks, cooling & food processing
0.25% Mn, 0.25% Si strength & toughness equipment for dairy industry
Can withstand repeated heating & cooling in
a range 0 to 870˚C
Inconel X 92.85% Ni+Co),15.5 One of the Super Alloy Gas turbine, supercharger and jet propulsion
% Cr, 2.50%Ti, 6.8% Very good resistance to oxidation
Fe & 0.75% Al High strength at elevated temperatures
 Nickel – Molybdenum - Iron Alloys
Name Composition Properties Applications

57% Ni, 20% M0,

Hastelloy A 20% Fe, 2% Mn & Austenite & have best corrosion resistance Chemical industry equipment to handle,
0.15% C transport and store acids and other corrosive
High resistance to corrosion in HCl acid & materials.
wet HCL gas,
62% Ni, 30% M0, Agitators, mixers, kettles, dryers, condensers,
Hastelloy B 6% Fe, 1% Mn, 1% but Hastelloy B preferred for boiling acid. heat exchangers & evaporators
Si & 0.15% C

Good resistance to HCL of all concentrations

63% Ni, 32% M0, and at all temperatures
Chlorimet 2 3% Fe, 1% Mn, 1% Chemical industries pump & valves
Si & 0.15% C Good resistance to Sulphuric Acids of all
concentrations up to 80˚C
 Nickel – Chromium - Molybdenum - Iron Alloys
Name Composition Properties Applications

55% Ni, 17% M0,

Hastelloy C 15% Cr, 6% Fe, 5% Both alloys have high resistance to oxidizing
W 1% Mn, 1% Si & acids & mixtures such as Nitric, chloric and
0.15% C sulphuric acids.

Have good resistance to thermal shocks Aircraft parts, such as jet engine tail pipes,
after-burners, turbine blades & vanes
Hastelloy C responds to age-hardening
58% Ni, 6% M0,
Illium G 22% Cr, 6% Fe, 5% Illium G is used only in Cast forms
W 1.25% Mn, 0.65%
Si & 0.2% C
 Aluminium

 High strength to weight ratio

 High electrical and thermal conductivity
 High reflectivity and resistance to corrosion
 Non-toxic (ideal for packaging and cooking material)
 Ductility-easy to cold work and fabricate
 Al alloys- Role of Alloying Elements

Al + Cu Al + Mn Al + Si Al + Mg Al + Zn
Increases strength & Increases yield & Increases tensile Increases strength Gives heat treatable
hardness tensile strength strength & hardness and hardness alloys when
Up to13% wt. combined with Mg

If >12% makes the Improves ductility Decrease the hot Good resistance to Increase strength and
alloy brittle cracking Corrosion Hardness

Hot cracking Good resistance to Good resistance to Increase weldability Increased toughness
tendency corrosion Corrosion and machinability but susceptible to
stress corrosion
Decreases corrosion Decrease resistivity cracking
Resistance
 Classification of Al alloys
Aluminum Alloys

Wrought Alloys Casting Alloys

1XXX - Pure Aluminium (99% or greater) 1XX.X - Pure Aluminium (99% or greater)
2XXX - Al – Cu alloys 2XX.X - Al – Cu alloys
3XXX - Al – Mn alloys 3XX.X - Al – Si + Cu and/or Mg alloys
4XXX - Al – Si alloys 4XX.X - Al – Si alloys
5XXX - Al – Mg alloys 5XX.X - Al – Mg alloys
6XXX - Al – Si – Mg alloys 6XX.X - Unused series
7XXX - Al – Zn alloys 7XX.X - Al – Zn alloys
8XXX - Al + other elements 8XX.X - Al – Sn alloys
9XXX - Unused series 9XX.X - Al + other elements
Certifications in Welding

Certification provides internationally recognized, role-

specific competence for people engaged in welding,
joining, materials integrity and inspection in
manufacturing, construction, operation or repair of high
integrity structures, plant or machinery.
AWS - Certifications in Welding

AWS – American Welding Society

Offers
CWI – Certified Welding Inspector
CWE – Certified Welding Engineer
TWI - Certifications in Welding

TWI – The Welding Institute, UK

Offers
CSWIP – 3.1 – Certification Scheme for Welding and Inspection
Personnel (Welding Inspector)
 CSWIP – 3.2 - Certification Scheme for Welding and Inspection
Personnel ( Senior Welding Inspector)