Contents

4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 4.2

4.2 Fuel-Air Cycle ..................................................................................................................................... 4.2
4.3 Variable Specific Heats..................................................................................................................... 4.3
4.4 Change of Internal energy and enthalpy during a process with variable specific heats .............. 4.4
4.5 Isentropic expansion with variable specific heats .......................................................................... 4.5
4.6 Effect of variable specific heats on air standard efficiency of Otto and diesel cycle .................. 4.6
4.7 Dissociation ....................................................................................................................................... 4.7
4.8 Effect of operating variables ............................................................................................................ 4.9
4.9 Comparison of air standard and actual cycles ............................................................................. 4.13
4.10 Deviation of Actual cycle from Fuel-Air cycle................................................................................ 4.13
4.1 Introduction
 The air cycle approximation of air standard theory has highly simplified assumptions. The air standard
theory gives an estimate of engine performance which is much greater than the actual performance.
For example the actual indicated thermal efficiency of a petrol engine of, say compression ratio 7:1, is
of the order of 30% whereas the air standard efficiency is of the order of 54%.
 This large divergence is partly due to non-instantaneous burning and valve operation, incomplete
combustion, etc. But the main reason of divergence is the oversimplification in using the values of the
properties of the working fluid for cycle analysis.
 In the air cycle analysis it was assumed that the working fluid is nothing but air and this air was a
perfect gas and had constant specific heats.
 In actual engine the working fluid is not air but a mixture of air, fuel and residual gases. Furthermore,
the specific heats of the working fluid are not constant but increase as temperature rises, and finally,
the products of combustion are subjected to dissociation at high temperature.

4.2 Fuel-Air Cycle

Factors considered for Fuel-Air cycle calculations

 The following factors are taken into consideration while making fuel-air cycle calculations:
o The actual composition of the cylinder gases: The cylinder gases contains fuel, air, water
vapour and residual gas. The fuel-air ratio changes during the operation of the engine which
changes the relative amounts of CO2, water vapour, etc.
o The variation in the specific heat with temperature: Specific heats increase with temperature
except for mono-atomic gases. Therefore, the value of γ also changes with temperature.
o The effect of dissociation: The fuel and air do not completely combine chemically at high
temperatures (above 1600 K) and this leads to the presence of CO, H 2, H and O2 at equilibrium
conditions.
o The variation in the number of molecules: The number of molecules present after combustion
depends upon fuel-air ratio and upon the pressure and temperature after the combustion.

Assumptions made for Fuel-Air cycle analysis

 There is no chemical change in either fuel or air prior to combustion.
 Subsequent to combustion, the charge is always in chemical equilibrium.
 There is no heat exchange between the gases and the cylinder walls in any process, i.e. they are
adiabatic. Also the compression and expansion processes are frictionless.
 In case of reciprocating engines it is assumed that fluid motion can be ignored inside the cylinder.
 With particular reference to constant- volume fuel-air cycle, it is also assumed that
 The fuel is completely vaporized and perfectly mixed with the air, and
 The burning takes place instantaneously at top dead centre (at constant volume).

Importance of Fuel-Air cycle

 The air-standard cycle analysis shows the general effect of only compression ratio on engine efficiency
whereas the fuel-air cycle analysis gives the effect of variation of fuel-air ratio, inlet pressure and
temperature on the engine performance. It will be noticed that compression ratio and fuel-air ratio are
very important parameters of the engine while inlet conditions are not so important.
 The actual efficiency of a good engine is about 85 per cent of the estimated fuel-air cycle efficiency. A
good estimate of the power to be expected from the actual engine can be made from fuel-air cycle
analysis. Also, peak pressures and exhaust temperatures which affect the engine structure and design
Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering
4.2
ATD (3161910) | Unit-4 Fuel Air and Actual Cycles
 can be estimated reasonably close to an actual engine. Thus the effect of many variables on the
performance of an engine can be understood better by fuel-air cycle analysis.

4.3 Variable Specific Heats

 All gases, except mono-atomic gases, show an increase in specific heat with temperature. The
increase in specific heat does not follow any particular law. However, over the temperature range
generally encountered for gases in heat engines (300 K to 2000 K) the specific heat curve is nearly a
straight line which may be approximately expressed in the form

𝐶𝑝 = 𝑎1 + 𝐾1 𝑇
Eq. (4.1)
𝐶𝑣 = 𝑏1 + 𝐾1 𝑇
where a1,b1 and K1 are constants. Now,
𝑅 = 𝐶𝑝 − 𝐶𝑣 = 𝑎1 − 𝑏1
where R is the characteristic gas constant.
 Above 1500 K the specific heat increases much more rapidly and may be expressed in the form
𝐶𝑝 = 𝑎1 + 𝐾1 𝑇 + 𝐾2 𝑇2
𝐶𝑣 = 𝑏1 + 𝐾1 𝑇 + 𝐾2 𝑇2
 In above equations if the term T2 is neglected it becomes same as Eq. (4.9). Many expressions are
available even upto sixth order of T (i.e. T6) for the calculation of Cp and Cv.
 The physical explanation for increase in specific heat is that as the temperature is raised, larger
fractions of the heat would be required to produce motion of the atoms within the molecules. Since
temperature is the result of motion of the molecules, as a whole, the energy which goes into moving
the atoms does not contribute to proportional temperature rise. Hence, more heat is required to raise
the temperature of unit mass through one degree at higher levels. This heat by definition is the specific
heat. The values for Cp and Cv for air are usually taken as
𝐶𝑝 =1.005 kJ/kg K , C𝑣 =0.717 kJ/kg K at 300 K
𝐶𝑝 =1.345 kJ/kg K , C𝑣 =1.057 kJ/kg K at 2000 K

Fig.4.1 – Loss of power due to variation of specific heat

 Since the difference between Cp and Cv is constant, the value of γ decreases with increase in
temperature. Thus, if the variation of specific heats is taken into account during the compression

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

4.3
ATD (3161910) | Unit-3 Refrigerant and Refrigeration Cycles
 stroke, the final temperature and pressure would be lower than if constant values of specific heat are
used. This point is illustrated in Fig.4.1.
 With variable specific heats, the temperature at the end of compression will be 2', instead of 2. The
magnitude of drop in temperature is proportional to the drop in the value of ratio of specific heats. For
the process 1→2, with constant specific heats
𝑣1 𝛾−1
𝑇2 = 𝑇 1 ( )
𝑣2
with variable specific heats,
𝑣1 𝑘−1
𝑇2′ = 𝑇1 ( )
𝑣2′
𝐶𝑝
where 𝑘 = . Note that 𝑣2′ = 𝑣2 and 𝑣1 /𝑣2 = 𝑣1 /𝑣2′ = 𝑟.
𝐶𝑣
 For given values of T1, p1 and r, the magnitude of T2 depends on k. Constant volume combustion, from
point 2 ' will give a temperature T 3’ instead of T3. This is due to the fact that the rise in the value of Cv
because of variable specific heat, which reduces the temperature as already explained.
 The process, 2'-3' is heat addition with the variation in specific heat. From 3', if expansion takes place
at constant specific heats, this would result in the process 3'-4" whereas actual expansion due to
variable specific heat will result in 3'-4' and 4' is higher than 4". The magnitude in the difference between
4' and 4 " is proportional to the reduction in the value of γ.
 Consider the process 3'-4"
𝑣3 𝑘−1
𝑇4" = 𝑇3′ ( )
𝑣4
For the process 3’-4’
𝑣3 𝛾−1
𝑇4′ = 𝑇3′ ( )
𝑣4
 Reduction in the value of k due to variable specific heat results in increase of temperature from T 4” to
T4’.

4.4 Change of Internal energy and enthalpy during a process with variable
specific heats

Change of Internal energy

 The small change in internal energy of a unit mass of a gas for small change in temperature (dT) is
given by:
𝑑𝑢 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑑𝑇
𝑇2
∴ 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 = ∫ 𝐶𝑣 𝑑𝑇
𝑇1
𝑇2
= ∫ (𝑏 + 𝐾𝑇)𝑑𝑇
𝑇1
𝑇
𝑇2 2 𝐾
= [𝑏𝑇 + 𝐾 ] = 𝑏(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) + (𝑇22 − 𝑇12 )
2 𝑇 2
1

(𝑇2 +𝑇1 )
= (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) [𝑏 + 𝐾 ]
2
𝑇1 +𝑇2
= (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )(𝑏 + 𝐾𝑇𝑚 ) where, T𝑚 = 2

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

4.4
ATD (3161910) | Unit-4 Fuel Air and Actual Cycles
 Now,
𝐶𝑣𝑚 = 𝑏 + 𝐾𝑇𝑚   (𝐶𝑣𝑚 mean specific heat at constant volume)

∴ 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 = 𝐶𝑣𝑚 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) Eq. (4.2)

Change of Enthalpy
 The small change in internal energy of a unit mass of a gas for small change in temperature (dT) is
given by:
𝑑ℎ = 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇
𝑇2
∴ ℎ2 − ℎ1 = ∫ 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇
𝑇1
𝑇2
= ∫ (𝑎 + 𝐾𝑇)𝑑𝑇
𝑇1
𝑇
𝑇2 2 𝐾
= [𝑎𝑇 + 𝐾 ] = 𝑎(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) + (𝑇22 − 𝑇12 )
2 𝑇 2
1

(𝑇2 +𝑇1 )
= (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) [𝑎 + 𝐾 ]
2
𝑇1 +𝑇2
= (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )(𝑎 + 𝐾𝑇𝑚 ) where, T𝑚 = 2
 Now,
𝐶𝑝𝑚 = 𝑎 + 𝐾𝑇𝑚   (𝐶𝑝𝑚 mean specific heat at constant pressure)

∴ ℎ2 − ℎ1 = 𝐶𝑝𝑚 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) Eq. (4.3)

4.5 Isentropic expansion with variable specific heats

 Consider one kg of air, the heat transfer to a system using first law can be written as
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑑𝑊
𝑑𝑄 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑑𝑇 + 𝑝𝑑𝑣
 For isentropic process, 𝑑𝑄 = 0
∴ 𝐶𝑣 𝑑𝑇 + 𝑝𝑑𝑣 = 0
𝑑𝑇 𝑝
∴ 𝐶𝑣 + 𝑑𝑣 = 0
𝑇 𝑇
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑣
∴ 𝐶𝑣 +𝑅 =0 (∵ 𝑝𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇)
𝑇 𝑣
 Putting the values of R and Cv in the above equation, we get
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑣
∴ (𝑏 + 𝐾𝑇) + (𝑎 − 𝑏) =0
𝑇 𝑣
 Integrating both sides we get
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑣
∴ ∫(𝑏 + 𝐾𝑇) + ∫(𝑎 − 𝑏) = constant
𝑇 𝑣
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑣
∴ ∫𝑏 + 𝐾 ∫ 𝑑𝑇 + (𝑎 − 𝑏) ∫ = constant
𝑇 𝑣
∴ 𝑏 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑇 + 𝐾𝑇 + (𝑎 − 𝑏) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑣 = constant
∴ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑇 𝑏 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑒 𝐾𝑇 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑣 (𝑎−𝑏) = constant

∴ 𝑇 𝑏 𝑒 𝐾𝑇 𝑣 (𝑎−𝑏) = constant
𝐾 𝑎
∴ 𝑇𝑒 𝑏 𝑇 𝑣 (𝑏 −1) = constant

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

4.5
ATD (3161910) | Unit-3 Refrigerant and Refrigeration Cycles
 𝑇 𝐾𝑇 𝑎
∴ 𝑒 𝑏 𝑣 𝑏 = constant Eq. (4.4)
𝑣
𝑇 𝑝 𝑝
𝑝𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇 ⇒ = =
𝑣 𝑅 𝑎−𝑏

 Inserting the value of above equation in Eq. (4.9).

𝑝 𝐾 𝑎
∴ 𝑒 𝑏 𝑇 𝑣 𝑏 = constant
𝑎−𝑏
𝑎 𝐾𝑇
∴ 𝑝𝑣 𝑏 𝑒 𝑏 = constant Eq. (4.5)

4.6 Effect of variable specific heats on air standard efficiency of Otto and diesel
cycle

Otto cycle
 The air standard efficiency of Otto cycle is given by
1
𝜂 =1−
𝑟 𝛾−1
We have,
𝐶𝑝 − 𝐶𝑣 = 𝑅
𝐶𝑝 𝑅
∴ −1 =
𝐶𝑣 𝐶𝑣
𝑅 𝐶𝑝
∴𝛾−1= (∵ = 𝛾) Eq. (4.6)
𝐶𝑣 𝐶𝑣
 Putting Eq. (4.9) in the efficiency equation

1 𝑅
− 
∴𝜂 =1− =1−𝑟 𝐶𝑣
𝑅
𝑟 𝐶𝑣
𝑅
−
∴ 1 − 𝜂 = (𝑟) 𝐶𝑣

 Taking log on both sides, we have

𝑅
∴ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 (1 − 𝜂) = −  𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 (𝑟)
𝐶𝑣
 Differentiating the above equation, we have
1 𝑑𝜂 1
∴−   = −𝑅  𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑟  (− 2 ) 
1 − 𝜂 𝑑𝐶𝑣 𝐶𝑣
𝑑𝜂 𝑅 𝑑𝐶𝑣
∴ = − ⋅ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑟 ⋅
1−𝜂 𝐶𝑣 𝐶𝑣
𝒅𝜼 𝟏−𝜼 𝒅𝑪𝒗
∴ =− ⋅ (𝜸 − 𝟏) ⋅ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑟 ⋅ Eq. (4.7)
𝜼 𝜼 𝑪𝒗
 Negative sign indicates the decrease in efficiency with increase in Cv.
 The Eq. (4.9) gives the percentage variation in air standard efficiency of Otto cycle on account of
percentage variation in Cv.

Diesel Cycle
 The air standard efficiency of diesel cycle is given by

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

4.6
ATD (3161910) | Unit-4 Fuel Air and Actual Cycles
 1 𝜌𝛾 − 1
𝜂 =1− [ ]
(𝑟)𝛾−1 𝛾(𝜌 − 1)
 Taking log on both sides, we get

∴ 𝑙𝑜𝑔(1 − 𝜂) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝜌𝛾 − 1) − 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑟)𝛾−1 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝛾 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝜌 − 1)

∴ 𝑙𝑜𝑔(1 − 𝜂) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝜌𝛾 − 1) − (𝛾 − 1) 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑟 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝛾 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝜌 − 1)
 Differentiating the above equation with respect to γ

1 𝑑𝜂 1 1
∴− ⋅ = 𝛾 ⋅ 𝜌𝛾 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝜌 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑟 −
1 − 𝜂 𝑑𝛾 𝜌 − 1 𝛾
𝑑𝜂 𝜌𝛾 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝜌 1
∴ = (1 − 𝜂) [𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑟 − 𝛾 ⋅+ ]
𝑑𝛾 𝜌 −1 𝛾
 Multiplying the above equation by 𝑑𝛾/𝜂
𝑑𝜂 1−𝜂 𝜌𝛾 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝜌 1
∴ =( )  [𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑟 − 𝛾 ⋅ + ] ⋅ 𝑑𝛾 Eq. (4.8)
𝜂 𝜂 𝜌 −1 𝛾
𝑅
 Eq. (4.6) is 𝛾 − 1 = , differentiating this equation with respect to Cv
𝐶𝑣

𝑑𝛾 𝑅 𝑅 𝑑𝐶𝑣
∴ = − 2    ⇒   𝑑𝛾 = − ⋅
𝑑𝐶𝑣 𝐶𝑣 𝐶𝑣 𝐶𝑣
𝑑𝐶𝑣
∴ 𝑑𝛾 = −(𝛾 − 1) ⋅ Eq. (4.9)
𝐶𝑣
 Inserting the value of Eq. (4.9) into Eq. (4.8), we get

𝑑𝜂 1−𝜂 𝜌𝛾 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝜌 1 𝑑𝐶𝑣

∴ =− ⋅ (𝛾 − 1)  [𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑟 − 𝛾 ⋅+ ]⋅
𝜂 𝜂 𝜌 −1 𝛾 𝐶𝑣

4.7 Dissociation
 Dissociation process can be considered as the disintegration of combustion products at high
temperature.
 Dissociation can also be looked as the reverse process to combustion. During dissociation the heat is
absorbed whereas during combustion the heat is liberated.
 In IC engines, mainly dissociation of CO2 into CO and O2 occurs, whereas there is a very little
dissociation of H2O.
 The dissociation of CO2 into CO and O2 starts commencing around 1000 °C and the reaction equation
can be written as
2𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 ⇌ 2𝐶𝑂 + 𝑂2
 Similarly, the dissociation of H2O occurs at temperatures above 1300 °C and written as
2𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 ⇌ 2𝐻2 + 𝑂2
 The presence of CO and O2 in the gases tends to prevent dissociation of CO2; this is noticeable in a
rich fuel mixture, which, by producing more CO, suppresses dissociation of CO 2.
 On the other hand, there is no dissociation in burnt gases of a lean fuel-air mixture. This is mainly due
to the fact that temperature produced is too low for this phenomenon to occur.
 Hence, the maximum extent of dissociation occurs in the burnt gases of the chemically correct fuel-
air mixture when the temperatures are expected to be high but decreases with the leaner and richer
mixtures.
 In case of internal combustion engines heat transfer to the cooling medium causes a reduction in the
maximum temperature and pressure. As the temperature falls during the expansion stroke the
Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering
4.7
ATD (3161910) | Unit-3 Refrigerant and Refrigeration Cycles
 separated constituents recombine; the heat absorbed during dissociation is thus again released, but
it is too late in the stroke to recover entirely the lost power. A portion of this heat is carried away by the
exhaust gases.

Fig.4.2 – Effect of dissociation on temperature

 Fig.4.2 shows a typical curve that indicates the reduction in the temperature of the exhaust gas
mixtures due to dissociation with respect to air-fuel ratio. With no dissociation maximum temperature
is attained at chemically correct air-fuel ratio.
 With dissociation maximum temperature is obtained when mixture is slightly rich. Dissociation
reduces the maximum temperature by about 300 °C even at the chemically correct air-fuel ratio. In the
Fig.4.2, lean mixtures and rich mixtures are marked clearly.

Fig.4.3 – Effect of dissociation on power

 The effect of dissociation on output power is shown in Fig.4.3 for a typical four-stroke spark-ignition
engine operating at constant speed. If there is no dissociation the brake power output is maximum
when the mixture ratio is stoichiometric.
 The shaded area between the brake power graphs shows the loss of power due to dissociation. When
the mixture is quite lean there is no dissociation. As the air-fuel ratio decreases i.e., as the mixture
becomes rich the maximum temperature raises and dissociation commences.
Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering
4.8
ATD (3161910) | Unit-4 Fuel Air and Actual Cycles
 The maximum dissociation occurs at chemically correct mixture strength. As the mixture becomes
richer, dissociation effect tends to decline due to incomplete combustion.

Fig.4.4 – Effect of dissosiation shown on a p-V

diagram
 Dissociation effects are not so pronounced in a Cl engine as in an SI engine. This is mainly due to
i. the presence of a heterogeneous mixture and
ii. excess air to ensure complete combustion
Both these factors tend to reduce the peak gas temperature attained in the Cl engine.
 Fig.4.4 shows the effect of dissociation on p-V diagram of Otto cycle. Because of lower maximum
temperature due to dissociation the maximum pressure is also reduced and the state after combustion
will be represented by 3' instead of 3. If there was no reassociation due to fall of temperature during
expansion the expansion process would be represented by 3'-4" but due to reassociation the expansion
follows the path 3'-4'.
 By comparing with the ideal expansion 3-4, it is observed that the effect of dissociation is to lower the
temperature and consequently the pressure at the beginning of the expansion stroke. This causes a
loss of power and also efficiency. Though during recombining the heat is given back it is too late to
contribute a convincing positive increase in the output of the engine.

4.8 Effect of operating variables

 The effect of common engine operating variables on the pressure and temperature within the engine
cylinder is better understood by fuel-air cycle analysis. The details are discussed in this section.

Compression Ratio
 The fuel-air cycle efficiency increases with the compression ratio in the same manner as the air-
standard cycle efficiency, principally for the same reason (more scope of expansion work. This is
shown in Fig.4.5.
 The variation of indicated thermal efficiency with respect to the equivalence ratio for various
compression ratios is given in fig 2.6. The equivalence ratio, 𝜙, is defined as ratio of actual fuel-air ratio
to chemically correct fuel-air ratio on mass basis.

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

4.9
ATD (3161910) | Unit-3 Refrigerant and Refrigeration Cycles
 Fig.4.5 – Effect of compression ratio and mixture strength on efficiency

Fig.4.6 – Effect of mixture strength on thermal efficiency for various compression ratios

 The maximum pressure and temperature increase with compression ratio since the temperature, T2,
and pressure, p2, at the end of compression are higher. However, it can be noted from the experimental
results that the ratio of fuel-air cycle efficiency to air-standard efficiency is independent of the
compression ratio for given equivalence ratio for the constant volume fuel-air cycle.

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

4.10
ATD (3161910) | Unit-4 Fuel Air and Actual Cycles
 Fuel Air ratio

4.8.2.1 Efficiency
 As the mixture is made lean (less fuel) the temperature rise due to combustion will be lowered as a
result of reduced energy input per unit mass of mixture. This will result in lower specific heat.
 Further, it will lower the losses due to dissociation and variation in specific heat. The efficiency is
therefore, higher and, in fact, approaches the air-cycle efficiency as the fuel-air ratio is reduced as
shown in Fig.4.7.

Fig.4.7 – Effect of mixture strength on thermal efficiency

4.8.2.2 Maximum Power

 Fig.4.8 gives the cycle power as affected by fuel-air ratio. By air-standard theory maximum power is at
chemically correct mixture, but by fuel-air theory maximum power is when the mixture is about 10%
rich. As the mixture becomes richer the efficiency falls rapidly.

Fig.4.8 – Effect of fuel-air ratio on power

 This is because in addition to higher specific heats and chemical equilibrium losses, there is
insufficient air which will result in formation of CO and H 2 in combustibles, which represents a direct
wastage of fuel.

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

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ATD (3161910) | Unit-3 Refrigerant and Refrigeration Cycles
4.8.2.3 Maximum temperature
 At a given compression ratio the temperature
after combustion reaches a maximum when the
mixture is slightly rich, i.e., around 6 % or so (F/A
= 0.072 or A/F = 14:1) as shown in Fig.4.9.
 At chemically correct ratio there is still some
oxygen present at the point 3 because of
chemical equilibrium effects a rich mixture will
cause more fuel to combine with oxygen at that
point thereby raising the temperature T3.
However, at richer mixtures increased formation
of CO counters this effect.

4.8.2.4 Maximum Pressure

 The pressure of a gas in a given space depends
upon its temperature and the number of
molecules The curve of p3, therefore follows T3,
but because of the increasing number of
molecules p3 does not start to decrease until the
mixture is somewhat richer than that for
maximum T3 (at F/A = 0.083 or A/F = 12:1), i.e. Fig.4.9 – Effect of equivalence ratio on T3 and P3
about 20 per cent rich (Fig.4.9).

4.8.2.5 Exhaust Temperature

 The exhaust gas temperature, T4 is maximum at the
chemically correct mixture as shown in Fig.4.10. At
this point there is reassociation as the temperature
decrease so heat will be released these heat cannot
be used in engine cylinder so the exhaust gases
carry these heat with them and it result in higher
exhaust temperature.
 At lean mixtures, because of less fuel, T3 is less and
hence T4 is less. At rich mixtures less sensible
energy is developed and hence T4 is less. That is, T4
varies with fuel-air ratio in the same manner as T3
except that maximum T4 is at the chemically
correct fuel-air ratio in place of slightly rich fuel-air
ratio (6 %) as in case of T3.
 However, the behaviour of T4 with compression
ratio is different from that of T3 as shown in Fig.4.10
Unlike T3, the exhaust gas temperature, T4 is lower
at high compression ratios, because the increased
expansion causes the gas to do more work on the Fig.4.10 – Effect of fuel-air ratio on the exhaust
piston leaving less heat to be rejected at the end of gas temperature
the stroke. The same effect is present in the case
of air-cycle analysis also.

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

4.12
ATD (3161910) | Unit-4 Fuel Air and Actual Cycles
4.9 Comparison of air standard and actual cycles
 The actual cycles for internal combustion engines differ from air-standard cycles in many respects.
These differences are mainly due to:
− The working substance being a mixture of air and fuel vapour or finely atomized liquid fuel in
air combined with the products of combustion left from the previous cycle.
− The change in chemical composition of the working substance.
− The variation of specific heats with temperature.
− The change in the composition, temperature and actual amount of fresh charge because of the
residual gases.
− The progressive combustion rather than the instantaneous combustion.
− The heat transfer to and from the working medium.
− The substantial exhaust blowdown loss, i.e., loss of work on the expan-sion stroke due to early
opening of the exhaust valve.
− Gas leakage, fluid friction etc., in actual engines.
 Most of the factors listed above tend to decrease the thermal efficiency and power output of the actual
engines. On the other hand, the analysis of the cycles while taking these factors into account clearly
indicates that the estimated thermal efficiencies are not very different from those of the actual cycles.

4.10 Deviation of Actual cycle from Fuel-Air cycle

 Major deviation from of actual cycle from the Fuel air cycle is due to
− Variation in Specific heats
− Dissociation
− Progressive combustion
− Incomplete combustion of fuel
− Time loss factor
− Heat loss factor
− Exhaust blowdown factor

Time losses
 Time losses may be burning time loss and spark timings loss.
a) Burning time loss
 In theoretical cycle, the burning is assumed to be instantaneous but actually burning takes some time.
The time required depends upon F:A ratio, fuel
chemical structure and its ignition
temperature. This also depends upon the
flame velocity and the distance from the
ignition point to the opposite side of
combustion chamber.
 During combustion, there is always increase in
volume. The time internal between the spark
and complete burning of the charge is
approximately 40° crank rotation.
 The effect of time required for combustion;
the maximum pressure is not produced when
volume is minimum (vc) as expected. It is
produced some time after TDC. Therefore, the Fig.4.11 – Effect of time losses on p-V diagram

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

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ATD (3161910) | Unit-3 Refrigerant and Refrigeration Cycles
 pressure rises from b to c as shown in Fig.4.11.
 The point 3 represents the maximum pressure if the combustion should have taken place instantly.
The difference in area of actual cycle and fuel-air cycle shows the loss of power as shown in Fig.4.11.
This loss of work is called burning time loss. This time loss is defined as the loss of power due to time
required for mixing the fuel with air and for complete combustion.
b) Spark Timing Loss
 A definite time is required to start the burning of fuel after generating the spark in the cylinder. The
effect of this, the maximum pressure is not reached at TDC and it reaches late during the expansion
stroke. The time at which the burning starts is varied by varying the angle of advance (spark advance).
✓ If the spark is given at T.D.C., the maximum pressure is low due to expansion of gases.
✓ If the spark is advanced by 40° to start combustion at T.D.C., the combustion takes place at
T.D.C. But the heat loss and the exhaust loss may be higher and again work obtained is not
optimum.
 In the above two cases, the work area is less, and, therefore, power developed per cycle and efficiency
are lower.

Fig.4.12 – Effects of angle of advance a on p - v diagram

 Thus for getting maximum work output, a moderate spark advance of 15° to 25° is the best.
c) Incomplete Combustion Loss
 The time loss always includes a loss due to incomplete combustion. It is impossible obtain perfect
homogeneous air-fuel mixture. Fuel vapour, air, and residual gas is present in the cylinder before
ignition takes place. Under these circumstances it is possible to have excess oxygen in one part of the
cylinder and excess fuel in another part of it. Therefore, some fuel does not burn or burns partially.
Both CO and O2 will appear in the exhaust.
 It should be noted that it is necessary to use a lean mixture to eliminate fuel wastage while a rich
mixture is required to utilize all the oxygen. Slightly leaner mixture will give maximum efficiency but
too lean a mixture will burn slowly, increasing the losses or will not burn at all causing total waste. In
the rich mixture some of the fuel will not get oxygen and will be completely wasted. Also, the flame
speed in the rich mixture is low, thereby increasing the time losses and lowering the efficiency.

Direct heat loss

 During the combustion process and expansion process, the gases inside the engine cylinder are at a
considerably higher temperature, so the heat is lost to the jacket cooling water or air. Some heat is lost
to the lubricating oil where splash lubrication system is used for lubricating cylinder and piston.

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

4.14
ATD (3161910) | Unit-4 Fuel Air and Actual Cycles
 The loss of heat which takes place during combustion has the maximum effect, while that lost before
the end of the expansion stroke has little effect, since it can do very small amount of useful work.
 During combustion and expansion, about 15% of the total heat is lost. Out of this, however, much is
lost too late in the cycle to have done any useful work.
 In case all heat loss is recovered, about 20 percent of it may appear as useful work.

Exhaust blowdown loss

 At the end of exhaust stroke, the cylinder pressure is about 7 bar. If the exhaust valve is opened at
B.D.C., the piston has to do work against high cylinder pressure costing part of the exhaust stroke.
When the exhaust valve is opened too early entire part of the expansion stroke is lost.
 Thus, best compromise is that exhaust valve be opened 40° to 70° before B.D.C., thereby, reducing the
cylinder pressure to halfway to atmosphere before the start of the exhaust stroke.

Fig.4.13 – Effect of blow down

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

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ATD (3161910) | Unit-3 Refrigerant and Refrigeration Cycles