Geeshie Wiley - Tesi Di AnneMarie Cordeiro
Geeshie Wiley - Tesi Di AnneMarie Cordeiro
Geeshie Wiley - Tesi Di AnneMarie Cordeiro
by
AnneMarie Cordeiro
May 2011
ABSTRACT
The name of Geechie Wiley has surfaced only rarely since 1931, when she
recorded her second session with the Paramount Company in Grafton, WI. A few
scholars including Paul Oliver and Greil Marcus unearthed and promoted her
music and called for further research on this enigmatic figure. In other
songsters. Her music is lauded in the liner notes of the myriad compilation albums
that have re-released her recordings. However, prior to this study, Marcus's three-
page profile is the longest work written about Wiley; other contributions range
between one sentence and two paragraphs in length. None really answers the
Finally, my fifth chapter presents conclusions about Wiley’s life, career, and
final appendix. In these ways, this thesis argues that Wiley’s work traces the
i
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
CHAPTER
1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................. 1
3 METHODOLOGY ............................................................................... 14
Notation ............................................................................................. 17
Transcription Process....................................................................... 21
Key ................................................................................................... 26
5 CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................. 66
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................ 74
APPENDIX
A TRANSCRIPTIONS ........................................................................ 75
iii
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
“If Geeshie Wiley did not exist, she could not be invented… She
seems to represent the moment when black secular music was
coalescing into blues.”1
“… [T]he singer has already gone missing, you are on her trail,
and if the woman in whose presence you now find yourself had
left behind no other trace of her existence, this single recording
would have been enough to ensure that once heard, she would
never be forgotten.”2
history. She is known to country blues aficionados as one of the best musicians of
the era—and possibly the best female singer among her peers.3 However Wiley
was not just a blues singer. She more accurately identified as a songster,4 a much
older and more informative label. In this capacity, her musical choices evoke
images and sounds of the past, but she juxtaposed historical styles with the
compositions. Her guitar arrangements are individual, and her vocal style is
distinctive. Although scholars compare her to great artists of early blues like
Charley Patton and Memphis Minnie, Wiley is not documented in blues history as
1
Don Kent, liner notes, Mississippi Masters: Early American Blues Classics, 1927-35, Yazoo
Records 2007, 1994.
2
Greil Marcus, “Who Was Geechie Wiley?,” The Oxford American 27-28 (1999): 80.
3
Gayle Dean Wardlow, e-mail message to author, October 15, 2010.
4
In this thesis, the term songster refers to a rural singer, using the parlance of Paul Oliver and
Howard W. Odum. Pocket-sized songbooks are also sometimes called songsters.
1
Armed with a wide array of potential sources, I set out to answer Marcus’s
question: who was Geechie Wiley? In this thesis I also seek to contextualize both
Wiley and her music. Informed by verifiable facts as well as rumors and by
musical analysis, the elusive Wiley comes into better focus. A review of the
literature reveals existing shreds of information about Wiley and her recordings.
In this document I attempt to synthesize the few biographical and historical facts I
have unearthed. The central work of this thesis is the transcriptions, which I
performance. I have included standard notation for the guitar accompaniment. The
arrangements, lyrics, and the dramatic effect of each performance. Finally, I draw
quickly realized that crucial facts are, indeed, unknown and they remain
undiscovered at the time of this writing. An OCLC WorldCat search revealed that
singly—numerous times. Liner notes for these compilations yielded a few helpful
sources. Most notable among these were Don Kent’s notes for the album
5
I am grateful to Professor Angelita D. Reyes of ASU’s Department of African and African
American Studies, for the term ‘elusive biography’ and her encouragement.
6
Kent, liner notes.
2
Wiley’s possible regions of origin, dramatic aspects of her music, and some
Missouri—Kansas City) made helpful suggestions and arranged for Rob Detjen,
DMA candidate, to peruse the database of Jazz Advertised, since I was unable to
travel to a library that held that source. I am likewise indebted to blues historian
Hill, blues expert Jim O’Neal, rock music author and critic Greil Marcus, author
and editor John Jeremiah Sullivan, and Paramount historian Alex van der Tuuk of
7
Richard Nevins, liner notes, Before The Blues, Vol. 2: The Early American Black Music Scene,
Yazoo Records 2016, 1996; Allen Lowe, liner notes for American Pop From Minstrel to Mojo: On
Record, 1893-1946, West Hill Audio Archives CD-1017, 1998: 70.
3
biographical information. Van der Tuuk provided images of Paramount Records
advertisements and catalog records. Finally, my thesis chair queried the eight-
hundred-member Society for American Music about Wiley through its e-mail list,
Her Say: The Blues as the Black Woman’s Lament”8 places Wiley on a list of
self-accompanied rural blues women along with Mattie Delaney, Elvie Thomas,
a book and an article by Greil Marcus, and a chapter (related to Marcus’s works)
by John Jeremiah Sullivan. These three authors had earlier accomplished most of
the initial work for a study about Wiley. Wardlow’s book Chasin’ That Devil
Music follows the story of the blues. Most of his information about Wiley comes
Marcus’s article “Who Was Geechie Wiley?” focuses solely on Wiley. The article
and his discussion of Wiley in his earlier book Invisible Republic: Bob Dylan’s
Basement Tapes contain almost the same information. In the article, however,
Marcus is more closely concerned with Wiley while the book relates to Dylan.
8
Tammy L. Kernodle, “Having Her Say: The Blues as the Black Woman’s Lament,” Women’s
Voices Across Musical Worlds (Boston: Northeastern University Press), 2004: 213-231.
9
Ibid., 218.
4
More concrete facts about the recordings themselves, more speculation on
Wiley’s origins, and reactions and thoughts from scholars are included in this
checker for Marcus’ writings about Wiley. Sullivan’s information is much more
detailed than that of Marcus and Wardlow. He includes more facts about Wiley’s
All of this research constitutes very little concrete information and leaves
much room for further discoveries. Previous scholars have collected data mostly
from interviews, sparse records, and observations. Most specifics of Wiley’s life
are still unknown and therefore, remain unaddressed. Even Wiley’s style of
singing and guitar playing have not been established. A few of her peers have
been linked to her, but many more have not been mentioned. And it is
undetermined why she recorded three discs on two separate dates, but played for
no further sessions. I address these issues in the following work. Although I have
found some concrete answers, some questions will merely be explored to the
furthest degree possible. Specifically, I pursue one question: who was Geechie
Wiley?
5
Chapter 2
Very little is known about Geechie Wiley’s life. Much of her accepted
name. Wardlow believes that “Geechie” (as Elvie Thomas pronounced it, but also
“Geeshie” as spelled on her records) is not her real first name.It is not known
language of the slaves and immigrants brought to the coast of North Carolina and
Georgia. The Ogeechee River in Georgia has a related name, however this name
is probably of Native American origin. The word Geechee is a label for black and
occasionally white people from this region, but it can also be used to derogatorily
refer to a person from the South whose speech in not easily comprehended.10
most likely of Wiley’s possible origins), census and genealogy records provided
contact at the Natchez Historical Society provided a few leads. It is possible that
Victor Records singer Pearle Ransom from Church Hill in Jefferson County
10
Marcus, “Who Was Geechie Wiley?,” 83.
6
reinvented herself following a marriage to Willie Shade, taking his first name as
Her date and place of birth are unknown, though in an interview with
Gayle Wardlow, Ishmon Bracey (one of two people known to have seen and
spoken to Wiley) claimed that she lived in or was born in Natchez, Mississippi.12
Spottswood think it is much more likely that she was from somewhere much
farther east of the Mississippi River. This conclusion is based on her chosen name
as well as the character of her music, which is much more like musicians closer to
the Atlantic such as Sarah and Maybelle Carter. He attributes the Natchez origin
story to the common assumption that all good blues musicians are from
Mississippi.13
mature musician in Jackson, MS. At this time, she had probably settled in
Jackson. She was likely married to or at least living with Charlie McCoy (May 26,
1909-July 26, 1950), a popular hokum performer.14 Wiley has also been
romantically linked to Casey Bill Weldon (July 10, 1909-196?), a previous spouse
11
Candace Bungard, e-mail message to the author, September, 29, 2010.
12
Wardlow, e-mail message.
13
Marcus, “Who Was Geechie Wiley?,” 82-83.
14
Paul Oliver, "Hokum," in The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz, ed. Barry Kernfeld, in Grove
Music Online, Oxford Music Online,
http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/J205000 (accessed April 7,
2011). Hokum acts were amusing musical routines performed first on stage, then in traveling
shows like minstrel and medicine shows, and circuses.
15
Paul Oliver, “Mining 'The True Folk Vein: Some Directions for Research in Black Music,”
Black Music Research Journal 5 (1985): 27.
7
Pearle, the supposed relationship with Casey Bill Weldon could, in fact have been
confused with her connection to a Will Weldon who resided with Shade while he
Ishmon Bracey met Wiley in 1930, later reporting that she had been
Wiley was definitely playing publicly and perhaps touring whether in this
was learning traditional songs, melodies, and lyrics as well as writing her own.
She had a following and a professional network. Through these channels, she
scout for the race records division of various recording companies, including
her duet partner and “traveling companion”17 Elvie Thomas.18 Thomas, too, is a
historical enigma beyond her two, possibly three sides with Wiley. Based on their
recordings, it is likely that the two had worked closely with each other. The
implies a skit or other kind of act that they may have performed together. During
this trip, in addition to the two songs backing Thomas (12977: “Motherless Child
Blues” and “Over to My House”), Wiley also recorded two solo tracks, “Last
16
Bungard, e-mail message.
17
Marcus, “Who Was Geechie Wiley?,” 80.
18
John Jeremiah Sullivan, “Unknown Bards: The Blues Becomes Transparent About Itself,” in
Best Music Writing 2009, ed. m Marcus (USA: Da Capo Press, 2009): 31.
8
Kind Words” and “Skinny Leg Blues” (12951). The following year, Wiley
recorded two more songs, the duet (probably with Thomas) “Pick Poor Robin
possibly the only musician Paramount re-called from Mississippi other than
Charlie Patton.19 After recording these tracks, Geechie Wiley and Elvie Thomas
disappear from records found to date. Paramount did not have the resources or
will to develop the “down home,” “authentic” sound Wiley provided because they
were a small recording company and female vaudeville blues singers were still
her chosen venue. A Mr. Wiley of Oxford, MS who claimed to be Wiley’s distant
Geechie Wiley likely made a career as a rural songster. As such, she was
many early blues singers like Charley Patton. Some songsters such as Huddie
eclipsed by the blues musician both professionally in the early decades of the
twentieth century and in scholarship in the years since. However, the songsters’
Howard W. Odum, in his 1911 study of African-American folk songs related how
19
Wardlow, e-mail message.
20
Davarian L. Baldwin, Chicago’s New Negroes: Modernity, the Great Migration, and Black
Urban Life (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2007): 173-4.
21
Ibid.
9
and composed songs; “musicianer” was a master instrumentalist, usually playing
banjo or fiddle; finally, the music “physicianer” was a combination of the two,
who travelled and played music.22 Songsters played at a wide variety of events,
from dances and barbeques to traveling medicine and minstrel shows. These last
two venues were important for the exchange of ideas and repertoire between
musicians from different geographical origins and different races. Given their
varied little throughout the rest of their careers. This also means that, throughout
their career, they often played songs from their youth or when they were
beginning to learn music. Nevertheless, they were also expected to keep up with
popular trends and changes in tastes in popular music. They were always adding
new items to their songbooks. Songsters were expected to play for many
occasions. The inevitable result was that their repertoire included many types of
songs: ballads, dance-tunes, reels, minstrel songs, ragtime, popular songs, blues,
and spirituals. Above all, they were performers and entertainers with a keen
22
Howard W. Odum, “Folk-Song and Folk-Poetry as Found in the Secular Songs of the Southern
Negores,” The Journal of American Folklore, 24, no 93 (July-September 1911), 259.
23
Paul Oliver, “Songster (ii),” in Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online
http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/26212 (accessed November 24,
2010); Paul Oliver, Songsters and Saints: Vocal Traditions on Race Records (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1984), 20-22, 70, 107-109, 264; Jeff Todd Titon, Downhome Blues:
A Musical and Cultural Analysis, (Urbana: University of Chicago Press: 1977), 56.
10
new musical trends. It is a testament to their talent and efforts that their music is
one notable peer who recorded on this label was Charley Patton. A comparison of
issue numbers—Patton’s 12953, 12972, and 13070 and Wiley’s 12951, 12977,
and 13074—suggests that Patton and Wiley recorded in Grafton around the same
time, and even knew each other.25 The proximity of their recordings might
strengthen the comparisons scholars make between the two.26 Other Paramount
artists recorded at this time were Blind Lemon Jefferson (12946), the Norfolk
Jubilee Quartette (12957), Blind Willie Davis (12979), Rudy Foster (12981), and
Skip James (13072).27 The most frequent recording artist close to Wiley’s
named Arnold Wiley recorded two sides numbered 12955. He also recorded
previous and subsequent tracks with his sister Irene.28 Upon further investigation,
Irene and Geechie are indeed different women, and probably not even closely
related. The sibling Wileys were from Chicago, and Irene’s voice bears no
resemblance to Geechie’s.29
24
Ibid.
25
Paramount Advertisement June 30, 1930; Paramount Advertisement September 15, 1930;
Paramount Catalog 1932, the Mike Hatfield Collection, ParamountHome.
26
Kent, liner notes.
27
Hatfield Collection; Paramount Advertisement 1934, Alex van der Tuuk Collection,
ParamountHome.
28
Francis Wilford-Smith, liner notes, Mama Don't Allow No Easy Riders Here Strutting the
Dozens Classic Piano Rags, Blues & Stomps 1928-35, Yazoo Records 2034, 1998.
29
Information in this paragraph is drawn largely from the Paramount Company’s advertisements.
Reproductions of these pages are located in Appendix B.
11
Advertisements display Wiley in different lights. Operollo Phonograph
Co.’s June 1930 Paramount (“The Popular Race Record”) advertisement features
Wiley’s first album with Chocolate Brown, Tenderfoot Edwards, Charley Patton,
Washboard Walter and His Band, and Arnold Wiley. This list is introduced by the
Artophone Corporation listed Thomas and Wiley’s record on a page under the
also lists “Race Records” and “Old Time Tunes” and includes other notable
female musicians like Alice Moore and Ida Cox. F. W. Boerner Co. shows
Thomas and Wiley’s disc in a “New Blues” section: “Just off the press… Get
Them While They’re Hot.”32 Other artists are advertised variously: “Worth
trying” (Buck MacFarland), “The Piano is Great” (Rudy Foster), and “New Star”
(Charley Jordan). This page features many larger ads, most of which feature
Rainey, Bessie Mae Smith (sic.). Two years later (1934), this same music seller
advertised Wiley’s final record with many others for a reduced price (three for
sermons,” “beautiful spirituals,” “piano blues,” and “hot dance tunes.” Perhaps
the discounted sale price indicated that her final record did not sell as well as the
previous ones.
30
Paramount Advertisement June 30, 1930, Hatfield Collection. Emphasis in original.
31
Paramount Advertisement September 15, 1930, Hatfield Collection.
32
Paramount Advertisement mid-1930, Hatfield Collection.
33
Paramount Advertisement 1934, van der Tuuk Collection.
12
Wiley’s life comes into slightly better focus through these details.
date for her birth and residence. Her profession illuminates the nature of her
career and life in general. The context of the Paramount records advertisements
add some specificity to her best-documented year and illuminate more generally
the lives of musicians like Wiley in the 1920s and 1930s. When woven together,
all of this information, answers part of the question: “Who was Geechie Wiley?”
There is still more to know, and Wiley’s music can provide much of this
information.
13
Chapter 3
METHODOLOGY
Philosophical Issues
undertake. Paul Oliver advises that, when working with vocal performances in
this style, the transcription must represent “a compromise between song and
speech as it is heard and the means of conveying the words in text.”34 Thomas
Brothers discusses many obstacles in his article “Ideology and Aurality in the
quality, creates problems, for example polyrhythm, the concept of a “piece” and
the speech-like quality of singing. The “more casual organization of pitch and
time” makes it difficult to accurately transcribe the heard rhythms into a rigid
the distance between the sound of the music and the notated transcribed pitches
addressing only these obstacles. Political and ideological issues exist that make
Transcription is, by nature, a flawed art, one can never express every aspect of the
34
Oliver, Songesters, ix.
35
Thomas Brothers, “Ideology and Aurality in the Vernacular Traditions of African-American
Music (ca. 1890-1950),” Black Music Research Journal, 17 no. 2 (Autumn, 1997): 169-209.
36
Brothers, 173.
14
recorded performance perfectly. Scholars have identified and examined sensitive
issues that arise in transcribing this kind of music. Kofi Agawu brings up many of
the ethical and philosophical issues in his article “The Invention of ‘African
delicate and sensitive process. Notation is by nature subjective and changes the
meaning of the music object as it transduces action and sound into symbols. These
symbols, then, are laden with layers of meaning and description—a supplement,
and external addition that is not equivalent to the original, but may seem so.38 In
all this, Agawu maintains that the idea of “African Rhythm” is an invention of
Some scholars make the argument that this music was compromised by
the recording process; however Davarian L. Baldwin states that despite this
possible “adulteration,” race records were still able to “resonate” with the
these recordings can only capture the sound in an unnatural condition. The natural
37
Kofi Agawu, “The Invention of ‘African Rhythm’,” Journal of the American Musicological
Society 48, no. 3 (Autumn, 1995): 380-395.
38
Jaques Derrida, Of Grammatology (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 144-
145. Derrida’s definition of the supplement refers to the relationship between speech and written
words. Speech and thought are closely linked, but once speech is written down, it becomes a set of
symbols, becoming a thing also of imagination, and further distanced from the thought that it is
meant to represent.
39
Baldwin, 172.
15
venue for the performance of these songs simply cannot be recreated in a studio.40
The recording cannot transmit the initial intention, purpose, and reaction to the
music. However, these discs do provide some social insight that the music cannot.
was seen as both producer and consumer of these commodities, and therefore
defined their music, though mediated by record companies. Black consumers then
the recording process changed the meaning of records in this era. These records
black musicians and their agency in defining themselves and their music. The
music was certainly mediated by the white authorities, but it is ultimately the
black consumer and musicians that created and shaped it. While records carry this
political baggage (both positive and negative), they still maintain their original
function: recording music. These mediated and symbol-laden discs are the only
artifacts that we as scholars have for transcription. They are taken as legitimate
resources, and we honor them with our efforts in using them to make tools like
40
In this way, musical recordings already display some of the ideological distance between though
and sound as described by Derrida.
41
Baldwin, 172.
16
I worked against not only the geographical distance from the subject, but
knowledge of the past. It is inevitable, though, that my ears have eighty years of
history and social change that will both inform and distort perception.
others helped to inform the meaning of my transcription, there are many ways that
my work seems to lie at odds with their conclusions. This most obvious point is
that I have not used standard staff notation for my transcriptions. In his own
attempt to eliminate the supplement that spells the doom of advocates of new
42
Agawu, 390.
17
the supplement a little closer to the actual object. Also, this second set of
supplements the original, not replacing it, so any of these methods is put to best
Notation
cited two major limitations: rhythm and pitch.44 In this style of early blues, both
of these musical elements tend to be more complex and subjective issues than in
Western European art music. Musicologists have devised ways to overcome these
obstacles to varying degrees. However, they are all still closely-tied to traditional
Western notation. All of the examples used for reference in this study used a five-
line staff, and many of these use supplementary musical markings in addition to
standard symbols.45
43
Ibid., 392.
44
Titon, A Musical and Cultural Analysis; James Bennighof, "Some Ramblings on Robert
Johnson's Mind: Critical Analysis and Aesthetic Value in Delta Blues." Ramblin' On My Mind:
New Perspectives on the Blues, (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2008) 258-280; Scott
Ainslie and David Whitehill, Robert Johnson (Milwaukee, Hal Leonard Pub. Corp., 1992); Scott
Ainslie, “Robert Johnson: ‘Cross Road Blues’,” Acoustic Guitar 20, no. 5 (November 2009): 52-
54; Woody Mann, “Screamin’ and Hollerin’ the Blues: The Guitar Style of Charley Patton,” Sing
Out! 46 no. 2 (Summer 2002): 53-57.
45
Titon, A Musical and Cultural Analysis; Bennighof, "Some Ramblings;” Ainslie and Whitehill
Robert Johnson, Ainslie, “Robert Johnson;” Mann, “Screamin’ and Hollerin’.”
18
Jeff Todd Titon’s method as laid out in Early Downhome Blues: A
Musical and Cultural Analysis46 is the apparent model for many other
transcribing blues pitch and rhythm. He used a slide on a guitar to aid with pitch
so they end on C (for consistency through all transcriptions), also disclaiming the
original key and first note at the beginning. Among the standard symbols he
identified are fermatas, glissandi (to and from both definite and indeterminate
pitches), and tempo markings in θ=__ format. He uses familiar symbols in
nonstandard ways to address pitch and rhythm issues. Upside-down fermatas
indicate a pitch held for a shorter duration than indicated (as opposed to longer,
show that the pitch is slightly higher or lower than the note shown, but not so high
address. Most of these stem from the fact that this is a well-established method to
present notated music. The format is familiar to readers. The transcriptions are
easy to read and require very little extra explanation or training. Additionally,
when working in this medium, a standard set of theoretical tools and processes
has existed for years, so analysis and discussion are done easily. Also, by
46
Titon, A Musical and Cultural Analysis.
47
Ibid.
19
the music and analytical work in that sphere. Because of these things, I used this
There are also weak points and obstacles. Many of these I have implied
my discussion. The symbols that Titon uses are still ambiguous. Arrows don’t
indicate just how much higher or lower a note is from the notated pitch. Fermatas
are the same. The durations are not explicit, nor do they indicate when a note is
placed slightly before a beat. The glissandi to represent slides and scoops do not
account for the speed or nuances of the figure. James Bennighof, whose
metrical locations, in some cases indicating beats that Johnson may be feeling,
more than precisely hitting.”48 Finally, because Titon is still working within an
idiom heavily-laden with symbols, this further distances the visual product from
of Charley Patton’s “Screamin’ And Hollerin’ The Blues” were published with
the intention that they will be played. Neither author shows any acknowledgement
of the rhythmic peculiarities. Their notations of unusual rhythms, unlike Titon, are
much more complex. They resemble transcriptions of jazz solos with notes barred
48
Bennighof, 268.
20
across measure lines and uncommon combination of triple and duple
notes and rhythms that do not fall precisely on easily notated beats or chromatic
pitches.
They do, again, fall into a standard recognized pattern. They are readable—
negative aspects still exist. They are even less specific than those mentioned
neglected entirely. For their purposes of performance, these versions likely work
Transcription Process
this fashion. With no other versions to work from, my examination should keep as
indispensible in the analytical process, removing the temporal element from the
analyzed object and aiding the organization of thought. With the tools I
discovered, pondered, and honed, I created a modified system of notation with the
21
aim to make transcriptions that describe Wiley’s performance. The notation and
symbols I drew from Titon, Bennighof, Ainslie, and Mann helped me create the
put forth by Agawu, Brothers, and Oliver helped me stay honest to Wiley’s
resources ultimately fell short for my purposes —they were still not specific
transcribing her vocal rhythms and ornamentation was an impossible task using
method. It does not diverge greatly from the traditional staff, but instead of
sensitivity to the intricacies of the performance. This new method helped illustrate
Wiley’s recordings, as approximate rhythms are easier to show on the page and
general symbol. I also feel that my notation, which is less strictly tied to beats and
determinate pitches, mediates the space between Western European and American
literate musical culture and the African oral musical culture, as the music I am
working with does itself. This method does not completely avoid problems that
arise in standard notation, however it decreases the distance between the graphic
22
Wiley’s guitar arrangements did not pose the dilemma that her vocal
performance did, so there was no need to deviate from standard notation. The
Wiley’s vocals paired with her guitar melodies. This score illustrates the
style and compositional approach. These also may be easier for the reader to
understand and relate to my analysis of Wiley’s music, though the graphic score
transcribing old recordings like these is further fraught with difficulties in its
execution. Early recording techniques yielded low quality recordings. Paul Oliver
particularly bad. In addition to this, the physical discs are eighty years old, and
damaged from age and use. To aid my listening, I modified tracks in ProTools to
slow the tempo but maintain the pitch. I also used equalizing software to help me
lyrics, rhythm, melody, and guitar were simple. I listened (first at tempo then
slowed to half-tempo) and edited the lyrical errors I found. I then turned my
attention to the vocal parts and first transcribed the rhythms presented, followed
the guitar introductions, bridges, and postludes. The exception to this procedure
23
was “Last Kind Word Blues.” Its divergent metrical structure (two non-
consecutive 2/4 measures toward the end of each verse) was more easily
discerned in the guitar solos. These I transcribed first, before attempting the more
even including half-flats and other symbols, had disappointingly inexact results.
notation. Those that did made little headway into describing melodic or rhythmic
than prescriptive. Wiley’s vocal style is not well-suited to the regular, clean
concepts of pitch and rhythm. My method avoids these constraints and better
possible to under their corresponding pitches. Letters written below a dot on the
“score” indicate that particular consonant are elongated (while pitched) by Wiley.
“Over To My House” and “Pick Poor Robin Clean” are duets, the latter features
Wiley. The accompanying vocal lines (sung by Wiley in the former, presumably
Elvie Thomas in the latter) are indicated by a small, right upward diagonal dash
unintelligible words.
Transcribing the lyrics of Wiley’s and Thomas’s songs was much less
complicated as many scholars and collectors have deciphered and published her
24
words. I again mined sources such as Titon’s Downhome Blues Lyrics49 for
“Skinny Leg Blues.” Eric Sackheim’s The Blues Line provided the lyrics of
“Eagles on a Half” and “Motherless Child Blues.”50 Greil Marcus’s article “Who
Was Geechie Wiley” provided some lyrics for “Last Kind Words Blues,”51 and in
“Unknown Bards,” John Sullivan details his efforts to discern Wiley’s lyrics for
this same song while working as “fact-checker” for Marcus.52 Paul Oliver
transcribed most of the lyrics of “Pick Poor Robin Clean” in Songsters and
Saints.53 I use many of these lyrics appear in these published versions. I note
horizontal (representing time) and vertical (representing pitch) lines. Each line of
the vertical element represents one pitch of the scale that Wiley and Thomas use
in each song. Each note is represented by a dot, its duration shown by a horizontal
line, and embellishments are shown in bends in this line. Waved lines indicate
trills. I assigned one pitch used in the tune to each horizontal line. Using these un-
well as ornamentation and expressions with greater fidelity. The beat is indicated
by vertical lines. The horizontal location of each dot on or between the beat lines
in standard notation.
Key
note
slurred pitches
pitch inflection
trill
secondary voice
26
Chapter 4
these tracks now, they are all very low quality. Hisses, pops, and crackles abound.
The physical discs are old, so this is expected. Also, there are very few extant
copies; for instance, only one known copy of Elvie Thomas’s record survives.
Anomalies would therefore be difficult to improve digitally. They all have what
Greil Marcus calls “that old Paramount sound.”54 Paramount is known for the
playing before the sound engineer began recording, cutting off the first few
Blues” and “Pick Poor Robin Clean,” however, have special features in their
Other than these features, Wiley finds different ways to express each musical
thought.
genre to facilitate analysis. Each genre is described before I then analyze each
song individually, addressing qualities and issues unique to each. Also, in most
cases, transcriptions are presented in Western staff notation. I chose this format
for ease of reading and standardization. Those examples that require discussion of
54
Marcus, “Who was..?,” 82.
55
Titon, Musical and Cultural Analysis, 153.
27
melodic ornamentation and expression are presented with both the standard
The Blues
I use the formal, rhythmic, melodic, and textual analyses of Jeff Todd
Titon’s Early Downhome Blues56 as a template for this chapter. He begins with a
verses of three lines. The first two lines of each stanza, designated “A,” contain
two shorter phrases; the third, “B,” contains only one longer phrase. The
harmonic progression is the well-known three-chord harmony, using the I, IV, and
V chords. These common of early, rural blues, would become some of the more
in 4/4 meter, with the greatest stress on the first beat and a secondary stress on the
third. Typically, verses are isometric, though some are heterometric, meaning they
unit of the melody is the eighth note, usually in triplet rhythms, but also
within the melody as well as against the accompaniment. Melodic phrases usually
begin between beats; a melodic line generally begins between the third and fourth
beats; the second phrase, after the down-beat. The simple harmony provided in
the guitar accompaniment is broken into bass and treble components. The
56
Ibid., 138-177.
28
accompaniment often provides rhythms that contrast the sung melody. Also, the
other times, abruptly. Titon concludes that “while the accompaniment marks the
pulse beats, the vocal gives the impression of floating above them.”57
scales and their functions. Usually these have a range of a tenth. Titon makes a
long systematic analysis of which pitches tend to resolve toward others. The blues
58
Figure 1. Titon’s Blues scale
Melodic contour tends to follow that of field hollers: a short upward leap and a
Titon next turns his attention to texts and tunes for blues songs and in the
subsequent chapter, lyric content.59 Many melodies are used repeatedly, and many
tropes, including the backdoor man, having the blues, getting on a train,
dissatisfaction, and waking in the morning. He also discusses broader subjects for
blues: fantasy, boasting about sexual prowess, drinking and gambling, and regret
over losing one’s lover. Titon’s country blues framework is utilized in this chapter
57
Ibid., 154.
58
Ibid., 161
59
Ibid., 178-193.
29
to compare and contrast blues written and performed by the songster, Wiley, with
Wiley’s most thrilling and shocking pieces. This is the song that led Don Kent to
compare her with Charley Patton. In his words, “despite her sensual voice, the
persona she presents is as tough as Charley Patton: money before romance, and
she sweetly says, while extolling her sexual charms, that she's calmly capable of
nonchalant vocal style with an aggressive guitar arrangement. This song borrows
a verse from “Boe Hog Blues” (spelled various ways), recorded by Blind Willie
McTell, among others. Despite the borrowed lyrics, melodically, “Skinny Leg
each.
And I’m an itty-bitty mama, baby and I ain’t built for speed.
And I’m an itty-bitty mama, baby and I ain’t built for speed.
Ah, and I ain’t built for speed
I’ve got everything that a little bitty Mamma need
And when you see me comin’, pull down your window blind.
And when you see me comin’, pull down your window blind .
You see me comin’, pull down your window blind.
60
Kent, liner notes.
30
Or your next door neighbor, goin’ to hear you whine.
I’m gonna cut your throat baby, gon’ look down in your face.
I’m gonna cut your throat babe, gon’ look down in your face.
Ah, I’ll look down in your face.
I’m gonna let some lonesome graveyard, be your restin’ place.
In the first, Wiley describes her attributes, somewhat apologetically: “I’m an itty-
bitty mama, I ain’t built for speed” and “I’ve got li’l bitty legs.” Although these
are not ideal, she proudly retorts that, even with these deficiencies, she has
everything she needs, including “something underneath” that “works like a boar-
hog’s eye.”61 Wiley then shifts focus from herself to her would-be lover: “your
next door neighbor goin’ to hear you whine.” After the ecstasy of her company,
she continues, “I’m gonna cut your throat, baby. I’m gonna let some lonesome
graveyard be your restin’ place.” No alternatives exist. This is how it’s going to
motivation? She’s a capable woman who will love you, then kill you. She is a
Regular beat, cross-rhythms, and acceleration are apparent and the sixteen-
measure blues form is slightly archaic, though not uncommon. The themes of
sexuality and violence pervade Wiley’s lyrics. She boasts of her prowess using a
combination of two blues tropes: “built for speed,” and “got everything a woman
needs.” The melodic contour is close to, but not precisely that of the stereotypical
61
General opinion is divided about the meaning of this term. Some suggest a talisman with magic
properties while others maintain it is a reference to the vaginal opening. Given the sexual context
of this piece, the latter is most likely.
31
field holler (See Example 1.1, p. 76) Although Wiley employs these devices, it is
first phrase. Sly, slinky, and languid, her first casual notes rise and waver around
the minor third scale degree before slowly descending toward a terminating
sliding scoop into the major third an octave lower (See Example 1.1).62 She traced
this contour twice more, then in the final, contrasting phrase, Wiley at last settled
on the major third after alternating it with the minor third and tonic. The second
verse, which expresses similar sentiments as the first, follows almost the same
melodic arch (See Example 1.2). The third verse changes this pattern. She began
directly on the flattened third each time, forgoing the “Aah” of the first verse’s
third phrase. The added repetition and lack of hesitation emphasize her intentions.
This verse is far more declarative than the previous. The melody is more
articulated, and the phrase-terminating descents are more incisive. She also
colored the last phrase (“Or your next door neighbor goin’ to hear you whine”)
demonstrating her lover’s moan (See Example 1.3). Finally, and with absolute
nonchalance and morbid composure, Wiley condemns her lover to death at her
own hands as she watched the life leave his eyes. Melodically, nothing of interest
62
The character and manner of delivery of this melody is unlike the style employed by musicians
at this time—male, female, self-accompanied guitarists, and soloists backed by an ensemble.
Memphis Minnie, Wiley’s most similar and most notable peer, tended toward much clearer pitch
and rhythm. Even in more relaxed songs like “Down in New Orleans” and “You Wrecked My
Happy Home” Memphis Minnie’s phrases have a sense of direction and forward motion.
Contrarily, Wiley does not succumb to the impulse of time, maintaining a casual orientation
between her notes and the beat.
32
happens in the final verse—Wiley allows the lyrical content to take central stage,
performance. From the introduction, the bipolarity of her character is much more
evident. She attacked the guitar strings with sharp twang of the bass notes that
contrasts with timid treble melodies that misdirects the harmony by using the
minor blues third (See Example 2.1, p. 78). This exciting musical idea is followed
by a swung boogie-bass pattern in the fifth measure (See Example 2.2). The
decidedly major sonority clashes with the wavering tonality of the opening
phrase. Jaunty playfulness replaces the hesitant feeling of the first measures.
Wiley established this pattern, revisits the first motives, and then toward the end
of the introduction, she diverged from both with a passage of even eighth-notes.
Not only does the rhythm change drastically, but she jarringly oscillated between
the fifth and raised fourth scale degrees (See Example 2.4). She finished the
introduction with a chromatic motive outlining the major third using even eighth-
notes (See Example 2.5). This turnaround recurs through the rest of the song. The
the lyrics.
Although she kept them secondary to the vocal line, Wiley’s guitar
motives are often melodic. The patterns laid out in the introduction are the
first two verses, the accompaniment comprises mostly broken chords and single
notes. In the fourth line of the first verse, instead of the chromatic, even passage
33
that she played in the introduction, she opted to energize the accompaniment
accompaniment returns for her discussion of her “boar-hog’s eye,” but otherwise
little changes in the accompaniment pattern in the first two verses. In the second
half of the song, the guitar becomes even more bold and aggressive. She increased
tempo and interest in the accompaniment before the third verse. At her first
mention of closing the blinds, she filled in the harmony and plays a series of block
chords in even eighth-notes. During the final verse, Wiley continued to use block
chords, then makes the broken-chord bass pattern increasingly syncopated. This
change from a regular pattern is unsettling, reflecting the divergent nature of the
lyrics. To end, she played a short, almost comical tag ending. This termination,
rather than trivializing the previous statements, casts an unsettling shadow over
intentions. No longer shy and timid, she planned everything out and will kill her
a common archetype based on real experience in the rural South. These women
were a part of folk legend and subject of song. In reality, they were the actual
owners of bars and jook joints, gamblers, and performers.63 Jooks were no places
63
Barry Lee Pearson, “Jook Women” Living Blues 34, no. 5 (September-October 2003): 105, 109.
These legends include women like Frankie Baker of St. Louis and Ella Speed of Texas. Blind
Willie McTell wrote “Delia” about Delia Holmes, a real gambling woman on the East Coast, and
Ada Brown’s “Barrelhouse Bessie” probably recounts the exploits of a well-known woman. The
archetype of the jook woman is central to Robert Johnson’s “Little Queen of Spades,” Leroy
Carr’s “Barrelhouse Woman,” and Buddy Moss’s “Gambling Woman Blues.” Many female blues
musicians embodied what Barry Lee Pearson calls “the tough jook woman motif.” Bessie Smith,
34
for ladies, and society usually censored those who frequented them. A woman
who did break these societal constraints was a “self-possessed actor indulging in
jook recreation on her own terms rather than as fallen woman or victim.”64
tough,” placing razors in their garters for self-defense.65 The women at the jook
houses were an integral part of the lore and music that originated in these counter-
cultural spaces. In “Skinny Leg Blues,” Geechie Wiley became one of them—but
Wiley paired the blues idiom with the jook woman character to create a
actual event. Using the music of the jook joints, she vividly brought this persona
to life through her use of the blues idiom, her vocal execution of her colorful
lyrics, and deft support of her guitar arrangement. This preserved piece of musical
history is so expressive that it continues Wiley’s legacy and the songster tradition
about heart-break. Her only known original work, Thomas treated her lyrics with
a sensitivity distant from Wiley’s more aggressive style. Thomas followed many
Memphis Minnie, and Big Mama Thornton were all known to frequent jook joints, where they
readily drank, swore, chewed tobacco, and brawled.
64
Ibid., 108.
65
Ibid., 112.
35
speech-like rhythms, the field holler contour in each verse’s final phrase, the blues
tropes in her lyrics, and the harmonic progression. Wiley accompanied in this
recording. Her responses to Thomas’s calls further exemplify the blues idiom.
Their rich union of musical intent creates a passionate and poignant example of
Do you remember the day, baby, you drove me from your door?
Do you remember the day baby, you drove me from your door?
Do you ‘member the day you drove me from your door?
“Go away from here woman, and don’t come here no more.”
Even this proto-blues shows many of the textual features that would later be
standardized. Five particular tropes are evident. The subject of the song is archaic
36
“good advice not taken” drives this song. Thomas’s first verse sets the tragic
precedent for more explicit references. The phrase “My mother told me just
before she died” is a standard invocation in many kinds of music, but is more
closely related to the blues. The image of a scorned and down-trodden woman
wringing her hands and crying in the last verse is present in blues especially by
women. Finally, the idea of traveling after trouble arises is a sine qua non of
blues. Usually this is on a train, and often it is motivated by injury from a lover.
Nonetheless, men and women catch a ride or simply start walking. Thomas deftly
Wiley’s introduction draws the listener in from the very first note—a
Marcus describes, “The note is in fact barely a whisper… The sound seems to
drift, and then for a long, suspended moment to dip under any suggestion of a
theme, to deny that there could be any such thing.”66 Just when the note has
almost faded away, Wiley continued with a meandering, overlapping melody that
implies metric regularity, but is too relaxed for much specificity (See Example
3.1, p. 85). Not until approximately sixteen beats into the song did Wiley decide
to be more metrically precise. Finally, she gave the audience some stability with a
broken chord pattern that begins to hint at her accompaniment figures and
melodic responses (See Example 3.2). Wiley did utilize such a complex sequence
in any of her other guitar work. Even the rhythmic peculiarities of “Last Kind
66
Marcus, “Who Was Geechie Wiley?” 82.
37
Word Blues” do not come close to the blindly wandering feeling Wiley captured
pattern that conforms to the standard blues progression. Unlike the verses to
follow, Wiley’s introduction is only twelve measures. The first four bars set up
the tonality, after which Wiley spelled out the supertonic, then subdominant
chords with a boogie bass pattern, then returned to the tonic. The foundation of
this line is the standard chord changes (V—IV—I—I). In the first two measures,
chords above the bass note of the chord. In the final two measures, she plays a
short, pseudo-turn-around that emphasizes the tonic. The notes and harmony of
the introduction are not particularly notable, however, its simplicity accentuates
the sensitivity of Wiley’s playing. She makes ample use of call and response.
Wiley’s responses to Thomas’s sensual voice are calm and subtle, like that of a
67
Marcus, “Who Was Geechie Wiley?” 82.
38
Figure 2. “Motherless Child Blues,” mm. 15-25: vocal melody, lyrics, and guitar responses
Wiley achieved many effects with her short responses to Thomas’s vocals. The
guitar melodies fill gaps left by the sung line. In these moments, Wiley enhanced
the mood set by Thomas with her subtle, understated motives. She was repetitive
when Thomas was repetitive and became more energetic as Thomas increased her
own fervor. Moreover, the short, plucked phrases accentuate the changing
harmonies. In the first two, the underlying chords move from E major to E7 to A
major; the D-natural makes this clear. In the second two, she returned to E major.
In the former of these, she inserted a blues third for color. In the final phrase, she
emphasized the tonic with both the fifth and the seventh.
a song that is as bluesy and tender as the title prescribes. Thomas’s composition
follows the standard sixteen-measure blues form. Within this structure, she layers
blues imagery with a delicate vocal delivery. Wiley takes Thomas’s ideas and
39
veers away from her normally aggressive, confident guitar style. She matches the
“Eagles on a Half”
trendy, modern, and capable of changing with the times—just as any good
songster should be. Her vocal melodies follow Titon’s standard melodic and
rhythmic qualities. The lyrics are full of common blues tropes. Harmonies in the
fashion. Although formulaic, Wiley still maintains her individual style in both her
40
I didn’t have no daddy,
To hold me in his arms.
lyrics for “Eagles on a Half” with the free-association method made famous in
plot in loosely related stanzas. Still, Wiley clearly traced a romantic and sexual
subject. Referencing wordless sexual ecstasy, she begins by lamenting the fact
that she has not called her man’s name. Next, she requests to see her lover’s “old
business” that she has piqued her curiosity. Wiley then complains that she is
unable to sleep without a good man next to her in the third verse. These three
verses make it clear that she is romantically involved with someone. She has a
man, though she has not yet enjoyed a sexual relationship with him, despite her
repeated pleas. The fourth verse is open to many interpretations: “I say get back,
rider. Don’t care how you lay. I wanna tell you I can’t stay here ‘til day.” The
41
final verse is even more enigmatic. The phrases, “eagle’s on a half” and “in God
we trust” are obvious references to a half-dollar coin. Wiley ended this song by
returning to her romantic complaint: “I love you, daddy. What you done that for?”
Perhaps she mistook what he sees as a business transaction for love. This last
phrase establishes why she continues her relationship although she is not satisfied.
lover. Wiley stays a “rider,” an experienced lover, the man she is with.68 Stating
that she can’t stay until dawn is often a coded message indicating that one party is
cheating on the other. Finally, a common practice in blues of this era is the cry out
to the lover in the final stanza. Wiley’s plaintive cry anticipates later
relationship. These references tie Wiley’s blues to general life and presage the
Wiley’s vocal composition is typical of blues qualities from the first line.
The first note of each phrase is correctly placed: the first phrase begins on the
second eighth-note of the third beat, the second phrase begins on the second
phrases anticipates and thus emphasizes a normally stressed note. She contrasted
swung eighth notes and even in the same phrase. Finally, the overall contour of
this melody follows that of a field holler, as is practice in the blues (See Example
4.1).
68
Titon, A Musical and Cultural Analysis, 180. Part of the power of a term like this is its implied
meaning. The listener hears the word and infers its meaning without being explicitly told.
42
Figure 3. “Eagles on a Half,” mm. 11-4: vocal melody
Syncopated entrances persist as the piece unfolds. The duple and triple
subdivisions of the beat are juxtaposed in the melody and layered with the
accompaniment (See
See Example 4.2).
2). On a macroscopic scale, the entire song
Wiley’s composed different guitar patterns for the introduction and the
bridge, but both are idiomatic to blues. Divided into two parts, the guit
guitar
ar
tonic notes of the progression as the treble fills out the remainder of each chord.
At the end of the first and second phrases, she highlights the chord changes with
tonic. She emphasized both the major and minor thirds as well as the minor
oscilations (See
See Example 5.3). In thee bridge, this is especially evident as she
spends several beats in two different phrases oscillating the fifth scale degree with
43
Although this close analysis distracts from a consideration of Wiley’s
creativity, her style and genius pervade the piece. She infuses variety into the
repetitive vocal melody. Every verse begins on the lowered seventh scale degree,
F. Then, the longest note in each phrase is the note a step below the previous (F in
especially evident on the Ls of “low” in the first line of the first verse and the first
of the second verse (consonants notated next to pitches, pp. 90-91). The
emphasized M in “mama” in the second verse’s second line has a similar effect.
These voiced consonants can carry pitch and add more emphasis without
increasing volume, almost creating a lamenting moan. Wiley also extended the
SH of “shame” in the first verse and the first S of “business” in the final line of
the second verse. These sibilants roughen these phrases, coloring the emotions
she maintained her style and creativity. Her driven, aggressive accompaniment is
comprised mainly of melodic elements. The initial G-major chord in the bass is
complemented in the treble by a melodic line that again features both the major
and minor third and lowered seventh (See Example 5.1, p. 92). The most colorful
notes of the scale these are also emphasized in the vocal line. The chord
progression becomes more evident as each “A” line ends with a tritone leap from
the major third to the lowered seventh (See Example 5.2). These motives are
While the first phrase is aligned squarely to the beat, the second is much more
syncopated. In the first phrase of the second accompaniment figure, Wiley placed
the tonic in the bass, and ornaments the fifth with a raised fourth scale degree (See
Example 5.3). These two pitches constitute the majority of the upper
accompaniment line. Like the previous pattern, each phrase ends with the same
tritone leap, and, as mentioned, the final measures are the same. In the final
phrase, she emphasized first the tonic of the V chord, then the fifth of the IV
chord, and finally the third of the tonic chord, ending on tonic.
“Eagles on a Half” is the final track that Geechie Wiley recorded before
disappearing forever. From it we learn that she was a talented composer and
musician. She had studied and mastered the blues. Her melodies are beautiful,
idiomatic, and passionate. Her delivery is nuanced and practiced. The guitar
arrangements she wrote for herself are creative—never did she rely solely on a
45
bring character and vivacity to her accompaniment. And she obviously
understood the relationship between her voice and her guitar. Despite “following
the book” almost to the last detail, Wiley nevertheless produced a refreshingly
original blues.
Guitar Rags
The fad for ragtime music was fiercest around the turn the twentieth
century. Although now known mainly as a genre for piano, even in the early
twentieth century, rags were performed by and composed for many kinds of
also popular for ensembles: brass band, orchestra, violin and piano, and
combinations such as two mandolins, guitar, and piano.70 Rags also featured
guitar is superior.71 It is also possible that they developed in rural areas at the
same time as early piano ragtime.72 The popularity of ragtime as a genre for
guitarists reached its height in the mid-1920s through the 1930s. The rise of these
ragtime guitarists was inspired by the work of such musicians as Big Bill
Broonzy, Blind Blake, Mississippi John Hurt, and Reverend Gary Davis.73 Guitar
rags have the same structural characteristics as piano rags as both instruments
69
Jerry Snyder, “The Basics: Introduction to Ragtime Guitar,” Acoustic Guitar 18, no. 8 (February
2008): 40; Edward A. Berlin, Ragtime: A Musical and Cultural History (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1980), 10.
70
Berlin, 10.
71
Oliver, Songsters, 29-30.
72
Ibid., 33.
73
Snyder, 40.
46
have the capability to play bass lines, chords, and melodies simultaneously.
Musically, the same features are found as well: a steady, oscillating bass pattern; a
that contrasts the bass. In taking so many qualities from the earlier piano
the player’s talent. These pieces are closely connected with coon songs which
arose with blackface minstrelsy in the 1840s and continued in popularity at the
turn of last century. The combination of dance rhythms, energetic melodies, and
steady beat, delivered by a mobile instrument such as guitar, elevated this genre in
Wiley and Thomas’s “Over to My House” and “Pick Poor Robin Clean”
embody the characteristics of ragtime in general, but they are also distinct from
other ragtime guitar recordings of this era. Wiley’s peers Charley Patton and
Robert Johnson both recorded guitar rags as well; however, Wiley’s are distinct.
Patton’s rags, like his 1929 Paramount recording “Shake It and Break It” (which
in fact shares lyrics with or loaned lyrics to “Over to My House”) feels more
relaxed because its tempo is slower than the songs addressed in this study.
Patton’s vocal delivery is less sharply articulated and accented than Wiley’s, and
his guitar work is more rhythmically and melodically regular, with less distinction
between the treble and bass. Robert Johnsons more animated “They’re Red Hot”
(Vocalion, 1936) shares structural and stylistic characteristics with “Pick Poor
47
Patton’s, Johnson still does not include the level of raw, unrefined intensity that
These two songs are distinctive in Wiley’s tiny output in many ways. First,
they are the only examples of guitar duets and the only vocal duets in Wiley’s
however, because these arrangements sound like Wiley’s others, I will analyze
them as hers and differentiate between the primary and secondary parts as
necessary. Second, these are the only two songs that are not original to Wiley or
Thomas. Both of these songs are ragtime standards. Third, and reflecting their
ragtime genre, these are the only songs that feature refrains.
“Over to My House”
accompanied her on guitar and with some vocals. Many songs use the trope
“come over to my house.” A jazz standard, it has been recorded by artists like Jay
McShann and Julia Lee. The earlier blues versions were recorded by Blind Willie
McTell and Oscar “Buddy” Woods. Woods’s 1937 recording, a guitar and piano
ragtime duet, is closest to Thomas’s and Wiley’s, even using many of the same
lyrics. Thomas and Wiley’s track is set apart by its punchy delivery.74
Come right on over to my house, ‘cause there ain’t nobody here but me.
I’ve been listenin’ for the last six months, and I could not see.
When I was sittin’ in the parlor, just a strummin’ and [playin’],
I wasn’t too drunk to hear the backdoor slam.
Come right on over to my house, ain’t nobody here but—I’m cryin’—ain’t
nobody here but me.
Come right on over to my house, cause there ain’t nobody here but me.
I’ve been listenin’ for the last six months, and I could not see.
I’m gonna grab me a picket offa my back fence,
Gonna whip it ‘round your head until you learn some sense.
Come right on over to my house, ain’t nobody here but—I’m cryin’—ain’t
nobody here but me.
Come right on over to my house, ‘cause ain’t nobody here but me.
I’ve been listenin’ for the last six months, and I could not see.
I said ashes to ashes and sand to sand.
Ev’ry married woman’s got a backdoor man.
On over, baby, to my house, ain’t nobody here but—I’m cryin’—ain’t
nobody here but me.
contains four lines; the first, second, and fourth of these never change. The third
phrase varies in each verse and contrasts the other three drastically. Melodically,
it follows a similar pitch contour each time; however, each verse makes use of
different lyrics. Harmonically, it differs from the others and is the most interesting
of the four. Many standard African-American themes are found in these lyrics.
The most interesting is the juxtaposition of sacred and secular in the final verse.
The obvious biblical reference, “Ashes to ashes and sand to sand,” introduces the
49
very secular, sexual, immoral maxim: “every married woman’s got a backdoor
ragtime, which would place the origin of this song much earlier than the era
Thomas’s singing. Wiley adds her voice almost exclusively at the ends of phrases.
progression.
Furthermore, Wiley reversed her usual approach to the secondary voice. In other
takes
es on a more instrumental quality, less song
song-like and lyric-driven.
driven. Her vocal
The Wiley-esque
esque accompaniment begins true
true-to-form
form with an introduction that
traces out the melodies to follow. The melodic passages that appear in the
cryin’” at the end of each verse is reflected in the slide of the corresponding note
very similar to those Wiley sang. Either the secondary guitar plays a close
Guitar melodies are clearly audible when present; however, the accompaniment
figures are less audible. The low quality of the recording as well as the secondary
nature of the accompaniment in this song create challenges for the transcriber.
The general pattern contains the requisite ragtime rhythms: the treble is
The syncopation here is not as explicit as in many other guitar rags, but the
51
The musical elements of the contrasting third phrase of each verse come
through this passage. The pitches vary less and the rhythm is a string of eighth
notes. The one exception to her background approach to her harmony is one of the
transitions from the third to fourth line. She extends the chromatic scale into the
fourth phrase, anchoring the two thoughts together and echoing the previous
lyrics. The effect is startling and a bit eerie, but pleasant to the ear.
To emphasize the delivery of the vocal, Wiley and Thomas broke the previous
rhythm to replace it with stop time. This pattern is especially audible in the last,
lyrically jarring verse. The stop time also emphasizes the harmonic progression
this piece, and she allowed the guitar to define the vocal. Wiley’s sense of
ensemble balance
lance is evident in her vocal delivery in? “Over to My House.”
52
“Pick Poor Robin Clean”
The first track on her 1931 record, “Pick Poor Robin Clean” delivers a
snappy, showy performance. For this duet, presumably with Thomas, Wiley leads
with a brash, rural tone and accent, and Thomas matches with an upper vocal
harmony that follows almost completely parallel to Wiley’s comical melody. The
lyrical reference to “nigger” and “coon” points to this song’s origins in the early
recorded earlier by Wiley’s more notable songster peer, Luke Jordan. The two
recorded versions are quite similar, although the fidelity of Jordan’s Victor
recording is higher, his guitar accompaniment is less dense, and he sings solo.
However, Jordan lacks the intensity of the two women who really exercise their
strong sense of rhythm in this rag. Either way, “Pick Poor Robin Clean,”
ragtime assets and fierce rhythmic delivery, Wiley and Thomas presented us with
Another apt song choice for her profession, “Pick Poor Robin Clean” has
an “eloquent symbolism” within this socially acceptable venue for satire.76 Wiley
75
Quoted in Oliver, Songsters, 126.
76
Oliver, Songsters, 126; Lawrence Cohn, Nothing But the Blues: The Music and the Musicians
(New York: Abberville Press, 1993), 132.
53
“Hello there, Slack!”
“What’re you doin’ down here?”
“Well, I’m just down here tryin’ to play these boys a little hot robin.”
“Let me hear it, then!”
The playfulness of the characters is evident, setting the listener up for a brief,
jaunty musical journey. It also possibly indicates that this song was part of a
larger set the two women may have performed in a show. Songs like these are full
of symbols that were familiar to their audiences. Metaphors allowed Wiley and
Thomas to comment on much more serious subjects in this song using the ragtime
style. “Pick Poor Robin Clean” features many of the aspects that were used in
other such show songs; specifically bragging, hustling, and eating.77 The repeated
refrain of picking poor robin is a reference to the black labor force being abused
by the more powerful white society. The jaybird laughs at the poor position of
African Americans in the economy.78 Despite the grave nature of the subtext, the
upbeat delivery of the piece shows an unbroken spirit and resilience. In Henry
Wiley and Thomas continue the cavalier tone of this rag in their vocal
performance. The vocal melodies emphasize the energetic rhythms of ragtime that
Wiley delivered with a brighter, more showy tone. Each refrain begins with an
extended anacrusis that leads to on-beat quarter notes, but the phrase swiftly gives
77
Oliver, Songsters, 99.
78
Ibid., 127.
54
Figure 12: “Pick Poor Robin Clean,” mm. 16
16-18: vocal rhythms
notes land directly on the beats. Wiley interrupts her normal song structure with a
verse of scat singing. This style of this section evokes popular white music from
this era. It is unique and jarring, but a pleasant deviation from the rest of this
repetitive song. While the melody and syllables are not intrinsically interesting,
the brighter tone Wiley chose and vowels flavor this section like other popular
high.
Wiley and Thomas supported the playfulness of their vocal duet with a
solid ragtime guitar arrangement. Wiley announced the style and intention of the
Figure 13. “Pick Poor Robin Clean:” guitar accompaniment basic rhythms
This pattern varies little throughout the piece. The guitar remains a secondary
bridges, this pattern is the focus, framed by Wiley’s exclamations “Ahhh…” and
“Won’t be long now!” This arrangement is very unlike Wiley’s other guitar
55
compositions. The guitar arrangement of “Pick Poor Robin Clean” is truly an
accompaniment.
verse. The chord progression is based on a series of dominant seventh chords that
V7/V, V7. She repeated this progression whenever the guitar plays solo. Her
voicing brings out the audible voice leading of the tritones. When the vocals
enter, these harmonies become more interesting. This series of chords creates
enthralling tension; however, it also creates dissonance with the harmony in the
vocal duet. The E-sharp, the third of the chromatic C-sharp7 chord played on the
guitar, clashes with the E-natural that Thomas sings. The dissonance of the minor
second gives the impression of a blue note created across voices. This detail adds
guitar work. She used the same pattern in almost every turnaround and at the end
of the first phrase in her solo work. This motive is the only melodic work Wiley
performed on the guitar in this piece. In the first half, Wiley used both the major
and minor thirds to ornament a descending scalar passage that traces the notes
between the dominant and tonic. This motive begins with little rhythmic interest:
two quarter notes on the beat. Then she swings into the following measure, using
56
Figure 14. “Pick Poor Robin Clean,” mm. 14-16: guitar accompaniment cadential figure
Ending on tonic, the second half of this measure completes the tonic-centric
phrase, but she added a short, syncopated echo after. This short phrase ends on an
off-beat emphasizing the fifth, so the effect is unsettled. The playfulness of this
tag keeps the energy moving. When used at the end of the song, she added one
repertoire, it is clear that she chose it with care. She obviously displayed her
musical prowess as a guitarist and arranger with this demanding genre. Her
specific intention for the piece is clear from the first seconds of the performance.
The range of her talent is featured in the various obstacles “Pick Poor Robin
Clean” presents, and she overcame and dazzled in doing so. This guitar rag really
At the turn of the twentieth century, the ballad was the most widespread
song form in the United States. A derivation of the British ballad tradition, blues
ballads have similar forms and are concerned with similar issues. Before the
advent of the blues, this was the main focus of African-American musical
57
While these are called blues ballads, they are more accurately, ballads in a blues
Most blues ballads share several characteristics. For one, many of them
share the practice using the same tune for many songs, but modifying it to fit
differing lyrics. The most stanza structure was a three-line form: a couplet and a
sequence, blues ballads relate events, but the plot is not necessarily linear. The
sequence is loose and subjective, “celebrating” an event rather than telling a story
biblical figure. One of the most famous of these figures was John Henry. Very
Wiley’s “masterpiece,” “Last Kind Words Blues” is one of the few blues
ballads appearing on race records. This song enthralls scholars and blues
and avant-garde, this song is her most critically acclaimed track and the first she
recorded. Greil Marcus asserts that, even if this was her only contribution to
blues, “she would never be forgotten.”80 Allen Lowe notes that “Last Kind Words
79
Oliver, Songsters, 229-256; David Evans, Big Road Blues: Tradition and Creativity in the Folk
Blues (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982), 41-48.
80
Marcus, “Who was Geechie Wiley?,” 80.
81
Lowe, 70.
58
Wiley maintained the mystery established with her “elusive biography” in
ambiguous genre of this song. “Last Kind Words Blues” is a blues ballad. Each
lover leaving for the war. Atypically because of the first person perspective, she
relates the final narrative of her lover before she herself leaves on a journey.
While the form of “Last Kind Words Blues” implies that it is a ballad, the title
asserts the song to be a blues, yet very little about its structure identifies it as
blues. Wiley did not employ a regular twelve-measure form nor even the older
eight or sixteen. Its eleven measures are isometric, separated into two phrases, and
two, two-bar inserts appear in the second phrase. Following standard protocol for
ballads, no lyrics are repeated save those in the first verse. Harmonically, Wiley’s
When you see me comin’, look ‘cross the rich man’s field
If I don’t bring you flour, I’ll bring you bolted meal.
59
What you do to me, baby, it never gets out of me.
I believe I’ll see ya, after I cross the deep blue sea.
While “Last Kind Words Blues” is not actually a blues song, many aspects
do establish this song as a precursor of the blues. In fact, Richard Nevins says that
“Last Kind Words Blues is the perfect example of a modal song on the verge of
becoming a blues. The archaic form seen here, adapted to guitar, is the prototype
example, the second line of each verse outlines a standard blues melodic arch:
they start very high and descend quickly into the tonic (See Example 7.2, p. 114).
Also, Wiley took on a declarative rhythm in the last few measures of each verse
(See Example 7.3). In addition, she used quarter-tone blue notes liberally
placed pitches directly on a downbeat, and never does this occur at the beginning
of a verse or phrase (See Example 7.4). Finally, the melody hints at an A A B, call
and response, question and answer structure (See Example 7A). The first phrase is
second is longer and completes the thought lyrically and melodically as it ends
dramatically on the tonic (See Example 7B). These things are just a quorum of the
blues style characteristics that Wiley used in “Last Kind Words Blues.”
While this piece is an original work, in her composition she drew from the
collective memory of her peers and ancestors for some words and images. “The
Last Kind Words Blues” is obviously a war song from World War I, given its
82
Nevins, liner notes.
60
reference to “the German War.” Wiley began by recounting the final requests of
her lover before he leaves for the front. He morbidly describes his instructions for
her following his imminent death: send his pay to my mother-in-law, and leave
his body for the scavenger birds. If by chance he avoids that fate and comes
home, she should look for him to come across the field, he will bring a gift back
to her. After musing on this, Wiley sets out on her own journey. She heads to the
station. She finds no train there, and in her frustration she cries to the sky that if
one doesn’t arrive, she’s going to continue on foot. As she travels on, she
remembers advice from her mother—evoking the blues trope, “my mama told
me.” She then begins two stanzas of water metaphors. First, the vast Mississippi
River and second the deep blue sea separate her from her baby. She can see him
now,83 and she’ll see him again when she crosses over, she thinks as she
remembers him fondly. The mere retelling of the story creates a heavy feeling of
almost physical death. Wiley’s lover is almost resigned to his fate. She remembers
her mother’s passing. And finally, she prepares to cross over herself.
Wiley’s vocal delivery is equally as beautiful and eerie as the drama and
lyrics it delivers. She spent more musical time between pitches and between beats
than in any of her other songs (See Example 7.5). This leaves the listener a little
unsettled, drawn back and forth on Wiley’s voice. The beginning of each verse is
never quite the same as any of the others. She drew out different notes, words, or
beats, bringing different meaning to the melodic shape. Each of these phrases,
83
Marcus disagrees with this text in Invisible Republic, p. 204. I hear “see my baby from the other
side.” Marcus hears “see my face.” As he explains, “Geechie Wiley can see her face from across
the Mississippi River because hers is the only face to see; all those she loves are dead, and there is
no hint of community or society, of town and fellowship, anywhere in her song.”
61
though, ends relatively consistently. She finally reached and stretches a long, high
tonic note before leaning into the fifth. This note, however, cannot be left so
comfortably—at the last second, she pulled it upward, almost painfully twisting
into the minor seventh, cutting it off short. Her emotional angst rings
moment, the second phrase begins with the longest note of each verse. One
measure, only containing the highest, longest note of the song, begins a new
thought that answers the implied question of the first phrase. Wiley’s approach to
the second phrase of each verse changes from its first notes. No longer expository,
her blues becomes almost weary at times, with too many words to say. She sang
ceased her song momentarily, though she continued her lament with the guitar.
guitar arrangements of its era and possibly one of the most archaic.”84 Wiley
began to establish the A-flat minor sonority with alternating E-flat octaves in the
bass on each beat. When the melody enters, it foreshadows the vocal melody, but
in a way that is more idiomatic to the instrument (see figure 15, below). As she
approached and played the climax of the introduction, Wiley focused on the fifth
scale degree, using the raised fourth to ornament it (See Example 8.1, p.116).
idiomatic melody, echoing it as she would during the sung verses and to fill the
84
Kent, liner notes.
62
gap before the voice enters. As with many of her arrangements, Wiley used this
decreased and increased energy and articulation as necessary. She also used the
guitar accompaniment to increase the tempo at times that she did not sing.
interplay between guitar and voice. As described previously, the melodies used by
both are quite similar. However, Wiley’s arrangement is so well constructed that
although both the vocal and guitar solos are based upon the same m
motives,
otives, they
rehearsed that even when playing the complementary melodies, they sound
completely independent of each other. The first two measures are almost identical
in both parts, butt then they diverge. The voice begins two phrases, four measures,
of mostly long, sustained pitches (to take the first verse for example, “… I heard
myyyyy daddy sayyyyy. Lawwwwd, the last kind words…”). These kinds of
chromatically, with even eighth notes. When combined, these two create a
63
Figure 15. “Last Kind Words Blues,” mm. 11-8 (lower), 11-19
19 (upper); comparison of vocal and
guitar melodies
Following this, Wiley did not fully lift the feeling of looming tragedy. While
the lyrics run out. She also shifted the energy to the bass. Instead of the
alternating octaves, she strummed each beat, infusing motion into the last phrase
musician. The drama related in this ballad is explicit enough to tell a story, but
relate it to their own experience. Wiley’s voice is inviting and sympathetic. She is
mediating the space between blues ballad and blues. As a guitarist, she created a
her steady beat and rhythms while her vocal style is much looser and unrestrained.
In sum, she combined all these factors to create a work that takes each part of the
t
64
listener’s consciousness on the journey with her through the drama of the text and
through the evolution of blues. Paul Oliver concludes his chapter regarding
songsters and blues ballads elegantly: “Tastes were changing; the ballads, along
with the minstrel songs, the medicine show repertoire and the old dance routines,
were giving way rapidly to the new idiom, to which however, they played an
This analysis shows the wide range of Wiley’s musical talent. She had a
firm grasp of performance when both singing and playing her guitar. Her
compositions have clear melodies and interesting ornaments and motivic figures.
When Wiley sang, she used many effects to express her text: vocal color,
ornaments, rhythmic variation, and pitch placement. Also, Wiley understood the
hierarchy of musical parts at play. Her guitar accompaniments always served the
Creativity is also one of Wiley’s talents that is shown in the combined analysis of
her works. Each song has a distinct character, and Wiley emphasized these
85
Oliver, Songsters, 256.
65
Chapter 5
CONCLUSIONS
Although her career was short, Geechie Wiley’s reach was great. Only a few
original copies of her recordings exist, but her songs have been re-released
countless times, and collectors and blues lovers continue her legacy. Mostly
unknown to her peers, she composed and performed some of the most imaginative
country blues that exist.86 Yet, she was not a part of mainstream blues culture and
history after 1931, we must derive information about her using the one most
credible source available: her recorded repertoire. From these we can discover
who she was as a performer, guitarist, singer, and composer as well as infer
possible factors that contributed to the short life of her recording career.
recorded in the catalog of country blues. She played her guitar aggressively and
with more rhythmic energy. This is especially evident in the two duet guitar rags
“Over to My House” and “Pick Poor Robin Clean,” which are not original songs.
When compared with contemporary recorded versions, one can hear the guitars
driving the song forward with their forceful strumming. In addition, she regularly
used more melodic figures to accompany herself and Thomas’ singing than her
peers utilized. With the exception of “Pick Poor Robin Clean,” Wiley composed
melodies for introductions, bridges, and postludes for each song, often using these
same patterns to accompany the vocal part. Often these melodies were the exact
86
Kent, liner notes.
66
ones used for the vocal line. This shows not only her adept finger-picking in
paving the way for the vocal entrance. Although she modified these patterns for
the guitar, but she always did maintain some of the vocal inflection. The
ends of pitches on her guitar as Thomas did in her singing. However, Wiley did
not only imitate vocal melodies, she also created her own melodies on the guitar
to contrast the voice. A compelling example of this is found in “Last Kind Words
the vocal melody. Also, the entire accompaniment of “Eagles on a Half” contains
completely different material from the sung line. The increased sensitivity to and
prominence of Wiley’s guitar work sets her apart from her peers.
The broad range of vocal timbres, capabilities, and techniques Wiley used
discussion, she explored a variety of vocal colors to match moods and styles: a
deep chest voice in “Last Kind Words Blues” enhancing the gravity and
melancholy of its drama, a more forward placement and brash sound for the
confident character of “Skinny Leg Blues,” “Pick Poor Robin Clean,” she uses a
more theatrical timbre with a more nasal quality, and “Eagles on a Half” is more
throaty, a classic blues vocal color. Wiley is a skilled singer with a good ear. The
opening phrase of “Skinny Leg Blues” shows her exceptionally clean intonation
in it oscillations between major, minor, and blue thirds. “Last Kind Words Blues”
67
is rife with precisely bent pitches and a variety of executions of scoops and slides.
Rhythmically, Wiley’s singing is clean and specific as well. This serves the
snappy, sharp melodies of a fast-paced song like “Pick Poor Robin Clean.” This
“Eagles on a Half” and “Last Kind Words Blues.” Finally, she used repetition and
variation as devices to engage her audience. The third “A” line of “Skinny Leg
Blues” contrasts the first two iterations. The verses of “Last Kind Words Blues”
are very short, so the melodies cycle through quickly. However, Wiley changes
the beginning of each phrase, and ornaments passages that are similar with
different inflections each time. The notes of “Eagles on a Half” vary the least of
different letters of words, slurred pitches, bent notes, scooped attacks, and
stretched and modified rhythms. These techniques keep listeners interested and
enhance the drama of s song. The use of nuanced pitch, controlled rhythm, and
Wiley’s work shows a clear transition from her first to her second
recording—even though the different is only one year. Don Kent said, “She seems
to represent the moment when black secular music was coalescing into blues.”87
Her progression through styles and genres is easily illustrated. Her first track,
“Last Kind Words Blues” is probably the oldest, and certainly the oldest typed of
song. Its ancestors are from pre-nineteenth-century British ballads. “Skinny Leg
Blues” flirts with standard blues characteristics, but its form and style have not yet
87
Kent, liner notes.
68
conformed to those that would later define the idiom. Both these tracks belong to
musical traditions that had past even by the time she recorded. When she returned
“Pick Poor Robin Clean” illustrates her energetic and driven interpretation of
ragtime. The guitar rag was at that time a flourishing trend. Her one true blues
song “Eagles On a Half” realizes most standard blues characteristics. Her chosen
form, harmony, melody, and subject all evoke a strong connection to the blues as
it was and as it would become. Even though she was far from the first black
progression sketched by her solo work shows the metamorphosis that Kent
identifies.
The study of Wiley’s music shows that she was a sensitive and agile
performer. Each song takes on a very different character both in her vocal
performance and her guitar work. She transforms herself for each new story
handling each with finesse. The choice of such an evocative nickname indicates
“Last Kind Words Blues” can be felt in the bass notes of the guitar combined with
the slow, painful sound of the melody played above it. When the voice enters, she
holds the weight of the world in the dark tone of her voice and heavy articulation.
On the other side of the disc, the guitar twangs, and a much younger-sounding,
lighter voice proclaims her sexual prowess in “Skinny Leg Blues.” One year later,
Wiley performs an almost comical rendition of a peppy guitar rag. The light-
hearted duet of “Pick Poor Robin Clean” eclipses the memory of Wiley’s previous
69
serious tunes. With “Eagles on a Half,” Wiley fully subscribes to the “blues” label
under which she is so often categorized. Within the paradigm of the twelve-
measure, standard harmonic and lyric structure, Wiley discusses sex, love, and
pop culture.
that her peers—female and male—enjoyed. Based on the shreds of her history
that I located, it can be inferred that she lived her life almost exclusively in rural
areas, such as Natchez. Outside of her discovery by Speir and recordings with
Paramount, she did not attract the attention of those who record history, as her six
recordings are the only documentary evidence of her life. Also, is it likely that
because she was a woman, her career progress was naturally limited. Travel in
and Marcus, she was probably married, so perhaps she opted to honor her
responsibilities to the home rather than continue her life as a musician.88 Also, if
she was picked up by Paramount in an effort to rival the blues divas of the time,
performers Bessie Smith or Mamie Smith are difficult to match, let alone surpass,
exception to the rule is Memphis Minnie, but she hardly counterbalances the
numerous other female performers who achieved no such fame. Finally, while her
last record was flavored with her own style, Wiley was not contributing any new,
88
Wardlow; Marcus, “Who was Geechie Wiley?,” 80.
70
novel, or exotic ideas to the Paramount catalog. As any professional songster, she
was assimilating the new musical trends. When she recorded, Paramount was
already filling its catalog with these popular songs. Wiley’s relative obscurity
might be a result the fact that Paramount was simply no longer made room or time
more about her, she did live a life and have a career both before and after her
have. She was an independent, confident woman. She was a poet, equally deft
with original lyrics as with traditional images. She was a master of a variety of
professional musician. Wiley was probably also a compelling live performer. The
evolution of her recordings shows that she kept up with trends to satisfy her
audience. The fact that she changed character so frequently suggests that she
knew how to keep the attention of a crowd and had some sense of theatrical
effects. Also, she probably preferred her rural life to that of a national
recording artist or stayed in the city. She was satisfied with her life as a country
songster so much that she disappeared after recording some of the best rural blues
of her time.
Several directions have arisen during the course of this writing for the
would deepen our understanding of country blues and songster methods. I have
71
not examined Wiley and her music from a feminist standpoint. Juxtaposing Wiley
with her peers would create a better picture of women in the recording industry in
the early 1930s. More extensive field work might yield the most compelling
results. Both the songster and blues traditions are not as strong as they used to be,
but they persist in remote areas. Wiley had such a strong character in her music
that it would have left a mark wherever she took residence. A research trip to
remember Wiley or know her tunes. Perhaps she had a student or child who is still
alive and could shed light on her life and music. Older residents might even
remember her.
This work and any subsequent endeavors will help orient Wiley in the
of timeless American music. With increased work, it may be possible to trace her
legacy and lineage. In this way, we can learn more about the nature of songsters
and country blues musicians. We can knit together a complex definition of who
they are, what they do, how they do it, whom they affect, and why. We can
72
REFERENCES
Cohn, Lawrence. Nothing But the Blues: The Music and the Musicians. New
York: Abberville Press, 1993.
Evans, David. Big Road Blues: Tradition and Creativity in the Folk Blues.
Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982.
Don Kent, liner notes, Mississippi Masters: Early American Blues Classics, 1927-
35, Yazoo Records 2007, 1994.
Kernodle, Tammy L. “Having Her Say: The Blues as the Black Woman’s
Lament.” In Women’s Voices Across Musical Worlds, edited by Jane A.
Bernstein, 213-231. Boston: Northeastern University Press, 2004.
Lowe, Allen. Liner notes. American Pop From Minstrel to Mojo: On Record,
1893-1946 West Hill Audio Archives CD-1017, 1998.
73
Marcus, Greil. Invisible Republic: Bob Dylan’s Basement Tapes. New York;
Henry Holt and Company, Inc., 1997.
Marcus, Greil. “Who Was Geechie Wiley?” The Oxford American 27-28
(1999):83.
Nevins, Richard. Before The Blues, Vol. 2: The Early American Black Music
Scene. Yazoo Records 2016, 1996.
Odum, Howard W., “Folk-Song and Folk-Poetry as Found in the Secular Songs fo
the Southern Negores,” The Journal of American Folklore 24, no 93 (July-
September 1911), 255-294.
Oliver, Paul. “Mining 'The True Folk Vein: Some Directions for Research in
Black Music.” Black Music Research Journal 5 (1985): 21-31.
Pearson, Barry Lee. “Jook Women.” Living Blues 34, no. 5 (September-October
2003): 102-113.
Sackheim, Eric. The Blues Line: A Collection of Blues Lyrics. New York:
Grossman Publishers, 1969.
Snyder, Jerry. “The Basics: Introduction to Ragtime Guitar,” Acoustic Guitar 18,
no. 8 (February 2008): 40-42.
Titon, Jeff Todd. Down Home Blues: A Musical and Cultural Analysis. Urbana:
University of Chicago Press: 1977.
Titon, Jeff Todd. Downhome Blues Lyrics: An Anthology From the post-World
War II Era. Boston, Twayne Publishers, 1981.
Wilford-Smith, Francis. Liner notes. Mama Don't Allow No Easy Riders Here
Strutting the Dozens Classic Piano Rags, Blues & Stomps 1928-35. Yazoo
Records 2034, 1998.
74
APPENDIX A
TRANSCRIPTIONS
75
Skinny Leg Blues
76
77
78
79
80
81
Motherless Child Blues
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
Eagles On a Half
90
91
92
93
94
95
Over to My House
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
Pick Poor Robin Clean
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
Last Kind Words Blues
114
115
116
117
118
APPENDIX B
119
June 30, 1930 advertisement
120
Mid-1930 advertisement
121
September 15, 1930 advertisement
122
1934 advertisement
123
1932 Paramount catalog
124
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