CHAPER – I

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Water Scarcity
Water is a basic necessity of a man along with food and air. Fresh water resources usually
available are rivers, lakes and underground water reservoirs. About 71% of the planet is covered
in water, yet of all of that water is found in oceans, only 2.5% of the earth’s water is freshwater
and 98.8% of that water in ice and groundwater. Less than 1% of all freshwater is in rivers, lakes
and the atmosphere.

Distillation is one of many processes available for water purification, and sunlight is one of
several forms of heat energy that can be
used to power that processes. To dispel a
common belief, it is not necessary to boil
water to distill it. Simply elevating its
temperature, short of boiling, hastens the
distillation process it also can force
unwanted residue into the distillate,
defeating purification.

Fig 1.1 Water

1.2 Importance of Fresh Water

Contaminated water and poor sanitation are linked to transmission of diseases such as cholera,
diarrhoea, dysentery, hepatitis A, typhoid and polio. Inadequate, or inappropriately managed
water and sanitation services expose individuals to preventable
health risks. This is particularly the case in health care facilities
where both patients and staff are placed at additional risk of
infection and disease when water, sanitation and hygiene services
are lacking.
 Fig 1.2 Water: The Elixir of life

Globally, 15% of patients develop an infection during a hospital stay, with the proportion
much greater in low-income countries. Inadequate management of urban, industrial and
agricultural wastewater means the drinking-water of hundreds of millions of people is
dangerously contaminated or chemically polluted. Natural presence of chemicals, particularly in
groundwater, can also be of health significance, including arsenic and fluoride, while other
chemicals, such as lead, may be elevated in drinking-water as a result of leaching from water
supply components in contact with drinking-water.

Some of the important facts from recent articles regarding water are

 In 2020, 5.8 billion people used safely managed drinking-water services – that is, they
used improved water sources located on premises, available when needed, and free from
contamination.

 The remaining 2 billion people without safely managed services in 2020 included - 1.2
billion people with basic services, meaning an improved water source located within a
round trip of 30 minutes.

 282 million people with limited services, or an improved water source requiring more

than 30 minutes to collect water.

 368 million people taking water from unprotected wells and springs.

 122 million people collecting untreated surface water from lakes, ponds, rivers and

streams.
 Fig 1.3 water Scarcity

1.3 Ways to Improve the Drinking Water

1.3.1 Distillation

In this separation technique, the mixed components in water are separated by the application of
heat. It is based on the differences in boiling points of the individual components. The boiling
point characteristics depend on the concentrations of the components present. Thus, the
distillation process depends on the vapor pressure characteristics of liquid mixtures. The basic
principle described as the input of heat energy raises vapor pressure. When the vapor pressure
reaches its surrounding pressure, the liquid mixture boils and distillation occurs because of the
differences of volatility in the mixture.

This process results in a separation between

water and inorganic substances, such as lead, calcium,
magnesium, etc. are also destroying bacteria. However,
organics with boiling points lower than 100 °C cannot
be removed efficiently and can actually become
concentrated in the product water. Fig 1.4 Water Distillation

Distilled water purification technology was originally developed for industrial purpose.
However, it came eventually for home use. Since, this process is not very effective in removing
organic chemicals so the carbon filter system must be added to make the water really safe to
drink. The carbon filters require regular changing because they can quickly become breeding
grounds for bacterial growth.

1.3.1a Benefits

 Removes a broad range of contaminants (toxic chemicals, heavy metals, bacteria, viruses,
parasites).

 Continuous, does not rely on physical barriers (filters).

 Does not require additional disinfecting process.

 1.3.1b Limitations

 It consumes an enormous amount of energy both in terms of cooling and heating

requirements.

 Some contaminants can be carried into the condensate.

 Requires careful maintenance to ensure purity.

 The process is not very effective which are of lower volatility (viz. organics) compared to
water.

1.3.2 Adsorption
In this physical process, dissolved contaminants adhere to the porous surface of the solid
particles. It is the surface phenomena and the outcome of surface energy. With the material, all
the bonding requirements of the constituent atoms of the material are filled with other atoms.
However, atoms on the surface of the adsorbent are not wholly surrounded by other adsorbent
atoms and physical attractive force results. It can be physisorption (originates from vanderwaals
forces) and chemisorption (originates from co-valet forces).

The adsorbent systems are added directly to the water supply or via mixing basin.
Adsorbents combine chemical and physical processes to remove the compounds that impart
color, taste, and odor to water. In principle, all microporous materials can be used as adsorbents.
However, those with well controlled and highly microporous are the most preferred). The porous
solids, e.g., activated carbon, silica gels, alumina’s, zeolites, etc. contain many cavities or pores
with diameters as small as a fraction of a nanometer is useful.

The most commonly used adsorbent is activated carbon—a substance which is quite similar to
common charcoal. Actually, the active carbon is much more efficient because of its high porous
character. The high porous character is generated by treating carbon to steam and high
temperature (1300 °C) with or without oxygen in the presence of inorganic salts (physical
method). The carbon may be of petroleum coke, bituminous coal, lignite, wood products, and
coconut/peanut shells. At high temperature, parts of carbon are oxidized in CO2 and steam. The
gases are evacuated and micro fractures and pores are generated in the carbon structure. It
dramatically increases the carbon surface area, making a useful material for the removal of
contaminants.

1.3.2a Benefits
 Activated charcoal is effective for trapping carbon-based impurities (volatile organic
chemicals), chlorine (including cancer-causing by-product tri halo methane’s) as well as
colors and odors.

 Very cost effective.

 Long life (high capacity).

1.3.2b Limitations
 In GAC scheduled filter replacements, it is important to eliminate the possibility of
‘channeling’ which reduces the contact between the contaminant and the carbon.
Therefore, it reduces efficiency, and the accumulation of bacteria in the filter.

 Frequent filter changes often required.

 Can generate carbon fines.

1.3.3 Reverse Osmosis

The two processes (viz. osmosis and reverse osmosis) are the regulator of life. Though they are
termed as concentration and pressure driven simultaneously, both are controlled by
thermodynamic function, i.e., ‘chemical potential’ of the systems. It is essentially a driving force
expressed as a change in the free energy of the system as a result of the change in the
composition of the system. Though literally the two signify just the opposite process,
thermodynamically they are similar. Under isothermal operating condition, the tendency for
material transport is always in the direction of lower chemical potential for both the processes. In
osmosis, the flow is occurring solvent to solution side through a semipermeable membrane,
whereas in reverse osmosis the flow is a solution for solvent. In both cases, only solvent
molecules migrate from one side to another.

The microfiltration and ultrafiltration membranes have a pore size in the range of >10 and 1–
100 nm, respectively, whereas in the case of Nano filtration and reverse osmosis membranes are
in the range of ~1 and <1 nm. Size selective separation operates in case of micro and
ultrafiltration, whereas the size and charge selective separation operate in the latter two. The
membranes are generally based on natural and synthetic polymers (cellulose acetate, cellulose
triacetate, polysulfide, polyamide, etc.). The most popular RO membrane is thin film composite
membranes.

1.3.3a Benefits

 No phase changes and thus requirement of low energy.

 Eco-friendly as they do not produce or use any harmful chemicals; compactness and
space requirements are less compared to distillation, and can be designed according to the
requirement.

 Ability to remove almost all kinds of contaminates like Cl −, NO3−, F−, SO4, Pb2+, Na+, K+,
Mg2+, organics as well as microorganisms.

 No alteration in the taste and smell of water and effective removal of microbes and
toxins.

1.3.3b Limitations
 The purified water obtained after reverse osmosis treatment is devoid of useful minerals.

 Membrane may become clogged after prolonged use and, hence, requires periodical
replacement of the membrane.

1.3.4 Hydrogenation of nitrate

The hydrogenation via catalytic method is one of the promising techniques for removal of nitrate
from water. It needs very active catalysts because the reaction is performed preferably at an
ambient/low temperature. The reaction scheme shows that nitrate is reduced to the desired
products involving NO2 −, NO, N2O and N2. The undesired byproduct NH4 + is also formed by a
side reaction due to over hydrogenation Supported bimetallic catalyst (viz. Pd/Cu, Pd/In, and
Pd/Sn) has emerged as efficient catalysts for nitrate hydrogenation Apart from Pd, the other
metals (e.g., Cu, In, Sn, Co) serve as the role of promoter for the first reduction step to convert
NO3 − into NO2 −It is seen in the schematic reaction, below that N 2 and ammonium (NH4 +) are
the stable end products of the catalytic reduction process. N2 is not harmful, but the second one is
considered a hazardous aquatic pollutant. That is why target is to convert NO3 − into N2 as an end
product.

1.3.4a Benefits

 The method can be of single operation mode,

 Selectivity of catalyst can counter the formation of ammonia ions,

 Addition of other chemicals can be avoided.

1.3.4b Limitations

 Increase in pH in the reaction medium forms ammonia in dissolved condition, which is

more harmful than nitrate.

1.3.5 Photocatalytic method

The method is based on the acceleration of photo degradation of organic pollutants, pathogens,
green algae, and substances in the presence of catalyst in response to UV light, when they
excited charge separation followed by scavenging e–s and holes by surface adsorbed species. The
heterogeneous photo catalysts employing semiconductor catalysts (TiO 2, ZnO, Fe2O3,) have
shown their efficiency in degrading a wide range of pollutants in water. Metal oxides are more
suitable, since they are more resistant to poisoning and deactivation.

Upon UV-irradiation, photocatalytic reactions are initiated by the absorption of

illumination with photo-energy equal to or greater than the band gap of the semiconductor. It
results in electron–hole (e–/h+) pairs. Thus, it participates in the redox reaction with the adsorbed
pollutant species in water. Apart from the reaction, the semiconductor also oxidizes water to
produce OH, a powerful oxidant, which rapidly reacts with the pollutants in the water.

1.3.5a Benefits
 Reusability of the catalyst as it is unchanged during the process.

 Reactions can occur in ambient condition as well as no consumable chemicals are

required.

 Operational process is simple.

  It is good enough to treat low concentration of pollutants.

1.3.5b Limitations
 Post-separation of the semiconductor catalysts after water treatment is important and
failing results in catalyst poisoning.

 The catalysts with their fine particle size and large surface area to volume ratio create a
strong catalyst agglomeration tendency during the operation.

1.4 Solar Still

A solar still distills water, using the heat of the sun to evaporate water so that it may be cooled
and collected, thereby purifying it. They are used in areas where drinking water is unavailable.
There are many types of solar still, including large scale concentrated solar stills and
condensation traps. It consists of a basin with insulation, glass cover, distillate channel, water
inlet and water drain. Initially basin is filled with brackish water and still is kept in sunlight. A
proper insulation is provided from outside of a basin to avoid heat losses from water to
surrounding. The basin is provided with the glass cover above it as shown in figure. As the solar
radiations heats the water, water inside basin gets evaporated leaving behind the impurities.
These water vapors are then condensed on the glass cover and collected through distillate
channel and can be used for intended purpose. A water inlet port is provided to maintain a
constant water level in the basin and a drain plug is used to remove impure water from the still.

Figure 1.5 Solar Still

1.4.1 Types of Solar Still
1.4.1a Spherical Solar Still

A spherical solar still consists of a shallow circular basin of diameter that is made of steel. The
circular absorber basin is coated with black paint for maximum absorption of incident solar
radiation. The circular basin is fixed at the middle of the spherical aluminum mesh at radial
height. The saline water is stored in a basin and basin in the spherical solar still is fitted without
having any physical contact with the top cover made of low-density polyethylene (LDPE) sheet.
The LDPE sheet of thickness approximately 0.107 mm is spread over the spherical mesh. A gap
of nearly 0.03 m is maintained between the circular basin and top cover. The evaporated water,
which is condensed on the top cover, passes between this gap, and drips down towards the

distilled water collection segment as shown in Figures 1.6.

Figure 1.6 Spherical Solar Still

1.4.1b Pyramid Solar Still

A pyramidal glass solar still design with
collector area is shown as in Figures 1.7.
The still is filled with saline water to
height of 0.05 m. From the economic
point of view, the solar still with sawdust
insulating material has less cost of fabrication. Consequently, the cost of fresh water production
is less. In the view of ecofriendly material, saw dust would be a good alternative for glass wool.
The water storage basin of the still is constructed with mild steel. The water storage segment is
allowed for the water collection segment.

Figure 1.7 Pyramid Solar Still

1.4.1c Hemispherical Solar Still

The water storage basin of the hemispherical still is constructed using mild steel as illustrated in
Figures 1.8. The water storage basin is painted black to increase the absorptivity. The still was
filled with saline water to a height of 0.05 m. The top hemispherical cover of diameter 0.945 m
and height 0.20 m is constructed of transparent acrylic sheet of 3 mm thickness with solar
transmittance equal to 88%. The outer box of the still is constructed of wood of thickness 4 mm.
The bottom of the basin is filled with sawdust (to support the weight of the basin). The sides of
the basin are insulated with the glass wool.

Figure 1.8 Hemispherical Solar Still

1.4.1d Double-Basin Solar Still

A double-basin experimental solar still
is fabricated as shown in Figure 1.9.
The solar still has a 3 mm thick top
cover, inclined at 17° on all the sides,
and supported by steel frames. The
upper basin is partitioned into three
segments to avoid the formation of dry
spots on the higher portion of the inner glass cover. Silicone rubber sealant has been used to seal
off and prevent the water leakage between the boxes of the still.
Figure 1.9 Double-Basin Solar Still

A hole in the basin’s sidewall allows saline or wastewater filling, as well as collecting the
condensed water. Moreover, this is also used for inserting the thermocouple wires required for
temperature measurements. When the still is in operation, the hole is closed with an insulating
material to avoid heat and vapor losses.

1.4.2 Solar Still Installation Prerequisites

Material requirement is an important aspect in solar still design.
The material features are -
 Material should have a long life under exposed conditions

 Materials used should be inexpensive enough to be replaced upon degradation.

 They should be sturdy enough to resist wind change and slight earth movements

 They should be nontoxic and not emit vapors or instill an unpleasant taste to the water
under exposed temperatures.

 Direction of sunlight should as per efficient standards

 Proper insulator should be used

 Proper sealing must be done for reduction of losses

1.5 Latest Technology Advancements in Solar Still

Different advancements have been done on the inclined solar still for the increase in efficiency
and production value. Some of them are listed below

1. By doping the SiO2 nanoparticles into black paint at the weight concentration ranging
from 10 to 40%, The solar still was tested in a bright sunny climatic condition of
Chennai, Indian (lat. 13° 08′ N and long. 80° 27′ E). Under transient heat flux conditions,
water, basin, and TSS glass temperatures with and without fin were measured. The rate of
heat transfer by convection between the water and absorber plate was increased. Results
revealed that the basin and water temperatures were improved by 10.49% and 10.88%,
 respectively when using black paint with SiO2 nanoparticle in the concentration of 20%,
coated on the absorber plate compared to that when using the ordinary black paint, while
using the fins on the absorber plate enhanced the potable water produced by 55.18%
when using 20% SiO2 nanoparticle compared to that of conventional TSS. The cost per
liter of water produced using the flat and finned absorber coated using 20% SiO 2
nanoparticle in black paint is found as 0.0187 and 0.012 $/L respectively.

2. A single slope still (PSS) with egg shells of breed Gallus domesticus cascara as Sensible
heat storage (SHS) material was made in comparison with the conventional solar still
(CSS) to evaluate the productivity of fresh water under the same ambient conditions.
Comparatively, this PSS has higher thermal conductivity than the CSS. The yield
obtained from the PSS is 2.46 L/m2, while the yield from the CSS is 2.07 L/m2. The
average rate at which the rise of output fresh water obtained from the PSS is 18% more
than the fresh water output obtained from the CSS. The daily energy efficiency of the
PSS is 26.07%, and for the CSS, it is only 22.25%. The daily exergy efficiency of the
PSS is 2.36%, and for the CSS, it is only 1.67%. Since using the egg shell will employ as
organic waste management and modification in this still is economical, less initial, and
maintenance cost.

3. With carbon nanotubes (CNT), enhanced with paraffin as a novel energy storage material
for desalination application. The thermo-mechanical properties like density, melting
point, thermal conductivity, etc., of CNT enhanced paraffin were first analyzed and then
integrated with solar desalination application. Three solar desalination stills: (i)
conventional solar still, (ii) solar still loaded with fossil paraffin and (iii) solar still loaded
with CNT-doped paraffin were fabricated and experimented at Chennai, India (Lat. 13°
08′ N, Long. 80° 27′ E). From the investigation, it is inferred that there is a significant
increase (of about 26%) observed in the thermal conductivity of CNT-doped paraffin as
compared to fossil paraffin. The cumulative yield of the conventional still, solar still with
paraffin and solar still with CNT enhanced paraffin was found to be 2.5 kg/m2,
3.4 kg/m2 and 5.8 kg/m2, respectively. There was 41.4% and 26.4% enhancement,
respectively, observed in the daily yield of the solar still with CNT-doped paraffin as
compared to conventional still and the still with virgin paraffin. The productivity
efficiency was 46.45% for the still with CNT blended paraffin contributing to 24% and
 19.6% increase in the efficiency as compared to the other two stills considered for
experimentation in this study. Thus, it is concluded that CNT enhanced paraffin is
identified as a better potential energy storage material as compared to conventional
paraffin in solar desalination application.

4. Reflective mirrors and reflective aluminum foil sheet were fixed on inner surfaces of the
single-slope solar distiller, leading to more water production. The presence of reflective
mirrors and reflective aluminum foil sheet on inner surfaces of the solar distillate permits
the reflection of solar radiation falling inside the basin. Experiments were carried out on
three stills: the first distiller is conventional solar still with black painted walls; the
second distiller is conventional solar still with reflective aluminum foil sheet walls; and
the third distiller is conventional solar still with reflective glass mirror walls. The
maximum total drinking water productions from the Conventional solar still (CSS), CSS-
RAFW and the CSS-RGMW are 3.41, 5.1 and 5.54 kg/m 2, respectively. Compared to the
CSS-BPW, the production of drinking water was increased by 68.57% when using the
reflective glass mirrors and 48.57% when using the reflective aluminum foil sheet.

1.6 Water Quality

The obtained water from the solar still has also found portable water due to the testing carried
out in laboratory. It is also concluded that the increment in yield of 26.77% and 24.19% obtained
by inclined and vertical fins as compared with CSS.  Unlike many artificial methods of purifying
water, solar stills use solar energy to purify water.

1.6.1 Testing Methods for Drinking Water Quality

Water sampling and analysis should be done by ISO-certified laboratories. Wherever
laboratories available locally are not ISO-certified, it is advisable to get their quality assessed by
an ISO-certified laboratory by carrying out collaborative tests to ensure that variation in the
accuracy of results is sufficiently small. Unreliable results exacerbate problems of pollution
when corrective action cannot be taken in time. Sampling and monitoring tests should be carried
out by qualified technicians.

Testing Procedures are of 3 Types

 Physical tests
  Chemical tests

 Bacteriological tests

1.6.1a Physical Tests

Colour, turbidity, total solids, dissolved solids, suspended solids, odour and taste are recorded.

a) Colour: Colour in water may be caused by the presence of minerals such as iron and
manganese or by substances of vegetable origin such as algae and weeds. Colour tests
indicate the efficacy of the water treatment system.

b) Turbidity: Turbidity in water is because of suspended solids and colloidal matter. It may
be due to eroded soil caused by dredging or due to the growth of micro-organisms. High
turbidity makes filtration expensive. If sewage solids are present, pathogens may be
encased in the particles and escape the action of chlorine during disinfection.

c) Odour and Taste are associated with the presence of living microscopic organisms; or
decaying organic matter including weeds, algae; or industrial wastes containing
ammonia, phenols, halogens, hydrocarbons. This taste is imparted to fish, rendering them
unpalatable. While chlorination dilutes odour and taste caused by some contaminants, it
generates a foul odour itself when added to waters polluted with detergents, algae and
some other wastes.

1.6.1b Chemical Tests

PH, hardness, presence of a selected group of chemical parameters, biocides, highly toxic
chemicals, and B.O.D are estimated.

a) pH is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration. It is an indicator of relative acidity or

alkalinity of water. Values of 9.5 and above indicate high alkalinity while values of 3 and
below indicates acidity. Low pH values help in effective chlorination but cause problems
with corrosion. Values below 4 generally do not support living organisms in the marine
environment. Drinking water should have a pH between 6.5 and 8.5. Harbour basin water
can vary between 6 and 9.
 b) B.O.D.: It denotes the amount of oxygen needed by micro-organisms for stabilization of
decomposable organic matter under aerobic conditions. High B.O.D. means that there is
less of oxygen to support life and indicates organic pollution.

1.6.1c Bacteriological Tests

For technical and economic reasons, analytical procedures for the detection of harmful
organisms are impractical for routine water quality surveillance. It must be appreciated that all
that bacteriological analysis can prove is that, at the time of examination, contamination or
bacteria indicative of faecal pollution, could or could not be demonstrated in a given sample of
water using specified culture methods. In addition, the results of routine bacteriological
examination must always be interpreted in the light of a thorough knowledge of the water
supplies, including their source, treatment, and distribution. The frequency of bacteriological
examination should be increased, so that a series of samples from well-chosen locations may
identify the hazard and allow remedial action to be taken. Whenever a sanitary survey, including
visual inspection, indicates that a water supply is obviously subject to pollution, remedial action
must be taken, irrespective of the results of bacteriological examination. For unpiped rural
supplies, sanitary surveys may often be the only form of examination that can be undertaken
regularly.

1.7 Condensation

Condensation is the change of the state of matter from the gas phase into the liquid phase, and is
the reverse of vaporization. The word most often refers to the water cycle. It can also be defined
as the change in the state of water vapor to liquid water when in contact with a liquid or solid
surface or cloud condensation nuclei within the atmosphere. When the transition happens from
the gaseous phase into the solid phase directly, the change is called deposition.

Condensation is basically of two types

1. Filmwise condensation

2. Dropwise condensation

1.7.1 Filmwise Condensation

Unless specially treated, most materials are wettable as
condensation occurs a film condensate spreads over the surface.
The thickness of the film depends upon a number of factors, e.g.
the rate of condensation, the viscosity of the condensate and
whether the surface is horizontal or vertical, etc. Fresh vapor
condenses on to the outside of the film & heat is transferred by
conduction through the film to the metal surface beneath. As the
film thickness it flows downward & drips from the low points
leaving the film intact & at an equilibrium thickness. The film of Figure 1.10 Filmwise Condensation
liquid is barrier to transfer of the heat and its resistance accounts for
most of the difference between the effectiveness of film wise and dropwise condensation.

1.7.2 Dropwise Condensation

By specially treating the condensing surface the contact angle

can be changed & the surface become ‘non – wettable’. As
the stream condenses, a large number of generally spherical
beads cover the surface. As the condensation proceeds, the
bead become larger, coalesce, and then strike downwards
over the surface. The moving bead gathers all the static bead
along its downward in its trail. The ‘bear’ surface offers very
little resistance to the transfer of heat and very high heat
fluxes therefore possible. Unfortunately, due to the nature of
the material used in the construction of condensing heat
exchangers, film wise condensation is normal. (Although
many bare metal surfaces are ‘non-wettable’ this not is true of Figure 1.11 Dropwise Condensation
the oxide film which quickly covers the bare material).

1.8 Fresnel Lens

A Fresnel lens is a type of composite compact lens developed by the French physicist Augustin-
Jean Fresnel (1788–1827) for use in lighthouses. It has been called "the invention that saved a
million ships. The design allows the construction of lenses of large aperture and short focal
length without the mass and volume of material that would be required by a lens of conventional
design.

A Fresnel lens can be made much thinner than a comparable conventional lens, in some
cases taking the form of a flat sheet. The simpler dioptric (purely refractive) form of the lens was
first proposed by count buffoon and independently reinvented by Fresnel. This form of the lens,
entirely invented by Fresnel, has outer elements that use total internal reflection as well as
refraction; it can capture more oblique light from a light source and add it to the beam of a
lighthouse, making the light visible from greater distances.

Figure 1.12 Fresnel lens cross section

 Figure 1.13 Fresnel lens

Specifications of Fresnel Lens Used for Experimentation

 Dimensions: 97.5 cm x 74 cm

 Focal length: 28 Inches

 Material: Acrylic

 Maximum temperature can generate: 400 oc

The Fresnel lens reduces the amount of material required compared to a conventional lens by
dividing the lens into a set of concentric annular sections. An ideal Fresnel lens would have an
infinite number of sections. In each section, the overall thickness is decreased compared to an
equivalent simple lens. This effectively divides the continuous surface of a standard lens into a
set of surfaces of the same curvature, with stepwise discontinuities between them.

In some lenses, the curved surfaces are replaced with flat surfaces, with a different angle
in each section. Such a lens can be regarded as an array of prisms arranged in a circular fashion,
with steeper prisms on the edges, and a flat or slightly convex center. In the first (and largest)
Fresnel lenses, each section was actually a separate prism. 'Single-piece' Fresnel lenses were later
produced, being used for automobile headlamps, brake, parking, and turn signal lenses, and so
on. In modern CNC machines and 3-D printers might be used to manufacture more complex
lenses.

Fresnel lens design allows a substantial reduction in thickness (and thus mass and volume of
material), at the expense of reducing the imaging quality of the lens, which is why precise
imaging applications such as photography usually still use larger conventional lenses. Fresnel
lenses are usually made of glass or plastic; their size varies from large (old historical lighthouses,
meter size) to medium (book-reading aids, OHP viewgraph projectors) to small (SLR camera
screens, micro-optics). In many cases they are very thin and flat, almost flexible, with
thicknesses in the 1 to 5 mm range. Most modern Fresnel lenses consist only of refractive
elements. Lighthouse lenses, however, tend to include both refracting and reflecting elements,
the latter being outside the metal rings seen in the photographs. While the inner elements are
sections of refractive lenses, the outer elements are reflecting prisms, each of which performs
two refractions and one total internal reflection, avoiding the light loss that occurs in reflection
from a silvered mirror.