Water Chemistry

Water (H₂O) is a molecule composed of two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to one
oxygen atom. Despite its simple structure, water exhibits a range of unique chemical
properties that are essential for life and various industrial processes.

1. Molecular Structure and Polarity

Molecular Geometry: Water has a bent molecular shape with an angle of about 104.5°
between the hydrogen atoms. This shape is due to the two lone pairs of electrons on
the oxygen atom, which repel the hydrogen atoms.
Polarity: The oxygen atom is more electronegative than the hydrogen atoms, causing a
partial negative charge on the oxygen and a partial positive charge on the hydrogens.
This makes water a polar molecule, with a dipole moment.

2. Hydrogen Bonding
Definition: Hydrogen bonds are weak interactions that occur between the hydrogen
atom of one water molecule and the oxygen atom of another.
Significance: Hydrogen bonding is responsible for many of water’s unique properties,
such as high boiling and melting points, high specific heat capacity, and surface tension.

3. Physical Properties
High Specific Heat Capacity: Water can absorb a lot of heat without a significant rise in
temperature. This property helps regulate temperatures in the environment and within
living organisms.
High Heat of Vaporization: A large amount of energy is required to convert water from
liquid to gas. This property is crucial for processes like sweating and cooling in plants.
Density Anomaly: Water is most dense at 4°C. As it freezes, it becomes less dense,
which is why ice floats on water. This anomaly is vital for aquatic life in cold climates.

4. Solvent Properties
Universal Solvent: Water’s polarity allows it to dissolve a wide range of substances,
including salts, sugars, acids, and gases. This makes it an excellent medium for
chemical reactions and biological processes.
Hydration Shells: When ionic compounds dissolve in water, the ions are surrounded by
water molecules, forming hydration shells. This process helps stabilize the ions in
solution.

5. pH and Ionization
Autoionization: Water can self-ionize to a small extent, producing hydronium (H₃O⁺) and
hydroxide (OH⁻) ions. The equilibrium constant for this process is known as the ion-
product constant for water (Kw), which is (1 \times 10^{-14}) at 25°C.
pH Scale: The pH of a solution is a measure of its acidity or alkalinity, defined as the
negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration. Pure water has a pH of 7, which
is considered neutral.

6. Chemical Reactions
Acid-Base Reactions: Water can act as both an acid (proton donor) and a base (proton
acceptor), making it amphoteric. This property is essential in many biochemical and
industrial processes.
Redox Reactions: Water participates in oxidation-reduction reactions, such as the
splitting of water during photosynthesis and the reduction of oxygen during respiration.

Applications of Water Chemistry

Understanding water chemistry is crucial for various applications:
Environmental Science: Monitoring and managing water quality in natural bodies of
water.
Industrial Processes: Water treatment, cooling systems, and chemical manufacturing.
Biological Systems: Maintaining homeostasis and facilitating biochemical reactions.
Agriculture: Irrigation and soil chemistry management.

Sources of Water
Water on Earth comes from several primary sources, each with unique characteristics
and uses:
1. Surface Water
1. Rivers and Streams: These are dynamic sources of fresh water, often used for
drinking water, irrigation, and industrial processes. They are replenished by
precipitation and runoff.
2. Lakes and Reservoirs: These bodies of water store large quantities of fresh water.
Reservoirs are often created by damming rivers and are crucial for water supply,
hydroelectric power, and recreation.
3. Oceans and Seas: Although they contain saltwater, oceans and seas are vital for
desalination processes, which convert saltwater into fresh water. This process is
energy-intensive but essential in arid regions.
2. Groundwater
1. Aquifers: These are underground layers of water-bearing rock or sediment that
store significant amounts of fresh water. Groundwater is accessed through wells
and is a major source of drinking water, especially in rural areas.
2. Springs: Natural springs occur where groundwater flows to the surface. They can
be a reliable source of fresh water, often used for bottled water and small-scale
water supply systems.
3. Rainwater
1. Rainwater Harvesting: This involves collecting and storing rainwater from
rooftops or other surfaces. It is a sustainable source of water for drinking,
irrigation, and household use, particularly in areas with limited access to other
water sources.
4. Ice and Glaciers
2. Glacial Meltwater: Glaciers and ice caps store about 68.7% of the world’s fresh
water. Melting glaciers contribute to rivers and lakes, providing a seasonal source
of fresh water. However, climate change is causing these sources to diminish.

Conclusion
Understanding water chemistry and the various sources of water is crucial for managing
this essential resource sustainably. Water’s unique chemical properties, such as its
polarity and hydrogen bonding, make it indispensable for life and numerous industrial
processes. By effectively harnessing and treating water from diverse sources like
surface water, groundwater, rainwater, and glaciers, we can ensure a reliable supply for
drinking, agriculture, and industry, while also protecting our environment and public
health.
Pre-treatment of Water: Advanced Technologies and
Methods
1. Introduction
Water pre-treatment refers to a set of processes designed to remove contaminants,
particulates, and organic materials from raw water before further treatment stages. The
main objective is to make water suitable for domestic, industrial, or agricultural use,
ensuring its safety and quality. This report outlines various pre-treatment methods,
including coagulation, flocculation, filtration, and modern disinfection technologies.

2. Water Pre-treatment Overview

Water pre-treatment is a critical process that ensures the removal of unwanted
substances from water before it undergoes additional purification processes. This
section gives an overview of each technology and how it fits into the overall water
treatment workflow.

3. Coagulation and Flocculation

3.1 Coagulation
Coagulation involves the addition of chemicals (like alum or ferric chloride) to water.
These chemicals react with suspended particles and neutralize their charge, allowing
them to aggregate into larger particles.

3.2 Flocculation
Flocculation follows coagulation, using slow mixing to encourage the formation of larger
particle aggregates, called flocs, which can be easily removed through sedimentation or
filtration.

4. Sedimentation and Clarifiers

4.1 HRAC (High Rate Algae Clarification)
High Rate Algae Clarification (HRAC) is an advanced method used in water treatment
plants to remove algae. The process uses high-rate sedimentation techniques to speed
up the removal of algae from water.

4.2 Lamella Clarifiers

Lamella clarifiers improve sedimentation by using inclined plates to increase the
effective settling area. This design reduces the footprint required for clarifiers and
increases sedimentation efficiency.
4.3 New Clarifier Technologies
Innovations in clarifier technology, such as sludge blanket clarifiers and improved
automation, have enhanced clarification processes, allowing for better control over
sedimentation and removal of suspended solids.

5. Filtration Methods
5.1 Multi-grade Filters
Multi-grade filters use layers of different granularity to trap suspended particles. These
filters offer a highly efficient means of removing turbidity and particulates from water.

5.2 Activated Carbon Filters (ACF)

Activated Carbon Filters (ACF) are used to remove organic compounds, chlorine, and
other chemicals. The porous structure of activated carbon adsorbs impurities from
water, improving its taste and odor.

5.3 Iron Removal Filters

Iron removal filters help eliminate dissolved iron and manganese from water. These
filters use oxidizing agents that convert soluble iron into insoluble particles, which are
then removed through filtration.

6. Disinfection and Water Sanitization

6.1 Ozone Treatment
Ozone is a powerful oxidizer that is used for disinfecting water. It kills bacteria, viruses,
and other pathogens, as well as breaking down organic and inorganic contaminants.

6.2 UV Treatment
UV radiation is used as a non-chemical disinfection method. The UV rays penetrate
microbial cells, damaging their DNA and rendering them harmless.

6.3 Chemical Dosing

Chemical dosing involves adding disinfectants like chlorine or hydrogen peroxide to
water in controlled amounts. This method is effective in killing pathogens and
maintaining water safety in distribution systems.

7. Conclusion
The pre-treatment of water involves a combination of physical, chemical, and biological
processes aimed at removing contaminants. By utilizing modern technologies like
HRAC, lamella clarifiers, multi-grade filters, and advanced disinfection methods, water
can be efficiently treated for various applications. These processes help ensure the
safety, quality, and availability of water for different sectors.
WTP Technologies
Water treatment and water treatment technologies are an essential line of defence to
remove contaminants and bacteria before the delivery of clean, potable water supplies
for consumption. Water sources can be subject to contamination and therefore require
appropriate treatment to remove disease-causing agents. Public drinking water systems
use a variety of methods to provide safe drinking water for their communities.
Depending on the continent, country and region, different water treatment systems may
be in operation depending on regional regulations and raw water input. The following
article provides an overview of the basic principles of water treatment and the
processes and technologies involved.

Six essential water treatment technologies

1. Screens

Screens are used on many surface water intakes to remove particulate material and
debris from raw water. Weeds and debris can be removed using coarse screens,
whereas smaller particles including fish can be removed using band screens and micro
strainers. Ahead of coagulation or subsequent filtration, micro strainers are used as a
pre-treatment to reduce solids loading.

2. Gravel filters

Turbidity and algae can be removed using gravel filters, which consist of a rectangular
channel or a tank divided into several sections and filled with graded gravel (size range 4
to 30mm). An inlet distribution chamber allows the raw water to enter through and flow
horizontally through the tank, encountering first the coarse and then the finer gravel. An
outlet chamber collects the filtered water with solids being removed from the raw water
accumulate on the floor of the filter.

3. Slow sand filters

Turbidity, algae and microorganisms can also be removed using slow sand filters. A
simple and reliable process, slow sand filtration is often suitable for the treatment of small
supplies provided that sufficient land is available. Slow sand filters usually consist of tanks
containing sharp sand (size range 0.15-0.30mm) to a depth of between 0.5 to 1.5m.

4. Activated carbon

Using physical adsorption, contaminants can be removed using activated carbon. This
will be affected by the amount and type of the carbon, the nature and concentration of
the contaminant, retention time of water in the unit and general water quality
(temperature, pH, etc.).

5. Aeration

Aeration is designed to transfer oxygen into water and remove gases and volatile
compounds by air stripping. A common method is packed tower aerators as a result of
their compact design and high energy efficiency. To achieve air stripping various
techniques can be used including counter current cascade aeration in packed towers,
diffused aeration in basins and spray aeration

6. Membrane processes

Reverse osmosis (RO), ultrafiltration (UF), microfiltration (MF) and Nano filtration (NF)
are the most commonly used membranes for water treatment processes. Previously
applied to the production of water for industrial or pharmaceutical applications,
membranes are being applied to the treatment of drinking water. Membrane processes
can provide adequate removals of pathogenic bacteria, Cryptosporidium, Giardia, and
potentially, human viruses and bacteriophages.
 What is Ion exchange?

Ion exchange is a chemical process to remove unwanted dissolved ions in water and
wastewater. To remove the ions, they are exchanged with ions that have a similar charge.
There are two groups of ions:

4. Positively charged ions (cations)

5. Negatively charged ions (anions)

When positive ions are exchanged during water treatment, the cations that come into
contact with the ion exchange resin are exchanged with other positively charged ions
available (usually sodium) on the resin surface. During anion exchange, negatively
charged ions are exchanged with other negative ions on the resin surface, these ions are
usually chloride ions. Anion exchange is important as the ions can remove contaminants
such as nitrate, arsenic, sulfate, and fluoride.

Ion exchange in water softener

The ion exchange process in a water softener is a chemical process in which removing
the hardness ions calcium and magnesium and replacing them with non-hardness ions,
typically sodium supplied by dissolved sodium chloride salt, or brine.

Here's how the ion exchange process works in a water softener:

1. Resin tank
A resin tank contains a bed of negatively charged cation resin beads coated with
sodium.
2. Hard water
When hard water passes through the resin bed, the positively charged calcium
and magnesium ions are attracted to the resin and adhere to it.
3. Sodium release
This causes the sodium ions to release into the solution, exchanging the calcium
and magnesium in the water for sodium.
4. Regeneration
When the sodium charge is nearly depleted, the softener is regenerated to
recover its exchange capacity.
5. Brine tank
A high concentration sodium solution from the brine tank is drawn through the
resin bed to remove the calcium and magnesium from the beads.
6. Softened water
The sodium in the water is harmless to plumbing and equipment, so the
"softened" water is ready for use.
Water Softener
Purpose: Removes hardness ions (calcium and magnesium) from water.
Process: Utilizes ion exchange resins, typically sulfonated polystyrene beads, to replace
calcium and magnesium ions with sodium ions.
Application: Commonly used in residential, commercial, and industrial water treatment
to prevent scale buildup in pipes and appliances.
Membrane Technologies in Water Treatment: Reverse
Osmosis

Introduction to Reverse Osmosis (RO) Technology

Reverse osmosis (RO) is a membrane filtration process used to remove dissolved salts,
ions, and contaminants from water. RO technology plays a crucial role in producing
clean water for industrial and municipal applications. By applying pressure, water
passes through a semi-permeable membrane, leaving behind impurities. This process is
widely used in desalination and purification of water for various industries.

Brackish Water Membranes

Brackish water membranes are designed for treating water with moderate salinity.
These membranes operate under lower pressures than seawater membranes and are
efficient in removing salts, organic molecules, and contaminants. They are widely used
in treating industrial and agricultural wastewater.

Figure- Brackish water treatment membrane

Seawater Membranes
Seawater membranes are optimized for desalinating highly saline water. Operating at
high pressures, these membranes achieve over 99% salt rejection, making them vital in
seawater desalination plants. They are essential in providing potable water in coastal
regions with scarce freshwater resources.

Spiral Wound Membranes

Spiral wound membranes feature a spiral design that maximizes membrane surface
area. They are commonly used in reverse osmosis systems to efficiently filter water in a
compact configuration. Their application spans across industries requiring large-scale
water purification.
Components:

1. Membrane Sheets: These are thin films of selective membrane material, usually made
of a polymer, with the ability to allow certain components to pass through while blocking
others.

2. Permeate Spacer: A permeate spacer or mesh is often placed between the membrane
sheets to create a gap that allows the permeate to flow freely towards the permeate
collection tube. This spacer prevents the membrane sheets from being in direct contact
with each other, ensuring efficient permeate flow and minimizing the risk of fouling.

3. Feed Channel: The central perforated tube serves as the feed channel. The feed
solution flows through this channel and into the gaps between the membrane sheets.

4. Permeate Collection Tube: The permeate that passes through the membrane enters
the permeate spacer and flows towards the permeate collection tube, which is located
at the centre of the spiral.

Advantages:

1. High Surface Area: The spiral-wound configuration provides a large surface area for
separation to occur, allowing for efficient treatment and separation.

2. Compact Design: Spiral-wound modules are compact and space-efficient, making

them suitable for applications where space is limited.

3. Easy Scalability: These modules are easily scalable by adding more layers to
accommodate different flow rates and capacities.

4. Standardization: Spiral-wound modules are widely used and standardized, which

means that they are readily available and can be easily integrated into existing systems.
 Figure- Spiral wound membrane

Thin-Film Composite (TFC) Membranes

Thin-film composite membranes consist of a dense polyamide layer that rejects
dissolved impurities. They are widely used in desalination plants and industries
requiring high-purity water, such as pharmaceuticals and electronics.

Features:

1. Multilayer Structure: TFC membranes typically consist of a thin, dense active layer
supported by a porous support layer. The active layer is responsible for separation,
while the support layer provides mechanical stability.

2. High Selectivity: The active layer in TFC membranes can be designed to exhibit high
selectivity for specific molecules or ions. This selectivity is crucial for achieving accurate
separation in various applications.

3. Thin Active Layer: The active layer is usually very thin, typically in the range of
nanometres. This thinness allows for efficient transport of molecules or ions across the
membrane while maintaining a high separation rate.

4. Excellent Permeability: TFC membranes often exhibit high permeability, enabling the
efficient flow of desired molecules through the membrane while rejecting unwanted
substances.
5. Surface Modifications: The active layer's surface chemistry can be modified to
enhance its selectivity and performance. Functional groups can be added to the active
layer to specifically target certain substances.

6. Mechanical Strength: The support layer provides mechanical strength and stability to
the overall membrane structure, preventing damage and maintaining the membrane's
integrity during operation.

7. Resistance to Fouling: Proper design of TFC membranes can lead to reduced fouling,
as the thin active layer can discourage the accumulation of particles or contaminants on
its surface.

Figure-TFC membrane

Cellulose Acetate (CA) Membranes

Cellulose acetate membranes were one of the first types of RO membranes developed.
They consist of a cellulose-based material, a synthetic derivative of natural cellulose
found in plants, coated on a non-woven fabric.

Features:

1. Porous Structure: Cellulose acetate membranes are typically manufactured with a

porous structure, allowing the passage of certain substances while blocking others
based on factors like size and charge.

2. Biocompatibility: Cellulose acetate is considered biocompatible, making it suitable for

applications involving biological materials, such as in medical devices and dialysis.
3. Hydrophilicity: Depending on the manufacturing process and modifications, cellulose
acetate membranes can be hydrophilic, which means they have an affinity for water.
This can be advantageous in applications where water permeability is important.

4. Chemical Resistance: Cellulose acetate membranes have good resistance to a range

of chemicals, enhancing their durability and stability in various environments.

Figure- Cellulose acetate membrane

 What Is a Cooling Tower Water Treatment System and
How Does It work??

For industrial companies using a cooling tower for its facility, some type of cooling tower
water treatment system is usually necessary to ensure an efficient process and long
equipment service life. If cooling tower water is left untreated, organic growth, fouling,
scaling, and corrosion can reduce plant productivity, cause plant downtime, and require
costly equipment replacements down the road.
But what is a cooling tower water treatment system and how does it work? This article
breaks down the basics below:

What is a cooling tower water treatment system?

A cooling tower water treatment system is an arrangement of technologies that remove
damaging impurities from your cooling tower feed water, circulation water, and/or
blowdown. The specific configuration of your system will depend on several things,
including.

1. What type of cooling tower you have (open circulating, once-

through, or closed loop)
2. quality of your feed water
3. manufacture-recommended quality requirements for the cooling
tower and equipment
4. chemistry/makeup of your circulatory water
5. regulatory requirements for discharge
6. whether or not blowdown will be treated for reuse in the cooling
tower
7. type of heat exchanger
8. cycle of concentration

What’s included in a basic cooling tower water treatment system?

As mentioned above, the exact components of a cooling tower water treatment system
depend on the quality of feed water and chemistry of circulatory water in relation to
the quality of water needed for the specific cooling tower and related
equipment (according to the manufacturer’s recommendations), but in general, a basic
cooling tower water treatment system typically includes some type of:

1. clarification
2. filtration and/or ultrafiltration
3. ion exchange/softening
4. chemical feed
5. automated monitoring

Depending on the impurities present in your water, any combination of these treatments
might best suit your facility and make up your treatment system, so it’s important to
consult with your water treatment specialist to ensure the right system for your specific
tower is being considered. Depending on the needs of your cooling tower and process,
these standard components are usually adequate. However, if your tower requires a
system that provides a bit more customization, there might be some features or
technologies you will need to add on.

What does a cooling tower water treatment system typically control?

A cooling tower water treatment system might be made up of the technologies
necessary to regulate the level of:
1. Alkalinity: will dictate potential of calcium carbonate scale
2. Chlorides: can be corrosive to metals; different levels will be tolerated based
on materials of cooling tower and equipment
3. Hardness: contributes to scale in the cooling tower and on heat exchangers
4. Iron: when combined with phosphate, iron can foul equipment
5. Organic matter: promotes microorganism growth, which can lead to fouling,
corrosion, and other system issues
6. Silica: known for causing hard scale deposits
7. Sulfates: like chlorides, can be extremely corrosive to metals
8. Total dissolved solids (TDS): contribute to scaling, foaming, and/or corrosion
9. Totals suspended solids (TSS): undissolved contaminants that can cause
scaling, biofilms, and/or corrosion
How does a cooling tower water treatment system work?
Specific treatment processes vary depending on the requirements of the cooling tower
and quality/chemistry of the feed and circulation water, but a typical cooling tower water
treatment system will usually include the following steps:

Cooling tower makeup water intake

Makeup water, or the water replacing bleed and evaporated and leaked water from the
cooling tower, is first drawn from its source, which could be raw water, city water, city-
treated effluent, in-plant wastewater recycle, well water, or any other surface water
source.
Depending on the quality of this water, you may or may not need treatment here. If a
water treatment system is needed at this part of the cooling tower water process, it is
usually technology that removes hardness and silica or stabilizes and adjusts the pH.
At this point of the process, the proper treatment optimizes the tower evaporation cycles
and minimizes the water bleed rate to drain beyond what might be done with chemicals
alone.

Filtration and ultrafiltration

The next step is generally running the cooling tower water through some type
of filtration to remove any suspended particles such as sediment, turbidity, and certain
types of organic matter. It is often useful to do this early on in the process, as the
removal of suspended solids upstream can help protect membranes and ion exchange
resins from fouling later on in the pretreatment process. Depending on the type of
filtration used, suspended particles can be removed down to under one micron.

Ion exchange/water softening

If there’s high hardness in your source/makeup water, there may be treatment for the
removal of the hardness. Instead of lime, a softening resin can be used; a strong acid
cation exchange process, whereby resin is charged with a sodium ion, and as the
hardness comes through, it has a higher affinity for calcium, magnesium, and iron so it
will grab that molecule and release the sodium molecule into the water. These
contaminants, if present, will otherwise cause scale deposits and rust.

Chemical addition
At this point in the process, there is typically the use of chemicals, such as:
1. corrosion inhibitors (e.g., bicarbonates) to neutralize
acidity and protect metal components
2. algaecides and biocide (e.g., bromine) to reduce the
growth of microbes and biofilms
3. scale inhibitors (e.g., phosphoric acid) to prevent
contaminants from forming scale deposits
Thorough treatment prior to this stage can help reduce the amount of chemicals needed
to treat water at this point in the process, which is ideal considering many chemical
treatments can be expensive.

Side-stream filtration
If the cooling tower water is going to be recirculated throughout the system, a side-
stream filtration unit will be helpful in removing any problematic contaminants that have
entered through drift contamination, leak, etc. A good rule of thumb is that, if you cooling
tower water treatment system requires side-stream filtration, about 10% of the
circulating water will filter through. It typically consists of a good quality multimedia
filtration unit.

Blowdown treatment
The last part of treatment required for cooling tower water is the blowdown or
bleed from the tower.
Depending on how much water the cooling plant needs to circulate for proper cooling
capacity, plants will choose to recycle and recover the water through some type of post
treatment in the form of reverse osmosis or ion exchange, especially in places where
water might be scarce. This allows liquid and solid waste to be concentrated and
removed while treated water can be returned to the tower and reused.
If the water from your blowdown needs to be discharge, any discharge your system
creates will need to meet all regulatory requirements. In certain areas where water is
scarce, there could be large sewer connection fees, and demineralization systems can
be a cost-effective solution here, as they can help minimize the cost to connect to water
and sewer lines. Also, the discharge of your cooling tower bleed must meet local
municipal discharge regulations if your effluent is being returned to the environment or a
publicly owned treatment works.

In conclusion
SAMCO has over 40 years of experience helping our customers design and custom-
engineer cooling tower water treatment systems. If you have any questions, be sure to
visit our website for more information about cooling tower water treatment here. We also
have an article you might be interested in about how much a cooling tower water
treatment system might cost you and who we recommend as qualified cooling tower
water treatment companies for you to consider as you search for all the options
available for your plant.

Water Purification Methods

What separates Water-to-Go from the rest?

Below we explain different water purification methods and their effectiveness
One Purpose.
To give you clean safe drinking water, anywhere.
Choose Your Bottle
Water Treatment Methods
Whether you’re getting close with nature in the great outdoors or drinking
from questionable taps on your gap year, holiday, backpacking or hiking adventure
you’re going to need safe access to water.
Coming down with the dreaded ‘Delhi Belly’ or ‘Travellers Diarrhoea’ can wipe out an
entire trip or holiday, not to mention the more serious contamination that can be lurking
in untreated water.
Travelling outside of the UK, you are exposed to a number of different water
contaminants that often force us to rely on bottled water (which is extremely bad for the
environment, not to mention the vast expense).
Hepatitis A, E.Coli, Cholera, Weils’s Disease, Giardia, Legionnaires Disease
and Cryptosporidium to name a few!
The only way to make sure what is in our water when we’re away from home is to treat
it ourselves. But, what is the best method for purifying water?
Let’s take a look at the some of the different methods for treating water:

Boiling
Boiling water to remove unwanted germs is the oldest trick in the book. It’s extremely
effective in eliminating microbiological contaminants from the water. It’s recommended
to bring the water to a rolling boil for a minimum of 1 minute to purify it. At an altitude
above 2,000 metres you should increase this to 3 minutes.
What does boiling water remove: Microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses and
protozoa.
What doesn’t boiling water remove: heavy metals such as lead, debris, nitrates and
pesticides.
Advantages of boiling water: Very effective for removing harmful organisms, no cost
involved.
Disadvantages of boiling water: Time consuming; access to heating method required
E.g. fire, stove or kettle, not effective against potentially harmful chemicals or metals
that may be in the water. Smell and taste are not improved.

PURIFICATION TABLETS/HALOGENS
Purification tablets/halogens, have always been a popular choice for outdoor trekkers
and travellers to treat water. For a time, they were the only alternative to boiling water.
Essentially they use chemicals to kill off microbiological contaminants from the water.
Iodine was traditionally used to purify water. However, in 2009, The European Union
(EU) banned the sale of Iodine for use in disinfecting drinking water due to it’s
associated health risks. The most common tablets or drops used are made from
chlorine, silver or chlorine dioxide.
What do purification tablets kill: Microorganisms such as Bactria, viruses, cysts
(depending on type).
What don’t purification tablets remove: Chemicals, pesticides, heavy metals, sediment.
Advantages of purification tablets: Small and Lightweight, cheap and cost effective.
Disadvantages of purification tablets: Usually a minimum wait-time of 30 minutes. Some
require a wait-time of up to 4 hours to kill contaminants such as cryptosporidium. After
the water has been treated, you then still drink the chemicals and additives. Usually
have a foul taste.

ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT (UV)

Using UV light to purify water is great for neutralising microbiological contaminants such
as bacteria, viruses and cysts. They are operated using batteries and are usually
small (often in a pen form) and lightweight. There are also versions of the technology in
water bottles as well. The process is very quick, usually taking 60-90 seconds.
What does UV light kill: Microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses and protozoa.
What doesn’t UV light remove: Chemicals, heavy metals sediments and debris.
Advantages of UV light: Small and lightweight (depending on type).
Disadvantages of UV light: Relies on batteries (restricted access to batteries when
travelling). Won’t remove any sediment or debris, taste or odours.

WATER FILTERS
Water filters are fantastic for dealing with all types of different water contaminants
(depending on which one you go for). They traditionally involve drawing water through a
microscopic hole (pore) by pumping or sucking. Most water filters for outdoor use or
travel will be able to deal with bacteria and protozoa (Cryptosporidium and Giardia
lamblia for example). Very few are equipped to deal with viruses.
Water filters for gap years, outdoor use and travel, come in a variety of formats including
straws, pump units and water bottles.
Some water filters use a simple ‘carbon block’ technology. These are known as charcoal
filters or activated carbon filters. Whilst these types of filters are excellent to reduce
chemicals, and odours in domestic tap water they are not recommended to be used with
untreated water such as rivers, streams or suspect tap water abroad.
Some water filters will combine a number of different filtering methods that will also
remove viruses from the water as well as a large number of chemicals, heavy metals
and pesticides.

What do water filters remove: Most should eliminate bacteria and cysts. Some will filter
viruses if they have a combination of technologies or a small enough pore size. Some
will even eliminate chemicals, heavy metals and pesticides.
What don’t water filters remove: Depends on type.
Advantages of water filters: Usually light, portable, quick and cost effective (depending
on type).
Disadvantages of water filters: Filters will eventually need to be replaced. Flow rate may
be slow (depending on type).
Traditionally when choosing a water filter, the most important question was ‘what is the
pore size’. When you’re dealing with microbiological contaminants there are 3 key
groups that need to be considered.
1. Protozoan cysts E.g. Cryptosporidium and Giardia lamblia. These range from 1
to 300 microns in size.
2. Bacteria E.g. Escherichia coli (E. coli), Leptospira. These range from 0.1 to 10
microns.
3. Viruses E.g. Hepatitis A, Polio, tota virus, rotavirus, enterovirus, norovirus,
Norwalk virus. These are extremely small and range from 0.005 to 0.1 micron.
Unless the filter has a small enough pore size to deal with all of the above, or has a
combination of technologies then it will be restricted in what it removes.
This is where Water-to-Go comes in
When talking about the pore size, we refer back to standard technology. The
mechanical restriction of the size of the pores has been the traditional measure of
what a filter will eliminate. This is not the case with all filters. For example, Water-to-Go
uses a unique combination of three technologies, each performs individually but it is the
combination that makes it unique. Water-to-Go use a combination of two nano
technologies, which not only reduce the pore size to 0.7 microns, but also create a
positive hydrostatic charge in the membrane which attract and traps even the smallest
of viruses!
In addition to the nano technology used in Water-to-Go filter water bottles, activated
carbon is used. However, instead of glueing them into a block (which loses 60% of its
efficiency), it is incorporated into the membrane so it works at maximise the benefits.
What does Water-to-Go remove: All microbiological contaminants including Bacteria,
Viruses, Protozoa, Cysts, Chemicals like chlorine and fluoride, heavy metals like copper
and lead as well as pesticides.
What doesn’t Water-to-Go remove: The positively charged minerals, E.g. calcium,
magnesium, sodium, potassium.
Advantages of Water-to-Go: Small and lightweight. Cost effective. Fast Flow rate (10-
12ml per second) Works instantly, doesn’t require batteries, eliminates bad taste and
odours.
Disadvantages of Water-to-Go: Replaceable filter (however, these are low cost and last
up to 200 litres).
The 3 technologies in Water-to-Go water bottles far exceeds the EPA requirements for
microbiological filtration. Water-to-Go achieves the following reduction:
1. log10 (99.9999%) for Bacteria
2. 5-6 log10 (99.999-99.9999%) for Viruses
3. 4 log10 (99.99%) Microorganisms
4. 3 log10 (99.9%) Chemicals (Chlorine, Fluoride) Heavy Metals
(lead, copper) and Pesticides.
References
1.“Water Chemistry” by Mark M. Benjamin
2.“Principles of Water Chemistry” by François M. M. Morel and Janet G. Hering
3.“Groundwater Hydrology” by David Keith Todd and Larry W. Mays
4.“Surface Water-Quality Modeling” by Steven C. Chapra
5.“Water Treatment: Principles and Design” by MWH
6.“Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Technologies” by Nicholas P. Cheremisinoff
7. Water Treatment: Principles and Design by MWH.
8. Advanced Water Treatment Methods by The National Academy of Sciences.
9. Handbook of Water Purification by David Cornwell.
10. https://www.aquatechtrade.com/news/water-treatment/water-treatment-essential-g
11. https://atlas-scientific.com/blog/ion-exchange-in-water-treatment/
12. https://www.ecowater-softeners.co.uk/for-your-family/how-does-an-ion-exchange-water-
softener-work/
13. Drinking Water Treatment: Water Softening (Ion Exchange).
https://extensionpubs.unl.edu/publication/g1491/2014/pdf/view/g1491-2014.pdf.
14. Ion Exchange In Water Treatment – Atlas Scientific. https://atlasscientific.com/blog/ion-
exchange-in-water-treatment/.
15. Ion Exchange & Water Demineralization Handbook | Veolia.
https://www.watertechnologies.com/handbook/chapter-08-ion-exchange.
16. DM Plant Process – Water Treatment Basics. https://watertreatmentbasics.com/dmplant-
process/.
17. en.wikipedia.org. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion_exchange.
18. https://samcotech.com/cooling-tower-water-treatment-system-process/
19. https://watertogo.eu/water-purification-methods/